The structure of the junior schoolboy. Homework as a means of activating the learning activities of younger students

So, we recall that in the younger school age, training activities are becoming a leading activity, in the process of which the child is attached to the achievements of human culture, assimilates the knowledge and skills accumulated by the preceding generations. The assimilation of human experience is happening in other activities: in the game, communicating with adults and peers, attachment to work. But only B. learning activities It acquires a special character and content. In the process of exercising training activities, "a child under the leadership of the teacher seizes the content of developed forms of public consciousness (science, art, morality, rights) and skills to act in accordance with their requirements. The content of these forms of public consciousness is of theoretical character "1.
When moving K. school learning The subject of assimilation becomes scientific concepts, theoretical knowledge, which is primarily determining the developing nature of educational activities. L.S. Vygotsky pointed out that the main changes in school age - awareness and mastering mental processes are obliged to their origin to study: "The awareness comes through the gate of scientific concepts" 2.
Educational activities are specific not only in content (mastering the system of scientific concepts), but also in its result. This most important feature specially emphasized D.B. Elconin3.
The difference between the results of training activities from other de-cities is most brightly detected in its comparison with productive activities, or labor. The result of productive, or labor, activity is always some material product, which is obtained in the course of the changes made by man in the starting materials: the result of drawing is a specific image, drawing; The result of the modeling is an exercise of plasticine or clay; The result of the design is a construction of cubes or parts of the designer, etc. Even more clearly, the preparation of a particular product acts in labor.
Otherwise, educational activities are built. In it, the child under the guidance of the teacher assisters scientific concepts.
1 mental development of younger schoolchildren / Ed. V.V. Davydov. - M., 1990.-s. 11-12.
2 Vygotsky L. S. Thinking and speech // Satr. op. - M., 1982. - T.2. -FROM. 220.
3 See: Elkonin D.B. Selected psychological works. - M., 1989. However, no changes in the system of scientific concepts itself does not contribute: nothing in science and her conceptual apparatus It will not change from whether a student will act with scientific concepts or not and how successful will be his actions.
What is the result of educational activities in this case?
"The result of educational activities, in which the learning of scientific concepts occurs, above all, changes in the student itself, its development ... This change is the acquisition of new abilities, i.e. new ways of action with scientific concepts "1. Thus, training activities are self-impaired activities, self-improvement, and its product is the changes that occurred when it is fulfilled in the subject itself, i.e. student.
Educational activities have, of course, external results: the resulting decision of the mathematical problem, written by the student an essay or dictation, etc., but these results are important for the teacher and the students themselves are not on their own, but as indicators of changes in the disciples. From this position, they receive a certain assessment: this student has already learned and knows how to do well, and this has not yet mastered.
The formation of full-fledged training activities, the formation of the schoolchildren of the ability to learn are independent tasks of school learning, no less important and responsible than the acquisition of specific knowledge and skills. Mastering academic activities occurs especially intensively in the first years of school life. It is during this period that the bases of the ability to learn are laid. Essentially, in the younger school age, a person learns how to acquire knowledge. And this skill remains with him for life.
Educational activities, being complex and in content, and in structure, and in the form of implementation, it is not immediately in the child. It takes a lot of time and effort so that in the course of systematic work under the leadership of the teacher, a little schoolboy gradually acquired the ability to learn.
0 The difficulties of this process indicates the fact that even in the conditions of targeted, specially organized educational activities, it
1 Elkonin D.B. Psychology junior schoolchild // Selected psychological works. - M., 1989. - P. 245. Not all children1. Moreover, special studies show that by the end of younger school age, individual training activities are usually not yet formed, its full implementation is possible for a child only with other children2.
Educational activities have a specific structure: 1) the exercise motives; 2) educational tasks; 3) educational actions; 4) control; 5) Evaluation.
For a full formation of educational activities, mastering all its components is required equally. Their insufficient development can serve as a source of school difficulties. Therefore, in the diagnosis of possible causes of failure to fail or other difficulties, schoolchildren need to analyze the level of formation of different components of educational activities.

The specifics of the exercise - in the assignment of scientific knowledge. The main part of the content of educational activities is scientific concepts, laws, general ways to solve practical problems. That is why the conditions for the formation and implementation of educational activities are created only at school, and in other activities, learning is mastered as a by-product in the form of everyday concepts. In the game, for example, the child seeks to better fulfill some role, and the assimilation of the rules of its implementation only accompanies the main desire. And only in training activities, the assimilation of scientific knowledge and skills, skills act as the main goal and the main result of activity. The child under the guidance of the teacher begins to operate with scientific concepts.

Educational activities will be carried out throughout all years of school training, but only now, when it is developing and formed, it is leading.

Paradox of training activitiesit is that, absorbing knowledge, the child itself does not change anything in these knowledge. The subject of the change becomes the child itself as a subject that exercises this activity. For the first time, the subject itself acts as self-implanting.

Educational activities are such an activity that turns the child to himself, requires reflection, assessing that "what I was" and "what I became." The process of own change, reflection on itself stands out for the subject itself as a new subject.

The implementation of educational activities is possible only if the child tends to manage his mental processes and behavior as a whole. This makes it possible to subjugate your immediate "want" the required teacher and school discipline "necessary" and contributes to the formation of arbitrariness as a special, new quality of mental processes. It manifests itself in the ability to consciously set the goals of action and intentionally search for and find means of their achievement, overcoming difficulties and obstacles.

Characteristics of structural components of educational activities.

External learning structurev. V. Davydov includes five main components:

motivation;

targets;

academic actions;

control actions passing into self-control;

evaluating actions passing into self-esteem.

Educational task.The most important component in the structure of educational activities, according to D. B. Elkonin. It is proposed to a student as a certain learning task, the wording of which is essential for solving and its result.

The learning task must be distinguished from the specific practical. For example, before the child, you can put the task to learn the poem and learn to memorize the poem. The first is the specifically practical, what a lot met in the pre-school experience of a child, the second is actually a training, as it is mastered by a way to solve a whole class of such tasks.

That is, the learning task is the task, the solution of which is not reduced to obtaining a specific answer, but leads to assimilation by a student of a general way to perform actions with a certain class of objects.

Training actions.These are active conversion to a child object to disclose the properties of the subject of assimilation.

From the position of the subject of training activities, the actions of the goal setting ("For what I do"), performing actions (aimed at solving the problem), control actions (self-control), evaluation (self-esteem).

In accordance with the mental activity of students allocate perceptual (identification, identification, analysis of the appearance of objects), mnemic (capture, filtering information, its structuring, preservation, actualization), mental (comparison, analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization, classification) and intellectual actions.

Control action (self-control).Mastering by these actions, according to D. B. Elkonin, characterizes educational activities as a random process managed by students.

Control is the correlation of the stroke and the result of an academic action with the sample.

In the action of control, three links can be distinguished: model of the desired result; The process of comparing this sample and real action; Deciding on the continuation or correction of action. Initially, the control over the implementation of actions is carried out by the teacher. Gradually, as the control is mastering, students develop self-control.

The stage of manifestation of self-control (P. P. Blonsky).

1. Lack of self-control. The student has not learned the material and cannot control anything.

2. "Full Self Control" - the student checks the completeness and correctness of the reproduction of the learned material.

3. Selective self-control - the student controls only the main thing in matters.

4. Lack of visible self-control. The student exercises control on the basis of past experience.

Evaluation (self-esteem).Develops similarly to the action of self-control. The assessment allows us to determine how much the way to solve the problem and how much the result of training actions is consistent with their goal. Evaluation of the teacher is the basis for the formation of a student's self-assessment.

B. G. Ananev wrote: "The lack of assessment is the worst type of evaluation, since this impact is not orienting, but disorienting, not positively stimulating, but depressing. Invaluation leads to the formation of uncertainty in his own knowledge and actions, awareness of its own lowiness. "

The assimilation of the shapes of self-control and self-esteem is the psychological basis for the formation of independent work.

Motivation of training activities- A combination of motives that encourage the student to the targeted and systemic learning of knowledge, skills and skills.

M. V. Matyukhina notes a direct relationship between a high level of mental development and folding positive motivational trends, and vice versa.

Ya. L. Kolominsky emphasizes that high positive motivation can play the role of a compensatory factor with insufficiently high special abilities, insufficient stock at the schoolchildren of knowledge, skills and skills.

Learning activities are polished.

External and internal motifs.If there are some external incentives (encouraging, reward, punishment), then it will be only a means of achieving other goals - personal successes, the satisfaction of ambition, avoiding punishment. At the same time, training activities are to some extent forced and acts as an obstacle that needs to be overcome on the path to the main goal. If the student refers to training activities as the main goal, they are talking about the presence of internal motivation. In this case, training activities can be made by interest in the knowledge itself, methods for obtaining them, curiosity, desire to increase their educational level. Such learning situations do not contain internal conflict.

