Comparative characteristics of Alexander and Napoleon. Alexander I and the Napoleonic Wars

Introduction

Chapter I. Biography of Emperors

Biography of Alexander I Napoleon Bonaparte

Chapter II. Emperors' politics and military operations

Reforms of Alexander I

Domestic policy of Napoleon

Relations between Russia and France

Patriotic War of 1812

Napoleon commander

Alexander I commander

Chapter I. Biography of Emperors Alexander I and Napoleon Bonaparte

Biography of Alexander I

Alexander I Pavlovich (12 (23) December 1777 - 19 November (1 December) 1825) - Emperor of All Russia (from 11 (23) March 1801), the eldest son of Emperor Paul I and Maria Feodorovna. Alexander I Pavlovich - Russian tsar. He issued a decree on free farmers, opened gymnasiums, district schools, founded pedagogical institutes, opened universities in Kazan and Kharkov. Established the State Council and ministries. He victoriously completed the war with Napoleon, solemnly entering Paris. Buried in St. Petersburg in the Peter and Paul Cathedral on March 18, 1826.

On the night of March 11-12, 1801, the conspirators entered the unprotected Mikhailovsky Castle and demanded the emperor's abdication. But Paul I refused and was killed. Paul's sons were so confused that night that the governor-general of St. Petersburg, Count Palen, had to take the eldest, Alexander, by the shoulders and say to him: "Sovereign, it's enough to be a child, go to reign." The new tsar was not yet 24 years old. He was a young man of above average height, a slightly stooped, reddish blond with a smile on well-defined lips and sad eyes. Even men admired the grandson of Catherine II, and women were ready to adore the handsome crowned man. Alexander Pavlovich used to get along with equal spontaneity in Catherine's kingdom and in Pavlov's. He learned to admire "the rights of man and citizen," while enjoying the greatest pleasure in marching and yelling at soldiers. His teacher Laharpe praised his love of freedom, and Alexander took his lessons, but before him was the example of Catherine, freedom-loving and autocratic, and Paul, who was attracted only to the Prussian drill, and these examples inspired him with an unconscious tendency to combine in his heart what usually seems incongruous.

The family life of Alexander almost immediately developed unhappily. When he was sixteen years old, Catherine married her grandson to the 14-year-old Baden princess Louise-Maria-August, who was named Elizabeth when she converted to Orthodoxy. He was handsome, she was charming, gentle and fragile, and there was something airy, elusive in her appearance. Shyness, self-doubt were combined in her with great emotional sensitivity. She was smart, albeit somewhat superficial, and her mind, and her whole character, was colored with dreaminess, romanticism. From a young age she was looking for some kind of truth and at the same time, as if she was afraid to touch the truth, she loved her inner world that I created for myself. In a word, the future Empress Elizaveta Alekseevna was, like her husband, a rather complex nature and not quite stable. But it happened, however, that they did not fit each other at all. Elizabeth, the young Grand Duchess, thoughtful and passionate, needed love, needed tenderness and the outpourings of a close heart. Her husband paid no attention to her, returning from Gatchina, where a soldier was drilled with his father, tired so much that he could barely stand on his feet, and, having slept, again hurried to the guardhouse. From a young age, Alexander Pavlovich sought oblivion in women, a rest from doubts and contradictions that tormented his soul. Maria Antonovna Naryshkina, nee Princess Svyatopolk-Chetvertinskaya, was his greatest passion.

About Alexander Pavlovich - Don Juan - can be judged in an exhaustive way by the reports of informants of the Viennese police during the time when the congress was sitting, the same famous congress at which the Russian emperor, in very difficult circumstances, was destined to again stubbornly and brilliantly defend the interests of Russia. He is the liberator of Europe, he is the first among the monarchs, there is no one in the world who would be more powerful than him. Alexander Pavlovich loved to show off, but usually he was alien to the pomp, because his very famous elegance was just so impeccable that it never caught the eye. In Vienna, it became clear to him that at a time when European diplomacy was trying to reduce his strength, it was his duty to dazzle the capital of the heirs of the Caesars with his splendor. After all, he is their heir: such is the will of the ancestors of his Moscow tsars. The balls that he gave, receptions, solemn ceremonies were more magnificent than the Austrian ones. To outshine everyone - such was the desire of Catherine's worthy grandson. In Vienna, he decided to outshine everyone in love. However, his Viennese adventures are a consequence of the fact that big politics by that time had already brought him a lot of disappointment. So, Alexander Pavlovich spent his time in Vienna as if very careless. It would be completely wrong, however, to believe that amorous amusements, even in the smallest measure, interfered with his duties. He actually headed the Russian delegation to the congress: he was in charge of Russia's foreign policy, appealing with his persistence and knowledge of the matter to all other monarchs who preferred to avoid direct participation in diplomatic strife.

Paul's sudden death frightened Alexander for the rest of his life. The memory of this death tormented him so much throughout his life that at one time many were convinced that this death was not without Alexander's participation. Alexander found salvation from these terrible memories in religious mysticism. And while Alexander devoted himself to religion, the government was entirely left to his favorites, in particular, Arakcheev. Worst of all, this same Arakcheev was not at all an independent person, but a doll in the hands of his numerous mistresses, before whom, however, the most high-ranking officials of the empire were humiliated.

Ten years have passed. In the last period of his reign, before the mysterious departure to Taganrog, Emperor Alexander Pavlovich often asked himself what he had achieved, what had he accomplished? He increased the size of his empire, the population increased by twelve million souls, led his people across Europe from edge to edge and broke the power of Napoleon, but what besides glory and new lands did he give to Russia? Sadness probably seized him when he remembered that he was going to free the peasants, and almost two and a half decades after his accession to the throne, he did not undertake anything decisive for this - and knew that he could no longer do it.

Rumors among people gave rise to rumors after his death in Taganrog in 1825 that the monarch had not died; instead of himself, he buried someone else, and he went to Siberia, where he led the life of a wanderer and died in extreme old age.

Biography of Napoleon Bonaparte

French Emperor (August 15, 1769 - May 5, 1821), from the Bonaparte dynasty. Born in Corsica. Began service in the army with the rank of junior lieutenant of artillery; advanced during the French Revolution and under the Directory. In November 1799, he made a coup d'état, as a result of which he became the first consul, who actually concentrated in his hands all the power; in 1804 he was proclaimed emperor. Established a dictatorial regime that met the interests of the French bourgeoisie. Thanks to victorious wars, he significantly expanded the territory of the empire, but defeat in the war of 1812 against Russia marked the beginning of the collapse of the empire. After the entry of the troops of the anti-French coalition in Paris, he abdicated the throne. He was exiled to the island of Elba. He again took the French throne, but after the defeat at Waterloo he abdicated the throne for the second time. The last years of his life he spent on the island of St. Helena as a prisoner of the British.

Napoleon adored women. For their sake, he put things aside, forgot about his grandiose plans, soldiers and marshals. He spent billions to attract women, wrote thousands of love letters to seduce them. In his youth, Napoleon's love was reduced either to flirting, which had no consequences, or to banal adventures. With the exception of the young wife of the People's Representative of the Convention, Madame Thurro, who threw herself on his neck herself, the other women completely ignored the short, thin, pale and poorly dressed officer.

Bonaparte ordered the disarmament of the Parisians. A boy came to his headquarters with a request to allow him to keep his sword with him in memory of his father. Bonaparte allows, and soon the boy's mother came to him to thank the general for his mercy. For the first time he found himself face to face with a noble lady, a former viscountess, graceful and seductive. A few days later Bonaparte paid a return visit to the Viscountess de Beauharnais. She lived very modestly, but Bonaparte saw in her a beautiful woman. Fifteen days after the first visit, Napoleon and Josephine became close. He fell passionately in love. Bonaparte begs her to marry him. And she made up her mind. The wedding took place on March 9, 1796. Two days later, General Bonaparte went to the Italian army, Madame Bonaparte remained in Paris. He sent her letters from every post office. He won six victories in fifteen days, but all this time he was tormented by a fever, a cough was depleting his body. Going to Egypt, Bonaparte agreed with Josephine that as soon as he conquered this country, his wife would come to him. But already on the way, anxiety gripped him. He began to suspect her, asking about the wife of friends whom he trusted. As soon as Bonaparte opened his eyes, as soon as the illusions dissipated, he began to think about a divorce.

Meanwhile, returning to France, Napoleon, greeted with enthusiasm by the people, really had firm intentions to break with Josephine. But this woman, having soberly weighed her position, understood: a break with Bonaparte would deprive her of everything. And for almost a day she sought a meeting with him, sobbing at his door. When her children joined her, he gave up and let her in. Bonaparte forgave Josephine completely and generously, but made his own conclusions: his wife should never be left alone with another man. He paid all her debts - more than two million, and Madame Bonaparte understood that such generosity and position in society, bestowed on her by her husband, are worth it to behave impeccably, and henceforth she behaved like that.

As Bonaparte's power increased, the number of petitioners and ambitious schemers became more and more, all of them can not be counted. In the decade between 1800 and 1810, Napoleon was in the prime of his fame, mental and physical strength, and masculine attractiveness of temperament. He did not seek love affairs, but he did not avoid them either. He took what was at hand. At the same time, not a single woman interfered with his work, did not distract him from important thoughts, did not disrupt his plans. On his part, no preparatory steps were taken, no trouble, no concern. As Napoleon rose, his wife's prestige in the world fell. Some negligence on her part, an outburst of the emperor's anger - and she could lose everything. After one of the ugly scenes of jealousy, Bonaparte announced to her that he intended to divorce. Josephine spent two days in tears, and the great Napoleon yielded to the crying woman. He told her to prepare for the coronation. With the help of the Pope, she persuaded him to get married. And now Josephine is an empress, married by a priest, and she is crowned emperor.

Having decided to divorce Josephine, Bonaparte could not take this step for a long time. Napoleon announced a divorce, and Josephine's tears and fainting no longer helped. She only achieved that he kept the Elysee Palace, Malmaison, Navarre castle, three million a year, title, coats of arms, security, escort for her. After the divorce, he was constantly interested in her, but met with her only in public, as if he was afraid that this most unshakable, most imperious and blind love would flare up in him again with the same force.