Motives of educational activities (L. I. Bozovich).

Cognitive motifs are associated with the content of educational activities and the process of its implementation. These include broad cognitive (orientation of students on mastering new knowledge), educational and informative (orientation for the assimilation of knowledge production methods) and self-education motives (focus on independent improvement of knowledge production).

Social motifs include wide social (desire to gain knowledge to be a useful society, an understanding of the need to learn, a sense of responsibility, the desire to prepare well future profession), narrow social or positional (desire to take a certain position in relations with others, to obtain their approval) and the motives of social cooperation (orientation on other people, the desire to communicate and interact with the surrounding and desire to analyze ways of cooperation).

Training motivation of younger schoolchildren. The younger students have motives associated with educational activities are not leading. They prevail wide social, narrowly accommodation and educational and educational. Wide social motives are the desire for self-improvement (to be cultural, developed) and self-determination (after school to learn or choose a profession). They are adjacent to the motives of debt and responsibility, which is expressed in the thoroughst fulfillment by the younger schoolchildren of training tasks. Ultrasound motifs - the desire to get good mark And the award (motive of well-being) or the desire to stand out among the peers, take a certain position in the class (prestigious motifs).

Cognitive motivation of younger schoolchildren.

According to V. M. Matyukhina, at first-graders and second-graders, cognitive motifs occupy the third place after wide social and narrowly motives. Trekch graders even less point to these motives.

Educational and informative motives are found in cognitive interests, the desire to overcome difficulties in the process of teaching, exercise intellectual activity. Self-education motifs are represented by interest in additional sources of knowledge, an episodic reading of additional books.

A characteristic feature of the motivation of first-graders is interest in the process of teaching (like reading, writing, drawing). According to L. I. Bowovich, N. G. Morozova, L. S. Slavina Procedural motive determines the positive attitude of the child to activities even when it is deprived of cognitive interest.

As for the motivation of the content, the initial children are interested in the exercise of the material. Cognitive interests of the child are characterized by a teacher orientation. First-grader I wonder the knowledge that he receives from the teacher (situational nature of cognitive interests).

By the 3-4th class, the interest of children is sent to the scientific content of the educational subject, they are beginning to be interested in explaining the facts, establishing causal dependencies. A selective attitude towards study subjects appears, the general exercise motive becomes more differentiated.

Social motivation to the teachings of younger students.

Wide social motives are developing from a general undifferentiated understanding of the social significance of the teaching towards a deeper awareness of the reasons for the need to learn, which makes social motives more efficient. Positional social motifs are represented by the desire to obtain the approval of the teacher. The motives of cooperation and collective work are present in the most general manifestation.

In children entering school, according to L. I. Bowovich, wide social motives prevail, reflecting the internal position of the student (the need to take a new position among others and fulfill socially significant activities). By the end of the first year, the internal position of the schoolchildren turns out to be realized, and children begin to relate to school duties less responsibly.

During the first year of study, the leading status, or the positional, motive "be a student". At the beginning of the year, the desire for negative implementation is dominated (the desire is not a preschooler), and at the end - to a positive (desire to be a schoolboy).

Marks are greatly played, which from the success mark (failure) in the cognitive activity of the child turns into a sign that estimates the identity as a whole.

The motive of a good mark can be derived from the motive of the approval itself in the class team. At the same time, at the initial stages of training, the motive of superiority prevails - "be better than everything" - or the motive of rivalry, competition, which indicates the egocentric position of the child. By the third class, the public motive is stronger than individual. In the fourth grade, this motive is more often manifested by girls.

The exercise motives are different from schoolchildren with different academic performance. According to I. Yu. Kulagin, in poorly speaking schoolchildren, interest in the content of the subject is associated with the novelty material, the change of specific types of work, a visual side of training and game elements of the lesson. In children with high performance, the motivation of success is pronounced, while weakly walking - expressed less or absent. The motive avoiding failure is inherent in all younger schoolchildren. However, by graduation elementary school In weakly speaking schoolchildren, he reaches a significant force, which determines the negative attitude towards the teaching. They do not develop a prestigious motivation, which is associated with rivalry with capable schoolchildren.

Features of the educational activities of younger students

Junior school age is characterized by primary entry into learning activities. During this period, the bases of the ability to learn are laid. Under the influence of training activities, new school students are formed: reflexion, internal action plan and arbitrariness (according to D. B. Elconin).

Throughout younger school age, the child seizes with all the components of educational activities.

The educational task passes the stages of accepting ready-made teacher's tasks through rethinking to their independent formulation. The highlighting of the learning task may be a difficulty for younger schoolchildren, so at the end of each lesson, the time should be given to check how students understand the meaning of the tasks performed by them.

Educational task. The inability to allocate the learning task is manifested in the substitution of the meaning of the action as a carrier of the general method of solving the problem of its subject matter. For example, instead of drawing five apples (two large and three small) on the instructions of the teacher, the youngest schoolboy draws seven the same and diligently disappears them, without understanding the content of the task.

D. B. Elkonin believes that one of the reasons impeding the allocation of young schoolchildren to the study task is the principle of clarity. The visual material offered to children (counting sticks, circles, cubes) is often converted to children in the subject of practical manipulation. Thus, conditions are created for the involuntary substitution of the educational task of practical.

The definition of an understanding of the younger schoolchildren of the educational task is carried out with the help of issues. For example: "Why do you need such an exercise? What are you mastering when you do it? And what words are taken into brackets here? " Questions can be directed to a comparison of various tasks and exercises related to one or different rules.

Training actions.Educational executive actions are addressed as mastering individual operations within actions, while the junior schoolboy relies on materialized funds and progress. All learning executive actions are fulfilled primarily deployed with the full components of their operations.

IV Dubrovina emphasizes that younger students often often use educational actions that are common in the assimilation of training items. Most often they use the reception of literal memorization. This is due to the characteristics of the educational material requiring accurate memorization (poem, rules, multiplication table). Therefore, for the younger schoolboy, the task to learn the material often means remembering literally. A small vocabulary that makes the transfer of thought in his words, as well as large reserves of direct memory, encourages the literal reproduction.

As the educational material complicates, the task is put forward not to remember literally, but to understand, allocate the main idea that it requires a student of new techniques of work (the sense grouping of the material, the allocation of reference points, drawing up a plan). However, the moment of introducing new techniques academic work Often overlooked by teachers. Therefore, many younger students have inadequate techniques and ways to work with educational material, which leads to a decrease in high school academic.

Evaluation Actioncarried out in the form of final control on the result of the work done. But in the process of work begins the formation of a control action on a solution to a solution, which is the basis for the formation of attention, adjusting work during its implementation.

Initially, the monitoring of training actions produces a teacher. It dismeastes the resulting result on the elements, compares them with a given sample, indicates possible discrepancies, relates them with disadvantages of training actions. As they have mastered the control, children begin to independently relate the results of actions with a given sample, to find the causes of inconsistencies and eliminate them by changing learning actions.

In traditional practice school appraisal activitythe student is not formed. According to M. V. Matyukhina, younger schoolchildren are often difficult to judge why the teacher put one or another mark. They do not see the relationship between mark and their own knowledge and skills. The teacher is important to attract a younger student not only for a retrospective assessment (evaluation of results), but also to prognostic self-esteem, since the latter relies on the child's reflection.

The mark, devoid of meaningful assessment, acquires self-sufficiency. In junior grades (especially among girls) there are "collecting" marks. Strengthening the motivational role of the mark comes to the detriment of the development of cognitive motifs. It turns into a characteristic of the identity of the child, affects his self-esteem, determines the system of its social relations in the family and school.

The formation of the assessment, the ability to analyze their own actions in terms of their compliance with the desired result (along with the control) is the condition for the development of the child's reflection.

Junior school age is one of the most responsible stages of the child's development. During this period, important mental neoplasms are underway under the influence of targeted pedagogical impact, there is an educational activity, in particular, its motivation and basic training skills, which largely determine the effectiveness of the entire further student of the schoolchild. That is why the state of educational activities, its formation among the younger student is the subject of close attention in professional activity Teacher.

In modern pedagogical psychology Educational activities are commonly identified as the form of human social activity, aimed at mastering the methods of subject and mental (cognitive) actions. It proceeds under the guidance of the teacher and involves the inclusion of a child in certain public relations.

According to its specificity, training activities have cognitive (knowledge of the surrounding world, expressing in the assimilation of experience accumulated by humanity) and transforming functions (the development of a child through mastery by various intellectual and practical skills).

As one of the activities, the teaching has a united structure for all activities. In the most general form, the motivational, orientational, operational, energy and evaluation components can be highlighted in it.

According to a number of scientists (A.A. Lublin, N.F. Talyzin et al.) The completeness and awareness of the implementation of training activities can be judged by the state of the most important structural components - motivational and operational.