Napoleon was looking for a bride of royal blood. The Austrian emperor himself offered him his eldest daughter, Marie-Louise, as his wife. This marriage satisfied his vanity, it seemed to him that, having become related to the Austrian monarchy, he would become on a par with them. March 11, 1810 in Vienna, in the cathedral of St. Stefan, the wedding ceremony took place. On March 13, Marie-Louise said goodbye to her family and left for France. Bonaparte himself ordered underwear, peignoirs, caps, dresses, shawls, lace, shoes, boots, incredibly expensive and beautiful jewelry for her. He himself supervised the decoration of the apartments for his royal wife. I was waiting for her impatiently. Napoleon saw his wife only in a portrait. She had blond hair, beautiful blue eyes, and pale pink cheeks. Densely built, she was not distinguished by grace, but she had undoubted health - this was important for a woman preparing to become the mother of Napoleon's heir. Marie-Louise gave birth to Napoleon's heir Eugene, but she involuntarily becomes the bait with which the old European monarchical aristocracy tried to lure him into a trap. He solemnly proclaimed Mary-Louise regent of the Empire. But then the empire collapsed. Napoleon ended up in exile. He made a desperate attempt to regain power. On March 1, 1815, he set foot on French soil. His return was greeted with enthusiasm by the Parisians. But the thought of Marie Louise haunted Bonaparte. In vain did he send his people to Vienna, in vain he wrote letters to his wife. Marie Louise never came to see him.

Napoleon's star was rapidly rolling down. The Allies defeated the French at the Battle of Waterloo. The emperor abdicated the throne for the second time. On August 7, 1815, the frigate "Northumberland" with Napoleon and his retinue on board left Plymouth and headed for St. Helena, where he was to spend the last years of his turbulent life.

In the spring of 1821, the mysterious illness from which the emperor suffered became aggravated. Napoleon died on May 5, 1821.

Chapter II The politics of the emperors and their military actions

Reforms of Alexander I.

In the mid-90s, a small circle of like-minded people formed around Alexander. They were V.P. Kochubei, Prince A.A. Czartoryski, Count A.S. Stroganov, N.N. Novosiltsev is Stroganov's cousin. In this circle of "young friends" the vices of the Pavlovian reign were discussed and plans for the future were made.

Control over the activities of the monarch, the creation of a mechanism that protects against despotic tendencies, were in line with the convictions of Alexander, and therefore on April 5, 1801, a decree appeared on the creation of an Indispensable Council - a legislative body under the sovereign. Council members were given the opportunity to monitor the activities of the monarch and, in essence, to protest those actions or decrees of the emperor with which they did not agree. Initially, the Council consisted of 12 people, mainly leaders of the most important government agencies.

Alexander saw the main goal of the changes in the creation of a constitution that would guarantee citizens' rights to his subjects. Meanwhile, without waiting for the reform plan to be created, in May 1801. Alexander submitted to the Permanent Council a draft decree banning the sale of serfs without land. According to the emperor, this decree was to be the first step towards the elimination of serfdom. Behind him, the following was outlined - permission to purchase populated lands for non-nobles on the condition that the peasants living on these lands would become free. When, as a result, a certain number of free peasants would appear, a similar procedure for selling land was planned to be extended to the nobles. The most important consequence of Alexander's failure in trying to solve the peasant question was the final transfer of the preparation of reforms to the circle of "young friends", and he agreed with their opinion that this work should be carried out in secret, so as not to cause peasant unrest that constantly arose when rumors about changes in laws were spreading. So the Secret Committee was created, which included Stroganov,

Kochubei, Czartorysky, Novosiltsev, and later Count A.R. Vorontsov.

As for the official Indispensable Council, the real result of the first months of its work was the draft "All-Merciful Charter Complained to the Russian People", which was supposed to be promulgated on the day of the Emperor's coronation on September 15, 1801. The diploma was supposed to reaffirm all the privileges of the nobility, philistinism and merchants, indicated in the Charters of 1785, as well as the rights and guarantees of private property, personal security, freedom of speech, press and conscience common to all residents of the country. A special article of the charter guaranteed the inviolability of these rights.

Another project prepared for the coronation was the Senate reorganization project. The Senate was to become the body of the supreme leadership of the country, combining executive, judicial, control and legislative functions.

In September 1802, a series of decrees created a system of eight ministries: Military, Naval, Foreign, Internal Affairs, Commerce, Finance, Public Education and Justice, as well as the State Treasury as a ministry. Ministers and chief executives, with the rights of ministers, formed a Committee of Ministers, in which each of them was obliged to submit for discussion their all-important reports to the emperor. Simultaneously with the creation of ministries, the Senate reform was carried out. By the decree on the rights of the Senate, it was defined as the "supreme seat of the empire", whose power was limited only by the power of the emperor. Ministers were required to submit annual reports to the Senate, which he could challenge to the sovereign.

February 20, 1803 a decree on free farmers was issued. In fact, a new social category of free farmers was created, owning land by the right of private property.

Along with attempts to solve the most important issues of life in Russia, the government of Alexander I carried out major reforms in the field of public education. January 24, 1803 the tsar approved a new regulation on the structure of educational institutions. The territory of Russia was divided into six educational districts, in which four categories of educational institutions were created: parish, district, provincial schools, as well as gymnasiums and universities. The first stage of the reforms of Alexander I ended in 1803, when it became clear that it was necessary to look for new ways and forms of their implementation.