The power of motivation has a direct impact on the success of activities: the constant increase of the forces of cognitive motivation does not lead to a decrease in the effectiveness of educational activities. It is with cognitive motivation, in particular with cognitive interests, they associate productive creative activity Personality in the learning process. In this case, the doctrine is a full activity aimed at mastering knowledge: the child is needed to learn something new, this need for new impressions is determined by specific knowledge in a subject area (cognitive motive), the receipt of which simultaneously acts as a goal of activity. Along with this, educational and educational motivation must be subordinate to social (know to be able to use knowledge according to the needs of society). Otherwise, the teaching ceases to be independent activities. It becomes a separate action within another activity, with a completely different goal.

Thus, the needs, motives and interests underlying educational activities are not always cognitive. The exercise motives are customary to external and internal; Cognitive, educational, game, wide social; Understandable and active, positive and negative, etc. In the system of motifs, some of them are leading, others are secondary.

External motives are not associated with learning. More extent they reflect the desire of the child to be appreciated by the people whose opinion he values. With external motivation are significant, for example, social prestige, material benefit, fear of punishment, threats or demands, desire for awards, group pressure. External motives can be positive (the motives of success, achievement, debt and responsibility, self-determination) and negative (avoiding motives, protection).

When internal motivation is satisfied with the cognitive need, and one of the motives is cognitive interest. Under his influence, training activities proceed more intensively. Internal motives also include curiosity, the need for new information (knowledge and methods of action), the desire to increase their cultural and professional level, the desire to think, reasoning in the lesson, overcome obstacles in the process of solving difficult tasks.

Both internal and external motifs can be realized and not recognized. At the time of activity, they are usually not realized, but in any case they are reflected in the experiences of the child, in his sense of desire or not desire to do something. This is a "feeling" and determines the motivation as positive or as a negative (L.I. Bogovich, V.V. Davydov, M.V. Matvi-Hina, N.G. Morozova, etc.)

Cottage process as part of the learning activities of younger schoolchildren, it can be considered as the process of accepting the goal from the outside, that is, in the overwhelming majority of cases, the child must take the goal that the teacher formulated. Simultaneously with the adoption of the goal, the process of preliminary analysis of the conditions of activity and the methods of achieving the result occurs.

The implementation of the motives and the achievement of learning activities is carried out using different species actions. Among them are a special placetraining actions. These actions are constituted, along with motivational, one of the main components of educational activities that determine its nature. In addition, the level of development of educational actions indicates the degree of child's studies.

The main conditions for the implementation of educational actions are the knowledge of the student and the previous experience, imposing familiarity with the sample of action. In this regard, the success of performing actions depends on the presence of knowledge about the child about why and in what situations the action is performed, as well as what operations are included in this action in relation to specific conditions. For example, the ability to respond to a call at the beginning and end of the lesson involves knowledge by the child: what it means in this case (beginning or end of the lesson); As you need to act in each of these cases (the call to the lesson - the children are independently built before the class and are waiting for the teacher; the call from the lesson - the children are waiting for the permission of the teacher to finish the lesson and exit the class).

An educational effect, as well as other actions, is implemented in the process of its functioning, which makes it possible to distinguish three components of the academic action: indicative, executive and control and adjustment.

The estimated part of the training action is the analysis of the target, objects and allocation on this basis the conditions for its execution and operations, the sequential execution of which is necessary to obtain the correct result of the action. Equally important is the executive part of the action involving the implementation of these operations in specific conditions. The control and correction part of the action provides verification of its execution. At the heart of monitoring the implementation of the action lies focusing on performing this action, which makes it possible to judge the correctness of the operation of the operation system for performing this particular action. In case of erroneous performance, its control part contributes to the correction of errors. The ability to control the implementation of the action is of great importance in the process of forming training skills and skills. Comprehension of the essence of the choice of certain operations to perform the action is the basis of its awareness and the possibility of increasing the activity of the student in the process of forming educational actions.

Depending on the degree of development and level of performance, its main forms are highlighted. The initial form of action is the material form involving real transformations with objects. The engine component is less pronounced in perceptual form of action. The exercise form of an academic action is characterized by the fact that all operations, their sequence and method of obtaining the result are reflected in speech, which helps to perform actions and control their correctness. The mental form of action is related to the interiorization process, i.e., the transition from external to the inner form of existence.

In the process of mastering the learning effect, its functional elements are converted. Being at the stage of skill, the implementation of all components of the academic action is carried out deployed, under the control of consciousness. At the stage of skill, part of the training action becomes less deployed (the estimated part is reduced, the performing and control part is automated) (F.V. Varenina, P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzin).

Analyzing the classification of educational actions set out in modern psychological and pedagogical science, it is possible to note the essential similarity in the allocation of key groups of training skills. These include intellectual skills (mental operations, logical techniques of thinking), general training skills of the organization of educational activities and special training skills characteristic of a particular subject (M. Men-Chinskaya, N.F. Talyzin, T.I. Shamova) . However, a number of researchers based other approaches to their classifications: An analysis of all types of activities in which the child is included in the learning process (ND Levites), the allocation of the most important moments At the beginning of the child's teaching (N.A. Lichkareva), etc.

Various approaches to the classification of training actions allow us to consider this most important component of educational activities in terms of its condition on different stages learning. Based on this, you can highlight a set of basic training actions, the formation of which ensures the successful beginning of school learning and the conscious attitude towards a child him. Based on the actions included in the allocated complex, more complex learning activities are formed. The purposeful training of schoolchildren with this actions provides an opportunity to manage their academic activities and control over its change.

The structure of a complex of basic training actions is allocated three groups of action: general training actions, initial logical operations and behavioral learning activities.

Behavioral academic activities make it easy to facilitate the organization of the learning process and concentrate on the formation of general training actions and the development of initial logical operations. General training actions ensure successful work at any lesson and any stage of learning. Thanks to them, conditions are created for the formation and implementation of initial logical operations that are necessary for the assimilation and use of knowledge and skills in various conditions. Along with this, the initial logic operations are the basis (initial stage) for further formation logical thinking Schoolchildren. Each of these actions is the basis for the formation of the following. Each of these groups includes the following list of actions:

1. Initial logical operations: in property items; General and distinctive properties; essential properties of objects; the ability to allocate species-generic relationships of objects; generalize; compare; Classify.

2. Common training skills: include (arbitrary); ability to use signs, symbols, substituent subjects; the ability to listen; see; ability to be attentive; work at the pace; take objectives; plan (follow the plan proposed); work with educational supplies and organize workplace; control and evaluate their work activities and classmates; To come into contact and work in the team (teacher - student, student - student, student - class).

3. Behavioral skills: enter and leave the class with the call; sit at the desk and get up because of her; To raise a hand; Go to the blackboard.

The full implementation of these actions, as well as all activities, is associated with the quality of self-control and self-esteem, which suggest the correlation of their actions and their results with specified samples. Thanks to this, the child can realize the quality of its work and eliminate the shortcomings.

At the heart of any kind of self-control (preliminary, current (open), periodic (phased) or final) lies on the attention, since it is precisely the controlling function. In this regard, an external self-control, which is automated, is reduced, it becomes possible to perform "in the mind" and turns into internal self-control (attention). Thus, attention within the framework of learning activities can be considered as the final stage Assimiation of control action.

The assessment, in turn, records the compliance or inconsistency of the results of the training activities presented. The organization of school educational activities depends on her nature. If it is positive, then the activity continues. If negative, then, striving for a better result, you need to find a mistake and correct it. As long as the self-control and self-esteem is formed in the process of training activities, their functions are assigned to the teacher.

The training activities of younger students can be represented as such structural components as: the motivational component and operational (behavioral) component. Let us dwell on the brief description of the main structural components of the educational activities of primary school students.

The motivational component of the learning activities of younger students is characterized by the presence of a certain dynamics of motives and interest in teaching. They are characterized by manifestation from the first days of training of such a phenomenon as the "wrestling of motives", which is expressed in fluctuations, issues, crossing several approaches to the task with independent decision making. Among the important motives of the teachings are the most significant for students of 1,3r grades are praise teachers, the desire to become smarter and more educated, interest in the game and mental activity.

In the first stages of training, the interests of children of this group are more manifested as interest in a new form meaning for them and their closest environment. Then they begin to attract separate techniques of academic work. And only in the 3-4th grades, students begin to be interested in the internal content of educational activities, although these interests are not yet deep and not resistant.

Pupils of 1-2 classes, fulfilling a learning task, try to accurately follow direct instructions of the teacher, are guided by the goal set before them. Since the end of the 2nd class, the desire to independently perform certain training actions is gradually begins to manifest. However, the ability to independently set itself the task is far from all younger students and with great difficulty. Along with this, normally developing schoolchildren have a sufficient level of formation of approximate activities. They know how to listen to the detailed instructions, follow them and draw up a plan, taking into account the conditions of a specific situation, think about their actions and apply for clarifications to the teacher, clearly formulating their doubts.