1809-1812 This stage is associated with the activities of Speransky. According to his project, it was supposed:

Implement the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial;

To create a system of representative institutions - elective volost, district, provincial dumas, which would be crowned by the State Duma, the highest legislative body of the country;

To transfer the functions of the highest court to the Senate;

Clarify the functions and procedures of the ministries, strengthen their responsibility as the highest executive bodies;

Establish the Council of State - an advisory body under the emperor, a link between the monarch and the legislative, executive, judicial bodies of the empire;

The emperor retained all the fullness of executive power, he had the exclusive right to legislative initiative, he could dissolve the State Duma, and appointed members of the State Council;

Divide the entire population of Russia into three classes: the nobility, the "average state", "the working people." All estates acquired civil rights, and the first two acquired political rights.

The issue of abolishing serfdom was not considered, the reform was supposed to be completed by 1811. Of the measures proposed by Speransky, one was implemented - in 1810 the State Council was created.

In 1818 the tsar commissioned N.N. Novosiltsev to develop a constitution for its introduction in Russia. By 1820 the Charter was ready Russian Empire... According to this project, Russia became a federation, civil rights and freedoms and limited popular representation were introduced. A constitutional monarchy was established.

In 1818, Alexander I received a draft of the abolition of serfdom, prepared on his behalf. It was developed by the closest associate of the last decade of his reign A.A. Arakcheev.

Both projects remained secret, Alexander I did not even begin to implement them. In 1820-1821. the reactionary course, usually called the Arakcheevism, triumphed. The reform plans were finished. The landowners were confirmed the right to exile peasants to Siberia. The military settlements created in 1815-1819 expanded. The villagers had to connect military service with agricultural labor. Drilling on the parade ground was supplemented by the petty supervision of the chiefs who monitored plowing and sowing. Military settlements became a kind of symbol of the last period of the reign of Alexander I.

Post-war reforms of Alexander I

Having strengthened his authority as a result of the victory over the French, Alexander I undertook another series of reformist attempts in the internal politics of the post-war period. Back in 1809, the Grand Duchy of Finland was created, which essentially became autonomy with its own Diet, without whose consent the tsar could not change legislation and introduce new taxes, and the Senate. In May 1815 Alexander announced the granting of a constitution to the Kingdom of Poland, which provided for the creation of a bicameral Diet, a system of local self-government and freedom of the press.

In 1817-1818, a number of people close to the emperor were engaged, on his orders, in the development of projects for the gradual elimination of serfdom in Russia. In 1818 Alexander I instructed N.N. Novosiltsev to prepare a draft constitution for Russia. The draft "State charter of the Russian Empire", which provided for the federal structure of the country, was ready by the end of 1820 and approved by the emperor, but its introduction was postponed indefinitely. The tsar complained to his inner circle that he had no assistants and could not find suitable people for the governor's posts. Former ideals more and more seemed to Alexander I only fruitless romantic dreams and illusions, divorced from real political practice. Alexander had a sobering effect on the news of the uprising of the Semenovsky regiment, which he perceived as a threat of a revolutionary explosion in Russia, to prevent which it was necessary to take tough measures. However, dreams of reform did not leave the emperor until 1822-1823.

One of the paradoxes of the internal policy of Alexander I in the post-war period was the fact that attempts to renew the Russian state were accompanied by the establishment of a police regime, which later became known as "Arakcheevism." Its symbol was military settlements, in which Alexander himself, however, saw one of the ways to free the peasants from personal dependence, but which aroused hatred in the widest circles of society. In 1817, instead of the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education was created, headed by the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod and the head of the Bible Society A.N. Golitsyn. Under his leadership, the destruction of Russian universities was actually carried out, and cruel censorship reigned. In 1822, Alexander I banned the activities of Masonic lodges and other secret societies in Russia and approved the Senate's proposal, which allowed landowners to exile their peasants to Siberia for “bad deeds”. At the same time, the emperor was aware of the activities of the first Decembrist organizations, but did not take any measures against their members, believing that they shared the delusions of his youth.

Domestic policy of Napoleon

Having become a full-fledged dictator, Napoleon radically changed the state structure of the country. The emphasis was solely on strengthening the position of Napoleon in politics, that is, personal power, which was the guarantor of the consolidation of the successes achieved by the revolution: civil rights, the liberation of peasants from serfdom, and the right to preserve the land of those who managed to buy it during the revolution from those who left the country. The Code of Napoleon, that is, the civil code named after Napoleon, adopted in 1804, was intended to preserve all these achievements.

Administrative reform was organized by Napoleon, which led to the emergence of departments and prefects of districts in France. That is, the administrative division of the French lands has changed significantly. Since that time, governors - mayors - have appeared in cities or even villages.