Important structural component The learning activities of younger students are an operating (behavioral) component - its elements - initial logical operations, general training skills, behavioral skills - were described by us above. Pupils of 1-2 classes, fulfilling a learning task, try to accurately follow the direct indication of the teacher, are guided by an end to the goal. In the second grade, the desire to independently implement certain training actions is gradually begins to manifest. However, the ability to independently put in front of them tasks is far from all younger students. Along with this, the younger students have a sufficient level of approaching approximate activities. They know how to listen to the detailed instructions, follow them and draw up a plan, taking into account the conditions of a specific situation, think about their actions and apply for clarifications to the teacher, clearly formulating their doubts.

For students secondary schools It is characteristic of the improvement of the method of action during activities, the ability to freely and independently switch from one type of activity to another, the ability to carry the received skills into new conditions, the ability to see the resemblance and differences in tasks and use it in their work. Students of 1-2 classes most often seek to confirm the correctness of their solutions from the teacher, parents or in the textbook responses. In case of error, they are lost, apply to adult for further instructions. Timberry in a similar situation comes otherwise: they can mentally or actually repeat the necessary actions and in the nature of intermediate results try to find an error.

Carrying out control, students of secondary schools can relate their work with the sample, adjust their activities, based on the teacher's comments. They know how to make an adequate assessment and explain it in the process of activity and after it. And although at first the teacher is engaged in this, children quickly assimilate the meaning of this action. Since the end of the 2nd class, schoolchildren, although intuitive, begin to evaluate their capabilities in solving certain practical tasks. In accordance with this, students try to choose the right task and implement it, meaningfully referred to the assessment, they are thinking, compare the work with the sample, correlating it with its own and otherwise adjustment.

Thus, the task of the teacher is to form meaningful targeted activities from each student. For this, it is important to be able to highlight its features characteristic of specific schoolchildren, and determine the presence or absence of the dynamics of the state of the schoolchild.

Currently, in Russia there is a new education system-oriented system in the world educational space. The most important component of the pedagogical process becomes the personal-oriented interaction of the teacher with students, directed primarily to the formation of educational activities, including younger students.

The basis of educational activities liecognitive needs, motives and interests.The strength of motivation has a direct impact on the success of activities: the constant increase in the forces of cognitive motivation leads to an improvement in the effectiveness of educational activities. It is with cognitive motivation, in particular with cognitive interests, a productive creative activity of the individual in the learning process is associated.

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2. Gabai T.V.Educational activities and its funds. - M., 1988.

3. Davydov V.V.Formation of schoolchildren's learning activities. - M., 1982.

4. Diagnosis of training activities and intellectual Development Children / Ed. D.B. Elkonina, A.A. Wenger, - M., 1981.

5. Sinushina E.V.Methods of research of exercise motives // Primary school. 1995. №6.

The child really becomes a schoolboy when it becomes the appropriate inner position. It is included in learning activities as the most significant for him.

The loss of interest in the game and the formation of training motifs are associated with the peculiarities of the development of the gaming activity itself. According to N. I. Gutkin, children of 3-5 years have enjoyed the game process, and in 5-6 years - not only from the process, but also from the result, i.e. Win. In games according to the rules characteristic of senior preschool and junior school age, he wins the one who better mastered the game. For example, for the game in the classics you need a special training, to be able to precisely throw a bit and jump, well coordinating your movements. The child seeks to work out movement, learn to successfully perform individual, may be not too interesting for themselves. The game motivation displays focus from the process to the result; In addition, the motivation of achievement is developing. The course of the development of children's game leads to the fact that the game motivation is gradually inferior to the place of training, in which actions are performed for the sake of specific knowledge and skills, which, in turn, makes it possible to get approval, recognition of adults and peers, special status.

So, at this age of educational activities of the younger schoolchild, a leading role is to be given. This is an unusually complex activity that will be given a lot of strength and time - 10 or 11 years of child's life. Naturally, it has a certain structure. Consider briefly the components of training activities, in accordance with the representations of D. B. Elkonin.

The first component is motivation. As already known, training activities are polished - it is encouraged and sent by different educational motives. Among them there are motives that are most adequate to educational tasks; If they are formed by the student, his learning work becomes meaningful and efficient. D. B. Elkonin calls them educational and educational motives. They are based on a cognitive need and need for self-development. This is an interest in the meaningful side of educational activities, to what is being studied, and interest in the activity process - how, in which results are achieved, training tasks are solved. The child must be motivated not only by the result, but also by the process of learning activities. It is also a motive of own growth, self-improvement, development of its abilities.

The second component is an educational task, i.e. The task system, when performing which the child is mastering the most common ways of action. The learning task must be distinguished from individual tasks. Usually, children, solving a lot of specific tasks, the spontaneously discovery for themselves a general way to solve them, and this method is conscious in different extent in different students, and they allow mistakes, solving similar tasks. Developing training involves a joint "discovery" and formulating by children and teacher of a general way to solve a whole class of tasks. In this case, the general method is assimilated as a sample and is easier to transfer to other tasks of this class, the learning work becomes more productive, and errors occur not so often and faster.

An example of a learning task can serve a morphosmantic analysis in the lessons of the Russian language. The child must establish links between the shape and the meaning of the word. To do this, he assumes common ways of action with the word: you need to change the word; compare it with the newly formed in form and value; To identify the connection between changes and values.

Training operations (third component) are part of the method of action. Operations and learning tasks are considered the main link of the structure of educational activities.

In the above example, the operator content will be those concrete actions that the child performs, solving private tasks - find the root, console, suffix and ending in the specified words. What does the student do, knowing the general way to solve these tasks? First of all, it changes the word so as to obtain his variant form (say, "forest" - "forest", "forest", "forest"), compares their values \u200b\u200band highlights the ending in the original word. Then, changing the word, it receives related (single) words, compares the values, highlights the root and other morphemes:
Forest-n-oh - Lesn-Aya, Lesno
Forest Nick Pere - Ok
forest

Each learning operation must be worked out. Developing learning programs often provide for phased work on the system of P. Galperin. The student, having received a complete orientation in operations (including the definition of the sequence of its actions), performs operations in a materialized form, under the control of the teacher. Having learned how to do it almost unmistakably, he moves to progress and, finally, at the stage of reducing the composition of operations, quickly solves the problem in the mind, telling the teacher a ready-made answer.

Fourth component - control. Initially, the training work controls the teacher. But gradually they begin to control it themselves, learning this partly spontaneously, partly under the guidance of the teacher. Without self-controlling, it is impossible for a full deployment of training activities, therefore training control is an important and complex pedagogical task. It is not enough to control the work only by the end result (the task is true or incorrectly). The child needs the so-called playful control - for the correctness and completeness of operations, i.e. For the process of training activities. To teach the student to control the process itself of its academic work - it means to contribute to the formation of such a mental function as attention.

The last stage of control is an assessment. It can be considered the fifth component of the structure of educational activities. A child controlling his work should learn to appreciate it. At the same time, it is also not enough common assessment - as much as the task is correctly and qualitatively; Need an assessment of your actions - the method of solving problems is mastered or not, what operations are not yet worked out. The last is especially difficult for younger students. But the first task is also not difficult at this age, as children come to school, as a rule, with a somewhat overpriced self-esteem.

The teacher, assessing the work of students, is not limited to setting the mark. It is not important for the development of self-regulation of children as such as such, but a meaningful assessment - an explanation, why this mark is set, what advantages and cons responding or written work. Constantly evaluating training activities, its results and process, the teacher sets certain benchmarks - evaluation criteria that should be learned by children. But children have their own evaluation criteria. As A. Iilipkin showed, younger schoolchildren highly appreciate their work if they spent a lot of time on her, they have invested a lot of strength, efforts, no matter what they received as a result. To work other children, they are usually more critically related than their own. In this regard, students are taught to evaluate not only its work, but also the work of classmates in common to all criteria. Frequently used techniques such as mutual reviews, collective discussion of answers, etc. These techniques give a positive effect in elementary school; It is much more difficult to start a similar job in the middle classes, as the training activities are not yet sufficiently formed in this estimated link, and adolescents, focusing more on the opinion of peers, do not take overall evaluation criteria and how to use it with such ease as younger schoolchildren.

Training activities, having a complex structure, passes a long path of becoming. Its development will continue throughout the years of school life, but the foundations are laid in the early years of training. The child, becoming a younger schoolboy, despite the preparatory training, greater or less experience in training, enters fundamentally new conditions. School learning is different not only by the special social significance of the activities of the child, but also by indirectness of relations with adult samples and estimates, following the rules, common to all, the acquisition of scientific concepts. These moments, as well as the specifics of the child's learning activities, affect the development of its mental functions, personal entities and arbitrary behavior.

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Introduction

The youngest schoolboy is the beginning of a person's social being as a subject of activity, in this case, the study. In this capacity, the youngest schoolboy is characterized first of all willingness to her. It is determined by the level of physiological (anatomy morphological) and mental, primarily intellectual development, providing the opportunity to learn. The main indicators of the readiness of the child to school: the formation of its inner position, arbitrariness, the ability to focus on the system of rules and others. Readiness for school learning means the formation of attitudes towards school, teaching, knowledge of how to joy opening, entry into new world, The world of adults. This willingness to new responsibilities, responsibility to school, teacher, class. Waiting for a new one, interest in him underlies the educational motivation of the younger schoolboy. It is on interest that the emotional experience of the cognitive need is based internal motivation of educational activities, when the cognitive need of a younger student "meets" with the responsibility of the content of learning.

The child's readiness to school is determined by the satisfaction of a number of requirements. These include: general physical development of a child, ownership of sufficient knowledge, ownership of "household" skills of self-service, culture of behavior, communication, elementary labor, speech possession, prerequisites for writing (the development of small muscles of hand), the ability of cooperation, the desire to learn. The intellectual, personal, activity qualities are necessary for the schoolboy as a subject of training activity, are formed literally since birth. The child's entry into school life largely depends on the level of their formation, its attitude to school and the success of training, including training activities.

In elements of the younger schoolboy, the main elements of the leading learning skills and skills and skills are formed in primary school. During this period, the forms of thinking are developing, which further assimilate the scientific knowledge system, the development of scientific, theoretical thinking. Here are the prerequisites for self-orientation in the teaching, everyday life. During this period, psychological restructuring occurs, "requires not only significant mental tension from the child, but also of great physical endurance." A number of difficulties are determined facing a junior schoolchild that has a new life position, i.e. Position of a schoolboy as a subject. These are the difficulties of a new regime of life, new relationships with the teacher. At this time, the initial joy of exploring the school is often replaced by indifference, apathy caused by the inability to overcome these difficulties. The teacher is especially important to take into account the main mental neoplasms of this age - arbitrariness, an internal action plan and reflection that manifest themselves in mastering any academic subject. At this age, the awareness begins as a subject of exercise.

Training activities, including mastering new knowledge, skills to solve a variety of tasks, the joy of educational cooperation, the adoption of the authority of the teacher, is leading in this period of development of a person in educational system. In the training activities of the younger student, such private activities, as a letter, reading, work on a computer, visual activity, the beginning of design and composite activities are formed. The younger schoolboy as a subject of educational activity itself develops and is formed in it, mastering new methods for analyzing, synthesis, generalizations, classification in the educational activities of the younger schoolboy is being attached to himself, to the world, to society, to other people and, most importantly, this attitude And it is implemented mainly through this activity as an attitude to the content and methods of training, teacher, class, school.

The object is a junior schoolboy.

The subject is educational activities.

I. general characteristics Junior school age

School age, like all ages, opens with a critical, or turning, period. It is noted that the child when moving from preschool to school age changes very sharply and becomes more difficult in educationally than before. This is some kind of transitional step - no longer a preschooler and not a schoolboy.

A 7-year-old child is quickly pulled in length, and this indicates a number of changes in the body. This age is called the age of changing the teeth, the age of pulling. Indeed, the child changes sharply, and changes are deeper, more complex nature. The child begins to manner, caprick, walking not as she went before. In behavior there is something deliberate, ridiculous and artificial, some kind of spill, sketching, clownade; The child builds a jester. Child and up to 7 years old can paint. When a child looks at a samovar, on the surface of which an ugly image is obtained, or builds grimaces in front of the mirror, he just amuses. But when the child comes in a broken walk in the room, says a squeaky voice - this is not motivated, it rushes into the eyes. No one will be surprised if the child preschool age Says stupidity, joking, plays, but if the child builds a jester from himself and this is convicted, and not laughter, it gives the impression of unmotivated behavior.

The external distinguishing feature of a 7-year-old child is the loss of children's viability, the emergence of not entirely understandable oddities, he has a somewhat fade, artificial, mannered, stretched behavior. The most significant feature of the crisis of seven years could be called the beginning of the differentiation of the inner and the outside of the child's personality. Naivence and directness mean that the child is externally the same as inside. In adults of children's naivety, very little directness, and the presence of them in adults produces a comic impression. Losts of spontaneity means bringing the intellectual moment in our actions, which is inclined between the experience and direct act, which is the direct opposite of the naive and direct action inherent to the child. This does not mean that the crisis of seven years leads from the immediate, naive, undifferentiated experience to the extreme pole, but, indeed, in every experience, in each manifestation there is some intelligent moment.

At the age of 7, we are dealing with the beginning of such a structure of experiences when the child begins to understand what "I am glad", "I'm sad," "I am angry", "I am good", "I am evil", that is, . He has a meaningful orientation in his own experiences. In fact, as a child of 3 years opens its attitude with other people, so the seven-year shoves the very fact of his experiences. Experiences acquire meaning (a chanting child understands that he is angry), thanks to this, a child has such new relations to themselves, which were impossible before the generalization of the experiences.

For the first time, the crisis of seven years is a generalization of experiences, or affective generalization, the logic of feelings. There are deep backward children who experience failures at every step: ordinary children play, an abnormal child is trying to join them, but he refuses him, he goes down the street, and laugh at him. In a word, he loses at every step. In each case, it has a reaction to his own failure, and after a minute you look - it is completely satisfied with himself. Thousands of individual failures, and there is no general feeling of their lowestity, it does not generalize what happened many times. The child's child has a generalization of feelings, i.e. if some kind of situation happened to him many times, he arises a affective education, whose character also refers to a single experience, or affect, as a concept refers to a single perception or memory . For example, a child of preschool age has no real self-esteem, pride. The level of our requests to themselves, to our success, to our situation arises precisely in connection with the crisis of seven years.

The child of preschool age loves himself, but proud as a generalized attitude towards himself, which remains the same in different situations, but there is no self-assessment as such, but there is no generalized relationship to others and understanding its value of this age. Consequently, by 7 years there is a number of complex formations, which lead to the fact that the difficulties of behavior are changed and radically changed, they are fundamentally different from the difficulties of preschool age. Such a neoplasm, as a pride, self-esteem, remain, and the symptoms of the crisis (mannium, crumpled) transient. In the crisis of seven years, due to the fact that the differentiation of internal and external arises, which for the first time the semantic experience arises, and the acute struggle of experiences arises. A child who does not know what to take candy - more or elegaste, is not in a state of inner struggle, although he fluctuates.

If you give some general formal position, it would be correct to say that the environment determines the development of the child through the experience of the medium. The most significant, therefore, is the refusal of absolute environmental indicators; The child is part of the social situation, the child's attitude towards the environment and environment towards the child is given through the experience and activities of the child himself; The forces of the medium acquire a guiding value thanks to the experience of the child. This obliges to the deep internal analysis of the experiencing of the child, i.e. To the study of the medium that is being transferred to a large extent inside the child himself, and not coming down to the study of the external situation of his life.

1 .1 The development of the younger schoolboy

In the six-year-old child, the first major change in life is waiting. The transition to school age is associated with decisive changes in its activities, communication, relations with other people. The leading activity becomes the teaching, the lifestyle changes, new responsibilities appear, the child's relationship with others become new.

In biologically, younger schoolchildren are experiencing the period of the second rounding: they slow down compared with the previous age and the weight increases markedly; The skeleton is subjected to ossification, but this process is not completed yet. There is an intensive development of the muscular system. With the development of small muscles of the brush, the ability to perform subtle movements appear, so that the child masters the skill of a quick letter. Muscle power increases significantly. All fabrics of the children's body are in a state of growth.

In the younger school age is improving nervous systemThe functions of large hemispheres of the brain are intensively developing, the analytical and synthetic functions of the crust are enhanced. The brain weight in the younger school age almost reaches the weight of the adult brain and increases an average of 1400, the psyche of the child is developing rapidly. The relationship of excitation and braking processes changes: the latter becomes stronger, but the initiation process is still dominated - and the younger students are highly excluded. The accuracy of the work of the senses is increasing. Compared to preschool age, the sensitivity to color increases by 45%, the articular and muscular sensations are improved by 50%, visual - by 80%.

The cognitive activity of the younger student takes place mainly in the learning process. An extensive importance of communication is also important. Funior development, many new qualities that need to form or develop from schoolchildren, dictate teachers a strict orientation of all educational activities.

The perception of younger schoolchildren is distinguished by instability and inorganizedness, but at the same time sharpness and freshness, "contemplative curiosity". The younger schoolboy can confuse the numbers 9 and 6, a soft and hard signs with the letter "P", but at the same time he with live curiosity perceives the surrounding life, which every day reveals something new every day. Small differentiation of perception, the weakness of the analysis is partly compensated by the pronounced emotionality of perception. Based on it, experienced teachers gradually teach schoolchildren purposefully listen and watch, develop observation. The first stage of the school, the child completes the fact that the perception, being a special purposeful activity, complicates and deepened, becomes more analyzing, differentiating, is organized.