The state French bank was established to store the gold reserve and issue paper money. Until 1936, no major changes were made to the management system of the French Bank, created by Napoleon: the manager and his deputies were appointed by the government, and decisions were made jointly with 15 board members from the shareholders - this guaranteed a balance between public and private interests. On March 28, 1803, paper money was eliminated: the franc, equal to a five-gram silver coin and divided by 100 centimes, becomes the monetary unit. To centralize the tax collection system, the Directorate of Direct Taxation and the Directorate of Consolidated Taxation were created. Having adopted a state with a deplorable financial condition, Napoleon introduced austerity in all areas. The normal functioning of the financial system was ensured by the creation of two opposing and at the same time cooperating ministries: finance and treasury. They were headed by the outstanding financiers of the time, Gaudin and Mollien. The Minister of Finance was responsible for budget receipts, the Minister of the Treasury gave a detailed report on the spending of funds, his activities were audited by the Accounts Chamber of 100 civil servants. She controlled government spending, but did not make judgments about their expediency.

Administrative and legal innovations of Napoleon became the foundation for the modern state, many of them work to this day. It was at that time that the education system was updated: secondary schools - lyceums, and universities - the so-called Polytechnic School and the Normal School - appeared. By the way, until now these educational structures are the most prestigious literally throughout France. Impressive changes were also expected in the press. More than 90% of newspapers were closed, as Napoleon was aware of how dangerous and effective newspapers are in terms of influencing the minds of people. A powerful police force and an extensive secret service were created. The Church, too, was completely subject to the jurisdiction and control of the government and the emperor.

These and other measures forced Napoleon's opponents to declare him a traitor to the Revolution, although he considered himself a faithful successor of its ideas. The truth is that he managed to consolidate some of the revolutionary gains, but he decisively dissociated himself from the principle of freedom.

Relations between Russia and France

Alexander I considered Napoleon a symbol of the violation of the legality of the world order. But the Russian emperor overestimated his capabilities, which led to the disaster at Austerlitz in November 1805, and the presence of the emperor in the army, his inept orders had the most disastrous consequences. Alexander refused to ratify the peace treaty signed with France in June 1806, and only the defeat at Friedland in May 1807 forced the Russian emperor to agree to an agreement. At his first meeting with Napoleon in Tilsit in June 1807, Alexander I managed to prove himself an outstanding diplomat. An alliance and an agreement on the division of zones of influence was concluded between Russia and France. As shown further development events, the Tilsit agreement turned out to be more beneficial for Russia, allowing it to accumulate strength. Napoleon sincerely considered Russia to be his only possible ally in Europe. In 1808, the parties discussed plans for a joint campaign against India and the partition of the Ottoman Empire. At a meeting with Alexander I in Erfurt, Napoleon recognized the right of Russia to Finland, captured during the Russian-Swedish war, and Russia - the right of France to Spain. However, already at this time, relations between the allies began to heat up thanks to the imperial interests of both sides. For example, Russia was not happy with the existence of the Duchy of Warsaw, the continental blockade harmed the Russian economy, and in the Balkans, each of the two countries had their own far-reaching plans. In 1810, Alexander I refused to Napoleon, who asked for the hand of his sister grand duchess Anna Pavlovna, and signed a regulation on neutral trade, which actually nullified the continental blockade. There is an assumption that Alexander I was going to strike a preemptive blow to Napoleon, but after France concluded allied treaties with Austria and Prussia, Russia began to prepare for a defensive war. On June 12, 1812, French troops crossed the Russian border. The Patriotic War of 1812 began.

Patriotic War of 1812

The invasion of Napoleon's armies into Russia was perceived by Alexander not only as the greatest threat to Russia, but also as a personal insult, and from now on Napoleon himself became a mortal personal enemy for him. Not wanting to repeat the experience of Austerlitz and, submitting to the pressure of his entourage, Alexander left the army and returned to St. Petersburg. During the entire time, while Barclay de Tolly carried out a retreating maneuver, which caused sharp criticism of both society and the army, Alexander showed almost no solidarity with the commander. After Smolensk was abandoned, the emperor yielded to general requirements and appointed M.I. Kutuzov. With the expulsion of Napoleonic troops from Russia, Alexander returned to the army and was in it during the overseas campaigns of 1813-1814.

The victory over Napoleon strengthened the authority of Alexander I, he became one of the most powerful rulers of Europe, who felt himself to be the liberator of its peoples, who was entrusted with a special mission determined by God's will to prevent further wars and ruin on the continent. He also considered the calmness of Europe to be a necessary condition for the implementation of his reformist plans in Russia itself. To ensure these conditions, it was necessary to preserve the status quo, determined by the decisions of the Congress of Vienna, according to which the territory of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was ceded to Russia, and the monarchy was restored in France, and Alexander insisted on the establishment of a constitutional monarchical system in this country, which was to serve as a precedent to establish similar regimes in other countries. The Russian emperor, in particular, managed to enlist the support of his allies for his idea of ​​introducing a constitution in Poland. As a guarantor of compliance with the decisions of the Congress of Vienna, the emperor initiated the creation of the Holy Alliance on September 14, 1815. Alexander I directly participated in the activities of the congresses of the Holy Union in Aachen September - November 1818, Troppau and Laibach October - December 1820 - January 1821, Verona October - December 1822. However, the strengthening of Russian influence in Europe provoked opposition from the allies. In 1825, the Holy Alliance essentially disintegrated.