The attention of younger schoolchildren involuntarily is not sufficiently sustainable, limited by volume. Therefore, the whole process of learning and education of the child of the elementary school is subordinate to the education of culture of attention. School life requires a child of permanent exercises in arbitrary attention, volitional efforts to concentrate. Arbitrary attention is developing along with other functions and, above all, with the motivation of the teaching, a sense of responsibility for the success of educational activities.

Thinking in children of primary school is developing from emotionally-shaped to abstract logical. The task of the first stage school is to raise the child's thinking on high quality new stage, Develop intelligence to the level of understanding of causal relationships. In school, intelligence usually develops as at no other time. The role of the school, teacher is especially great here. Studies have shown that with various organization of the educational process, when changing the content and methods of training, the organization's methods cognitive activity You can get completely different characteristics of the thinking of children of younger school age.

The thinking of children is developing in relationship with their speech. The vocabulary of the current fourth-graders includes about 3,500 - 4000 words. The influence of school learning is manifested not only in the fact that the child's vocabulary is enriched, but primarily in acquiring an extremely important ability to verbally and writing their thoughts.

Of great importance in the cognitive activity of the student has a memory. The natural opportunities of the first stage student are very high: its brain has such plasticity, which allows it to be easy to cope with the tasks of literal memorization. Compare: Of the 15 proposals, the preschooler remembers 3-5, and the youngest schoolboy - 6-8. His memory has a visual-figurative character. Unmistakably remembered the material interesting, concrete, bright. However, elementary school students do not know how to dispose of their memory and subordinate it to the tasks of training. There are considerable efforts to teachers developing self-control skills when memorizing, self-test skills, knowledge of the rational organization of academic work.

The formation of the personality of a small schoolchildren occurs under the influence of new relations with adults (teachers) and peers (classmates), new activities (teachings) and communication, inclusion in a whole system of teams (general-hour, class). It develops elements of social feelings, social behavior skills are formed (collectivism, responsibility for actions, partnership, mutual assistance, etc.). Junior school age provides great opportunities for the formation of moral qualities and positive traits Personality. Supplement and famous suggestibility of schoolchildren, their credulity, a tendency to imitation, a huge authority, which the teacher uses, create favorable prerequisites for the formation of a highly oral personality. The basics of moral behavior are laid in primary school, its role in the process of personality socialization is enormous.

The elementary school includes its pupils in a reasonablely organized, the very effective work for them, the significance of which in the formation of social qualities of individuals is not comparable. The work that children perform is characterized by self-service, assistance to adults or senior schoolchildren. Good results gives a combination of labor with the game - at the same time, initiative, amateurness, the competitiveness of the guys themselves appear as much as possible. The desire of the younger schoolboy to the bright, unusual, desire to know the wonderful world of miracles, experience the motor activity - all this should be satisfied in the rational, the benefit and pleasure of the game, developing in children, hardworking, culture of movements, collective action skills and versatile activity.

1.2 School learning - its features

The child is learned by everything, and moreover from the earliest ages, from the first days of his life. Without the participation of an adult, a child would not be able to master any of the most elementary action with objects. A child left alone with his objects surrounding it, without participating and helping adults could not open their public appointment. On things, socially developed methods of their use are not indicated, and on actions - the meaning and tasks of the activity, the content of which they constitute. The younger child, the more help, show, the leadership of adults it requires.

Currently, various methods and forms of learning are familiar: by imitating, in the game, in the process of carrying out productive activities (drawing, modeling, designing), in the performance of elementary labor tasks for self-service.

Admission to school radically changes the position of the child in society. Children begin a new, public in their own content and in their function, activities - the activity of the exercise. Their position in life, all relationships with peers and adults, in the family and outside it are determined by how they perform their first, new and important socially significant duties. The beginning of the school period of the child's life should be characterized by a fundamental change in all of its system. The more clear this border is indicated, the smaller transition to a new position for a child than a certain change in the entire system of its relationship with adults and peers, the better because it contributes to strengthening the consciousness of its new status of the schoolchildren, other duties. This is also a special school regime, and school clothes, and the preparation of lessons at home, and the form of the organization of school lessons, on which everyone makes the same work, obey the same behavioral rules. The main thing about this is a completely new system of relationships with the teacher, who in the eyes of the child is not the deputy parent as an educator in preschool institution, and the authorized representative of the Company, armed with all means of controlling the assessment acting on behalf of and on behalf of the Company.

The main characteristic feature of school learning is that the child begins to exercise in school (maybe for the first time in his life) socially significant and socially measured activities - training activities, and this puts it in a completely new position in relation to all others. Through execution new activityThrough a new position, all other child relationships are determined with adults and peers, in the family and outside the school, attitude towards themselves and self-esteem. This is the most important educational function of school education, the function of forming a person.

Educational activities of public on the maintenance (in it there is a mastering of all the riches of culture and science accumulated by humanity), public in meaning (it is socially significant and socially estimated), public in the form of implementation (it is implemented in accordance with socially developed norms), it is leading in the younger school age, i.e. during its formation. It is necessary to emphasize that the leading function of such or other activities is carried out most fully in the period when it consists, is formed. Junior school age and there is a period of the most intensive formation of educational activities.

One of the characteristic training activities is that, being public in meaning, in content, in the form of implementation, it is at the same time individual as a result, i.e. Associated in the process of training activities, skills, skills, ways of action - acquisitions of a separate student. The second essential feature of systematic school learning is that it requires the mandatory execution of a number for all the same rules that the student's behavior is subordinated during their stay at school. Many rules serve the organization of the academic work of each individual student - to sit directly, not bothering; To contain notebooks and textbooks in order: to make entries in notebooks in a certain way; draw fields in notebooks strictly defined width, etc. Some rules are aimed at regulating the relations of students among themselves and with the teacher.

In case of individual tutoring, many of these rules disappear, because the communication of the teacher and the student occurs directly; for class learning Communication of the teacher with each individual student is included in communication with the class as a whole. Everything that teachers says and makes the teacher, referring to a separate student, refers to everyone at the same time; At the same time, everything that the teacher says, turning to the class, refers to each student. In turn, all the student's answers to the teacher's questions relate to the whole class. This interconnection of the work of each individual student with the work of the whole class and the work of the whole class with the work of each individual student and requires the subordination of each of each specific rules, because if such rules are not and each student will come in direct motivation, the class work will be impossible.

Thus, by nature, these rules are socially developed ways of behavior, providing primarily the productivity of the entire class team, and, therefore, they are socially aimed in their own way.

The subordination of the rules, on the one hand, requires the child to regulate their behavior and, on the other, forms higher forms of arbitrary behavior management in accordance with the rules that have a public collectivist orientation, is the most important raising function of learning in school. Unfortunately, very often, speaking of training, they mean its purely educational functions, i.e. Formation of students in the knowledge provided for the knowledge program and skills. This is a limited idea of \u200b\u200blearning. Its content and form of organization training and raises, i.e. Forms certain properties and features of a person. Educational learning tasks can be well performed if its educational functions are implemented at a high level.

The third essential feature of systematic schooling is that the study of science in the system or logic itself begins to the school begins to school. Scientific knowledge does not directly coincide with the practical, empirical knowledge, which consists of a child in the process personal experience Use of items, or solving practical tasks, experience gained under the guidance of adults in the pre-school period.

In preschool age, the child reaches a fairly high level of perception of individual external properties of things and solving practical and cognitive tasks specified in a clear-shaped form. However, the child does not penetrate the visibility of things, and it is natural, since things exist for him and interest it only as objects of direct practical activity. Directly perceived properties of items protrude to the child as practical use orienting. The specificity of children's thinking is the "core" and the lack of an idea of \u200b\u200bthe constancy of the main properties of things (volume, weight, quantity, area) - closely related to each other and are determined by the peculiarities of the child's activity of this age, its common, mostly practical, attitude towards the world of things.

The transition to systematic learning at school, to the assimilation of scientific knowledge is a genuine revolution in the presences of a child about the surrounding items and phenomena of reality. This is primarily a new position of the child in the assessment of things and changes occurring in them. At the daughting stage of the development of thinking, the child judges the things and their changes from his immediate point of view, and in the transition to the assimilation of the scientific picture of the world, he must judge this from an objective and public position, that is, with the other other People, and not one person, even very authoritative, and people representing the point of view of socially developed criteria.

Many children, coming to school, know letters, are able to add words from letters and even reading them. Adults gave children into the hands of a split alphabet and taught them the name of individual letters: "This is" BE "," this is "EF", etc. Thus, children reading, dealing with letters and their names. They relatively quickly understood that the reading is the rapid climbing of letters - abbreviated, but still climbing. However, in reality, the situation is not right. Moreover, as a result of this purely practical learning The children are developing misconception On the relationship between the sounds of the tongue and letters, which are denoted. Many children who come to school reading, do not know anything about the sounds of the language at all; For them, letters are badges, objects that have, like any other, their names.

In a child who has learned to read in this way, there is an inversion, a perverted idea of \u200b\u200bletters and sounds and their ratios. Such a child has to be moved, giving him a scientific view about these relations. To do this, first of all, you should teach it to hear and allocate individual sounds, divide them by certain signs on vowels and consonants, soft and solid, etc. Then to acquaint him with letters as conditional signs of sounds, to establish that the relationship between sounds and letters can be different: some letters denote one specific sound, and others, depending on the position in the word, - two (soft and solid consonants are designated alone and The same letters). So familiar with the objective device of the language and his writing. Similar introduction to the study absolutely changes the child's attitude to its language. Of the simple means of conversation, the language turns into a subject of knowledge, with its own inherent in laws and relations.

The situation is similarly similar to the introduction of mathematics. Most children come to school, already possessing a practical score and ideas about quantities. However, the peculiarities of this account based on direct representations about the number of individual items in the group do not coincide with the most mathematical characteristics of quantitative relations. For a child who knows how to count, the number is only the name of the number of objects, and the individual subject is adopted for a unit of account. This is an empirical idea of \u200b\u200ba unit and quantity. At school, it is necessary to significantly rebuild houseset ideas for the child about the number and turn them into a mathematical concept, the subject of which are certain ratio of quantities. An essentially important feature of the learning of sciences is also the fact that scientific concepts represent the system and cannot be studied in a random sequence. Practical familiarization with objects has no internal logic. It can be started from any subject and go to anyone. It all depends on the case, from which subjects the child is found in his practical life.

The fourth essential feature of systematic schooling is that when switching to him, it has to radically change the entire system of relations with raising adults. The system of relations from the immediate becomes indirect, i.e. To communicate a teacher with students and students with the teacher, it is necessary to master special means. This applies primarily to the skills to correctly perceive the samples of actions shown by the teacher during the explanation, and adequately interpret the estimates that the teacher gives the actions produced by students, and their results. Such skills do not come immediately, children have to teach this.

II. Educational activity of the younger schoolchild

Admission to school is a turning point in the life of a child. A distinctive feature of the state of the student, the student is that his studies are mandatory, socially significant activities. For it, he is responsible to the teacher, school, family. The student's life is subordinate to the system of strict, the same for all schoolchildren rules. Its main content becomes the absorption of knowledge common to all children.

A completely special type of relationship is made up between the teacher and the student. The teacher is not just an adult who causes or does not cause sympathy in a child. It is the official carrier of the public demands for the child. The assessment that the student receives at the lesson is not an expression of a teacher's personal attitude towards a child, but an objective measure of his knowledge, the fulfillment of their study duties. A bad assessment cannot be compensated for nor obedience or repentance. The relationship between children in the classroom differ from those that add up in the game. The main, determining the position of the child in the group of peers, becomes the assessment of the teacher, success in school. At the same time, joint participation in compulsory activities generates a new type of relationship based on overall responsibility.

The absorption of knowledge and restructuring, the change in itself becomes the only training goal. Knowledge and academic actions are absorbed not only for the present time, but also for the future, the future. Knowledge that children get at school are scientific. If before primary learning He was a preparatory stage to systematic learning from the basics of sciences, now it turns into an initial link of such a learning, which begins from the first class.

The main form of the organization of educational work of children is a lesson at which time is designed to a minute. At the lesson, all children need to follow the instructions of the teacher, to clearly perform them, do not distract and do not engage in an extraneous business. All these requirements relate to the development of different aspects of the individual, mental qualities, knowledge and skills. The student should be responsible to study, conscious of its social significance, obey the requirements and rules of school life. For successful study, he needs to have developed cognitive interests, a fairly wide mental horizon. The student is absolutely necessary that complex of qualities that organizes the ability to learn. This includes an understanding of the meaning of educational tasks, their differences from the practical, awareness of the methods of performing actions, self-monitoring skills and self-esteem.

The important side of psychological readiness for school is a sufficient level. volga Development Child. At different children, this level is different, but a typical feature that distinguers six-seven-year-old children is the coented of motives that gives the child the opportunity to manage their behavior and which is necessary in order to immediately come to the first class general activities, adopt a system of requirements for school and teacher. As for the arbitrariness of cognitive activity, it, although it begins to form in a senior preschool age, by the time of receipt of the school still does not reach full development: it is difficult for a child for a long time to maintain sustainable arbitrary attention, to learn a significant material and the like. Education in elementary school takes into account these features of children and is constructed so that the requirements for the arbitrariness of their cognitive activity increase gradually, as in the process of teaching, its improvement occurs.

The readiness of the child to school in the field of mental development includes several interrelated parties. The child entering the first class is needed a well-known supply of knowledge about the world around the world: about objects and their properties, on the phenomena of alive and inanimate nature, about people, their labor and other sides of public life, about what is good and what is bad, "that is, on the moral norms of behavior. But not so much the amount of these knowledge is important as their quality is the degree of correctness, clarity and the generalization of ideas established in preschool childhood.

The figurative thinking of the senior preschooler gives sufficiently rich opportunities for the assimilation of generalized knowledge and with well-organized training, children master the ideas that reflect the substantial patterns of phenomena belonging to different areas of reality. Such ideas are the most important acquisition that will help the child in school to go to the absorption of scientific knowledge. It is enough if in the end preschool learning The child will get acquainted with those areas and sides of the phenomena, which serve as a subject of studying different sciences, will begin to allocate them, distinguish living from non-living, plants from animals, natural from human-created human, harmful from useful. Systematic familiarization with each area of \u200b\u200bknowledge, the assimilation of systems of scientific concepts is a matter of the future.

Special place in psychological readiness for school is occupied by special knowledge and skills, traditionally relating to the school actually, - by diploma, account, solving arithmetic tasks. Primary school is designed for children who have not received special training, and starts learning a diploma and mathematics from the very beginning. Therefore, it is impossible to consider the relevant knowledge and skills with a mandatory component of the child's readiness for school learning. At the same time, a significant part of children entering the first class can read, and the account in one way or another is owned by almost all children. Mastering the diploma and elements of mathematics in preschool age can affect the success of school learning. Positive importance is educated in children of general ideas about the sound side of speech and its difference from the substantive side, about the quantitative relationship of things and their differences from the subject value of these things. It will help the child to study at school and the assimilation of the concept of numbers, some other initial mathematical concepts. As for the skills of reading, accounts, solving problems, their usefulness depends on what basis they are built as correctly formed. So, the reading skill increases the readiness of the child to school only on condition that it is based on the development base phondeMectic hearing and awareness sound Makeup Words, and reading itself is a fusion or random. Spankless reading, often found from preschoolers, makes it difficult for the work of the teacher, as the child will have to be returned. The same is the case with the account - the experience will be useful if it relies on the understanding of mathematical relations, the values \u200b\u200bof the number, and useless or even harmful if the score is learned mechanically.

About readiness to absorb school program Specify the knowledge and skills themselves, but the level of development of cognitive interests and cognitive activity of the child. The general positive attitude towards school and to the teaching is not enough to ensure sustainable successful studies, if the child does not attract the contents of the knowledge gained at school, it is not interested in the new one, with which he meets in the lessons if he does not attract the process of knowledge. Cognitive interests add up gradually, for a long time and cannot arise immediately upon admission to school, if their education has not paid enough attention in preschool age. Studies show that the greatest difficulties in elementary school are not those children who have an insufficient knowledge of knowledge and skills by the end of the preschool age, but those that show intellectual passivity, which have no desire and habit to think, solve problems that are not directly related to what -Lo child who is interested in the child or everyday situation. To overcome intelligent passivity, an in-depth individual work with baby.

The level of development of cognitive activity, which can be achieved by children by the end of preschool age and which is sufficient for successful learning In elementary school, incorporates in addition to arbitrary management of this activity, as stated earlier, and certain qualities of perception and thinking of the child.

A child coming to school should be able to systematically examine objects, phenomena, allocate their various properties. He needs to own a fairly complete, accurate and dissected perception, as training in elementary school is largely based on children with various materials under the guidance of a teacher. In the process of such work, the essential properties of things are allocated. It is important is the good orientation of the child in space and time. Literally from the first days of stay at school, the child receives instructions that cannot be fulfilled without taking into account the spatial signs of things, without knowing the areas of space. So, the teacher can offer to spend the line "Empathy from the left top to the right lower corner" or "straight down on the right side of the cell", etc. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe time and a sense of time, the ability to determine how much it passed, is an important condition for the organized work of the student in the class, the tasks for the specified period.

Especially high demands of the school makes a child thinking. The child should be able to allocate significant in the phenomena of the surrounding reality, be able to compare them, to see similar and excellent; He must learn to reason, find the causes of phenomena, draw conclusions.