Chapter III Comparison of the two emperors among themselves

Napoleon commander

Napoleon was an unsurpassed commander-improviser. His main military thesis: "to achieve a decisive advantage in the most necessary place" he carried out in all battles from the beginning of his military career. Irrationality, spontaneity and exceptional ability for a structural, holistic spatial assessment of the situation Napoleon directed to short-term operations. The exceptional power of influence on the army and the advantage of the spirit of confidence could always be opposed to the superior number of enemy troops. In battles, he used a covert and sudden blow by attacking forces in the place and at the time where and when the enemy was not expecting him. How to catch the right moment and how to determine the right place of attack, when the guns are thundering, in their discordant roar, volleys of rifles pour in, death and war cries are heard everywhere? Factors of genius manifest themselves precisely in this reality. In the long-term war that he had to wage in Russia, Napoleon was unable to realize his military talent and lost the war, in fact, without losing specific battles. On the Berezina, using lightning speed and a structural vision of the situation, Napoleon, having deceived Chichagov, left an absolutely hopeless situation. Like Alexander the Great, Napoleon instilled unshakable confidence in the victory of his troops. This confidence was passed from marshal to marshal, from hussar to hussar, from corporal to corporal, from soldier to soldier - all were engulfed in a single rush of battle. The entire attacking army of Napoleon acted as a single coordinated human mechanism to destroy the enemy's forces. Napoleon was cruel, that cruelty of any commander, when huge human sacrifices are sacrificed to the set goal. Inspired by the magic of the commander, they walked in close ranks under the continuous fire of the enemy, buckshot and bullets mowed down whole ranks, but, despising death, they went forward again.

For a genius commander, the images-structures of battles and campaigns are in periodic tension, because they are aimed at further development and are just waiting for the right moment for this. This is analogous to the same processes in consciousness that are characteristic of geniuses. Semantic structures imprinted in the brain experience mental stress. Gaps and deformations associated with uncertainty appear in them. But the genius generals during the battle, the excitement of the whole nervous system extremely strong, the force of the influence of this psychic focus is great and the influence of the personality itself is great. This psychic energy, this flow of confidence in victory bewitches and hypnotizes the army. Throughout his military career, a special psychic filter was formed in the consciousness of Napoleon as a commander. The action of this filter suppresses one image of the battle, along with its fears and lust for destruction, and reinforces another. Thanks to this psychic filter, the entire military experience is imprinted in the memory. Covering the area of ​​battle with a single glance, the commander was inspired by future sensations. In these future sensations with insights, outbursts of emotions and inspiration, he saw his goal.

Alexander I commander

Alexander I cannot be called a brilliant ruler or commander. He won the victory in the Patriotic War thanks to the military genius of Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov. Also, a huge contribution to the victory of Russia over Napoleon was made by: Mikhail Bogdanovich Barclay de Tolly, Bagration Peter Ivanovich, Denis Vasilyevich Davydov, Alexey Petrovich Ermolov, Mikhail Andreevich Miloradovich.

What do Alexander and Napoleon have in common

Alexander and Napoleon are contemporaries, from 1807 to 1811 they were allies who almost became related to each other, and before and after that they were mortal enemies who had been in each other's capitals.

The scale of Alexander's personality is not highly appreciated by Russian and foreign historians. It seems that this whole series of assessments is underestimated, it is necessary to judge Alexander a whole octave higher, as did A.Z. Manfred in a book about Napoleon: "Among the monarchs of the Romanov dynasties, apart from Peter I, Alexander I was, apparently, the most intelligent and skillful politician." Napoleon himself was inclined to this opinion, who, although he said about Alexander that "in everything and always he lacks something and what he lacks changes indefinitely", nevertheless concluded his statements about him on the island of Saint Helena: "This is undoubtedly the most capable of all the reigning monarchs." It is the comparison with Napoleon that prompts historians to underestimate Alexander, a comparison that Alexander, of course, cannot bear. Even the official biographer of the tsar, his grand-nephew, Grand Duke Nikolai Mikhailovich, was forced to admit: “As the ruler of a huge state, thanks to the genius first of his ally and then his enemy, Napoleon, he will forever occupy a special position in the history of Europe at the beginning of the 19th century, having received from the imaginary friendship and rivalry with Napoleon is an inspiration that constitutes a necessary attribute of a great monarch. His appearance became, as it were, an addition to the image of Napoleon. The genius of Napoleon was reflected, like on the water, on him and gave him the meaning that he would not have had, had it not been for this reflection. "

For all the polarity of opinions of contemporaries and descendants about the individual qualities of Napoleon, almost all of them with rare unanimity recognized the unique scale of his personality as a genius and a colossus. They all put Bonaparte in the front row greatest commanders the world and in general the largest figures in the history of mankind, seeing in him the most characteristic example of a "genius man" (Chernyshevsky) and even being carried away by him to such exaggerations as: "an unprecedented genius" (Hegel), "the best offspring of the Earth" (Byron), "Deity from head to toe" (Heine), etc. The main historical merit of Napoleon is one of his Russian biographers N.A. Solov'ev defined it as follows: born of "revolutionary chaos", he "brought order to this chaos." Indeed, having pacified the revolution, Napoleon preserved and legalized its most important achievements: the abolition of feudal restrictions, freedom of development of capitalist production, and civil equality of the population. Moreover, he spread these conquests from France throughout Europe. Invading foreign countries, ruining them with indemnities, Bonaparte destroyed feudal junk in them - destroyed medieval regimes, abolished noble and church privileges, freed the peasants from the fetters of serfdom, and introduced his own Civil Code.

The tragedy of Napoleon was that he imposed his advanced laws and regulations on backward peoples by force. Having conquered Europe and blessing it with his transformations, he rebuilt it all against himself. Since 1808, when Napoleon was forced to fight numerous opponents, and especially since 1812, when his "Great Army" perished in Russia, he was historically doomed.

In conclusion, it should be noted that there are similarities between Napoleon and Alexander: accession to the throne due to coups; unhappy family life; lots of romance novels... But the difference is that Napoleon was a more talented military leader than Alexander. The historical role of Alexander I would have been played in his place by any of his many allies and associates, but he alone could have played the role of Napoleon.

List of used literature

1. Aksenova M., Ismailova S. The World History- T.I, - M .: Avanta +, 1993 -618 p.

2. Chandler D. Napoleon's military campaigns. M .: Tsentropoligraf, 1999.

3. Tarle E.V. Napoleon. - M .: Gosizdat, 1941 .-- 562 p.

4. The work of N.А. Troitsky Alexander I and Napoleon M., 1994.

5. Sakharov A.N. Alexander I // Russian autocrats (1801-1917). M., 1993.

6. Vandal A. Napoleon and Alexander I. Rostov-on-Don, 1995. T. 1-3.

About historical figures, equipped with illustrations, portraits. The presented material helps students to create an idea about the era, about the life of historical figures of the past. CHAPTER 11. METHODOLOGY OF STUDYING PERSONALITIES IN THE LESSONS OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA (8th grade) § 1 Results of the ascertaining experiment Pedagogical research took place in three stages. Each stage had its own goals and ...

About the fear of him) links ... He died the death of a warrior, and not the death of a pensioner - from an incomprehensible, long-term illness, which one wants so much to explain the intrigues of enemies for the sake of completeness. Chapter 2. Napoleon as the idol of generations The entire nineteenth century is permeated with echoes of the Napoleonic myth. Napoleon is the man of the century: he has shaken the imagination of several generations. To him - to his glory and destiny, ...

To the war. Italy at the time was under Austrian rule. Like other European monarchical states, Austria fought against revolutionary France. Napoleon Bonaparte was opposed by the Austrian army, which outnumbered the French four times, was well armed, supported from the sea by an English squadron under the command of the famous admiral ...

The rest of the allies sent Napoleon to Saint Helena (in the South Atlantic Ocean). Here he died in May 1821. After the second reign of Napoleon, which went down in history under the name "One Hundred Days", the Bourbons again established themselves in France. 12. Convening of the Vienna Congress. Final act. Creation of the Sacred Union. Soon after the victory over Napoleon, representatives of all ...

The book of the famous historian V.G. Sirotkina is dedicated to the uneasy relationship between France and Russia on the eve of the war of 1812. The author examines the issues that were raised during personal negotiations and in secret correspondence between the French Emperor Napoleon I and the Russian Tsar Alexander I.

It was all like a duel in which both sides were ready to fight to the end. According to the author, the personal confrontation between the two emperors was also dramatic because it could have ended in an alliance between Russia and France, and not in a brutal war.

Vladlen Georgievich Sirotkin
Napoleon and Alexander. Duel before the war

Instead of a preface

The diplomatic and intelligence background of the epic of the Patriotic War of 1812 is an integral part of the entire history of Russia in modern and modern times. It was during the crisis years of "thunderstorms of the 12th year" that the geopolitical strategy of the Russian state took shape for the entire 19th and early 20th centuries. - establishing a balance of power in Europe and the world after the shocks of the Great French Revolution, signing unions - "marriages of convenience" (Tilsit), defining the principle of "dividing spheres of influence" in Europe and the East, ideological sophistication in diplomacy, etc.

The propaganda techniques introduced by the French Jacobins into diplomacy and military art ("peace to huts - war to palaces") during the Napoleonic wars, as well as advanced military tactics (loose formation of soldiers, horse-drawn artillery, etc.), became the property of all the belligerents. parties. Following the "bureau for the control of public opinion" (French Directory, 1797), transformed by Bonaparte into a propaganda "department of Foucher", similar "bureaus" and "departments" are being created in the adversary countries of France - Great Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia, Sweden.

The "war of feathers" of Napoleon and Alexander I gave rise to a number of stable false concepts that will be exploited by diplomats and politicians in Europe and the world for the next two centuries, especially in the global ideological confrontation between the USSR and the United States after World War II.

Let's say, launched back in 1806-1807. Napoleon's propaganda "canard" about the "Russian threat" to the West (the false "Testament of Peter the Great") will have a tremendous impact even on Karl Marx and F. Engels and force JV Stalin in 1939 to criticize the founding fathers of Marcism.

On the contrary, the "anathemas" of the Russian Holy Synod Orthodox Church in 1806-1815 against the "fiend of hell - Buonapartia" are transformed into the Uvarov triad "autocracy - Orthodoxy - nationality" (1832), which became the banner not only of the monarchists of tsarist Russia, but also of the neo-monarchists of "democratic" Russia.