Another side mental Developmentdetermining the readiness of the child to school, is the development of speech-ownership of the ability to be connected, consistently, it is clear for others to describe the subject, a picture, an event, pass the course of your thoughts, to explain this or other phenomenon, the rule. Finally, psychological readiness for school includes the quality of the child's personality, helping him to enter the class team, find its place in it, to engage in overall activities. These are public motives of behavior, those assimilated by the child the rules of behavior towards other people and the ability to establish and maintain relationships with peers, which are formed in the joint activities of preschoolers.

The main place in the preparation of the child to school occupies the organization of the game and productive activities, it is in these activities for the first time public motives of behavior arise, the aeral hierarchy emerges, the actions of perception and thinking are formed, and the social skills of relationship develop. Of course, this happens not by itself, and with the permanent guidance, the activities of children from adults who are transmitted to the younger generation experience of social behavior, report the necessary knowledge and produce the necessary skills. Some qualities can only be formed in the process of systematic training for preschoolers in classes - these are elementary skills in the field of training activities, a sufficient level of productivity of cognitive processes.

In psychological training of children to school, a considerable role is played by obtaining generalized and systematized knowledge. The ability to navigate in the specific cultural areas of reality (in quantitative relations of things, in sound matter of the language) helps to master certain skills on this broad basis. In the process of such training, children produce those elements of the theoretical approach to reality, which will give them the opportunity to consciously absorb a variety of knowledge.

Subjectively readiness for school increases together with the inevitability of the first of September to go to school. In the case of a healthy, normal attitude towards this event, a child is looking to school with impatience.

Special problem - adaptation to school. The situation of uncertainty is always increasing. And before the school, each child is experiencing emergency excitement. It enters life in new conditions compared to kindergarten. It may happen that the child in junior grade will obey the majority in spite of their own. Therefore, it is necessary to help the child in this difficult period of life to gain himself, to teach him himself to respond to his actions.

2.1 General characteristics of educational activities

The educational activity of the child develops as gradually, through the experience of entering it, as well as all previous activities (manipulation, subject, game). Educational activities are activities aimed at the student. The child learns not only knowledge, but also to the assimilation of these knowledge.

Training activities, like any activity, has its own subject - this is a person. In case of discussion of the study activities of the younger schoolchildren - a child. Studying ways of letters, accounts, readings, etc., the child focuses on self-implantation - it seizes the necessary methods of service and mental actions surrounding it. Reflexing, he compares himself former and its current one. Own change is traced and detected at the level of achievements.

The most significant in training activity is reflection on yourself, tracking new achievements and changes. "I didn't know how" I can "," could not "-" I can "," was "-" became "- the key assessments of the result of in-depth reflection of their achievements and changes. It is very important that the child becomes for itself simultaneously the subject of change and the subject, which exercises this change itself. If a child receives satisfaction from reflection on its climbing to more advanced ways of training activities, to self-development, this means that it is psychologically immersed in learning activities.

All educational activities begin with reflection on changes and with the fact that the teacher evaluates the child, and the child learns to evaluate himself. Assessment as an external action fixed on the result contributes to the fact that the child highlights itself as a subject of change.

Educational activities have its own structure, D. B. Elkonin allocated several interrelated components in it:

1) the learning task is that the student must assimilate the method of action;

2) Educational actions - the fact that the student should do to form a sample of the digestible action and reproduce this sample;

3) control action - comparison of the reproduced action with the sample;

4) Evaluation is determined how much the student has achieved the result, the degree of change that occurred in the child itself.

This is the structure of educational activities in its deployed and mature form. However, such a structure academic activity acquires gradually, and the youngest student is very far from this. Sometimes the child seeks to properly evaluate its achievements, understand the task or carry out control actions. It all depends on the organization of educational activities, on the specific content of the digestible material and from individual features The child himself. So, when teaching the child's reading is trained by the academic action of the main way to read the syllable. When teaching the letter, the elements of control action are allocated. Various disciplines are aware of elementary school contain the need to use different components of educational activities. All disciplines together give the child the opportunity to master the components of training activities and gradually psychologically enter it.

The ultimate goal of learning activities is a conscious educational activity of the student, which he himself builds on its inherent objective laws. The training activities organized by the original adults should turn into independent activities of the student in which it formulates the learning task, produces curricula and control actions, evaluates, i.e. Educational activities through the reflection on it of a child turns into self-study.

In training activities, actions are performed primarily with perfect objects - letters, numbers, sounds. The teacher sets academic activities with objects of training activities, and the child reproduces these actions, imitating the teacher. Then he mastering these actions, turning them into the actions of the new highest mental function.

The psychological nature of a person is a combination of human relations transferred inside. This transfer is carried out under the condition of the joint activity of the adult and the child. In training activities - teachers and student. Team work The carrier of higher mental functions (first of all the teachers in the broad sense of the word) and the one who assigns these functions (student in the broad sense of the word) is the necessary stage of the development of mental functions in each individual person. Interaction in the inclusion in learning activities and assigning methods of action is the basis of educational activities.

In the peer group, the relationship is based on the type of synchronous (opposite diachry). It is in synchronous, symmetric relations of children, such qualities are developing as the ability to get up to the point of view of the other, to understand how the peer has moved when solving a task. Thinking in the process of learning activities to some extent as analogous to the scientist's thinking, sets out the results of its research through meaningful abstractions, generalizations and theoretical concepts. It is assumed that the knowledge characteristic of other "high" forms of public consciousness also receive the possibility of holistic reproduction in a similar way - artistic, moral and legal thinking performs operations related to theoretical knowledge.

To master the proposed knowledge and the training actions themselves, the child learns to identify its actions with those that he will have to be assigned. At the same time, the child is cooperated with peers - because the ways of action of peer closer is closer, as the overall synchronism has supported by training actions.

2.2 Activities and their interaction

In any period of its development, the child implements several activities. It may be such activities as game, educational, communication, sports, etc. The diverse activities of the subject intersect together and are associated with nodes with objective public relations. The set and drawing of these nodes, giving each of them a certain level of significance for the child, and form the image of a child that we call individuality. In each of the activities, the child is included as a result of a certain social impact on the part of its closest environment and society. The influence of the environment forms a high level of motivation to a certain type of activity. He has a special attitude towards this type of activity, and in his eyes it acquires an important, and maybe the most important (dominant) value. It is said that the child is a special social situation Development, focusing on this type of activity.

The social development situation is determined by the type of relationships, which develop in a child with reference people and groups. Relationships in some can be determined by the activities of communication in the group of peers. Moreover, different groups in which the child consists may be at various levels of development and even have a different intellectual and social orientation of development.

In other children, relationships are determined by organizational or educational activities in aggregate with the situation they occupy in the classroom, third-party sports activities in the community team and the status in it, in the fourth - game activities in theatrical circle, and someone and unlawful activities in a hooligan company with actual ignoring educational and employment activities.

Before entering the child to school, society creates such a social development situation for him, which purposefully forms motivation to teach. Her entity lies in words: "I want to be a schoolboy!" It is possible that children and after 7 years played in children's garden, not thinking about school and without experiencing the states of the mental crisis, if the society would not form the system through a system of pedagogical impacts, they would have a corresponding motivation, they would not prepare them for entering the new age step.

The transition to each new age period is due to the objective socio-historical conditions, the general "social situation of development" of childhood. The transition to a new stage of development does not mean that the child has overgrown the previous stage or exhausted its capabilities. Not necessarily. More often for the child there is such a social development situation that requires this transition. For example, Russia's legislation obliges parents to give a child at 7 years to a general educational institution.

In the younger school and adolescence The development of intelligence is ensured by the inclusion of a child in training activities, and for intellectual development, training activities are leading. Together with that social development And a certain level of social activity is given by relevant motivated social activities - public activities. Physical perfection is given by those species of sports and wellness activities in which the child is included. Labor skills and the corresponding motivation for labor activity are formed largely by the work in the family, in the household farms in the village or in garden sites. In parallel, the moral development of the child, carried out during the interaction with the reference groups and individuals, giving the opportunity to master samples of morally justified behavior in everyday life and study.

The child's development goes immediately in several directions. And the development of each of them is more facilitated by its "leading type of activity". The more directions of the development of the child, the more activities being implemented by him, the more expand the relationship between the child with the world. This means that a variety of activities are more often crossed by each other, and therefore, their interaction is more active and their mutual influence on each other is stronger. Actions implementing one of its activities, one direction of development, objectively turn out to be implemented and some other direction. At the same time, it is not possible to develop not just isolated from each other types of activities, but the integration of these activities in some individual system of interrelated activities and the development of the entire system as a whole occurs. In such a system it is impossible to allocate the leading activities for this age and their accompanying items of activity. The development of the personality, apparently, does not imply the allocation of one-sole leading activity for this or that age period And, accordingly, for each child of this age group.

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