At the same time, the era of the Napoleonic wars (and the Patriotic War of 1812 as their integral heroic part) left a deep imprint on the history, culture, architecture of both France and Russia. Jena metro station, Tilsit street next to the Étoile-Charles de Gaulle square, Austerlitz bridge, boulevards named after Napoleon's marshals, the Arc de Triomphe and the Museum of the Invalids, finally: battlefields in Russia are knocked out on the arch, and in Invalides ( Museum of the French army), the repulsed Russian banners and cannons are kept - in Paris, as it were, they echo the same signs of Russian military glory in Moscow - the restored Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Borodino battle panorama museum, the guns repulsed from the French at the Arsenal in The Kremlin.

It is characteristic that the initiators of the creation monumental monuments and the epics of 1812, and the wars of 1805-1814. two main persons involved in this military-diplomatic duel, Napoleon and Alexander I.

It is gratifying that in the 21st century this memory does not dry out, and not only about the winners, but also about the losers, and not only in one Russian Federation... So, through the efforts of our contemporary, the indefatigable professor Fernand Bocourt, director of the private Institute of Napoleonic Studies in Paris, on the river. Berezina near the mountains. Borisov in Belarus on November 16, 1997, a second monument to the "fallen of the Great Army" was erected (the first one has been standing on the Borodino field since 1913).

Peace or war with Napoleon?

Great French Revolution 1789-1799 not only swept away absolutism in France, but also had a huge revolutionary impact on other countries. Fear of "revolutionary contagion" and the desire to defend the foundations of legitimism gave rise to anti-French coalitions.

Republican and Consular France in 1792-1800 managed not only to defend the Fatherland, but also to push the armies of the feudal coalitions from the pre-revolutionary borders of the country. A prominent role in this just war in 1793-1797. played by the young General Bonaparte. His relatively easy coup d'état on 18 Brumaire (November 9), 1799, brought the general to the heights of power in France.

But if inside France, Napoleon relatively easily succeeded in 1799-1804. to gain a foothold on the throne, things were more difficult in the international arena.

Napoleon's desire by proclaiming an empire in France to emphasize the break with the country's revolutionary past, to stand on a par with the "legitimate" monarchs of Europe to facilitate diplomatic and military expansion and search for allies in the fight against England initially met with the refusal of legitimist Europe. For an ordinary Russian landowner or Prussian cadet, France at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century. psychologically she remained a "fiend of the revolution," and Napoleon remained its "revolutionary general." Therefore, an alliance with him was presented almost as a betrayal of the interests of the noble class, and at first the diplomacy of the feudal states could not but reckon with these sentiments.

By the way, for Napoleon himself, this psychological prejudice of noble Europe against his imaginary "Jacobinism" served as a considerable hindrance: it was no coincidence that after the empire was proclaimed in 1804, he persistently sought recognition of his new title "Emperor of the French" by the feudal courts, including the corresponding clause in the articles of peaceful and union treaties.

Very curious in this regard is the testimony of one of Napoleon's closest acquaintances, the notorious Prince Metternich. “One of the constant and liveliest grievances of Napoleon, - wrote the prince, - was that he could not refer to the principle of legitimacy as the basis of his power ... who could imagine that he took the throne as a usurper.

"The French throne," he told me more than once, "was vacant. Louis XVI could not stay on it. If I were in his place, the revolution would never have become a fait accompli ..."

At the same time, the demand to recognize him as emperor, in addition to dynastic considerations, was also dictated by a completely practical desire to secure new territorial acquisitions for France, for Napoleon's official title included not only "Emperor of the French", but also "King of Italy", "protector" of the Rhine Union of German states, etc.

The diplomatic recognition of the imperial title of Bonaparte (a mandatory requirement of Napoleonic diplomacy in 1804–1807) automatically meant the legal authorization of all new conquests of France, carried out by it at the time of this recognition. Meanwhile, the pronounced desire of Napoleonic diplomacy to revise the entire system of European diplomatic agreements that had taken shape by the end of the 18th century met with resistance from members of anti-Napoleonic coalitions, who saw in this French policy a threat to "European equilibrium." England became the soul of these coalitions from the very beginning.

The main advantage of British diplomacy in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in the struggle against France was the fact that it acted not alone, but as part of anti-French coalitions, generously supplying its allies with weapons, money, providing them with its own military and merchant fleets.

Therefore, from the first days of his reign, Napoleon set before French diplomacy the task of splitting this anti-French front, concluding an alliance with England's partners, or, at worst, neutralizing them.

Of all the British allies in the anti-French coalitions, Russia was of the greatest interest in this regard. The largest continental power in Europe, it possessed a powerful army and exerted a tremendous influence on international relations at the beginning of the 19th century.

The adaptation of tsarism to the emerging new industrial and social relations in post-revolutionary Europe was reflected in both domestic and foreign policy.

Alexander I and Napoleon

So much has been written about these two emperors that it is hardly possible to say anything new. Despite the huge literature, they still argue about the personalities of Alexander I and Napoleon and try to say something new, unknown, sometimes bordering on absurdity. But even if contemporaries did not give an exhaustive description of these two absolutely extraordinary personalities, now it is difficult to find the truth. Although, as the poet said, “you can't see a face face to face. Great things are seen from a distance ... "

The author of the article does not take the liberty of claiming that he is saying something original, he only joins those authors whose opinion about these individuals he considers the closest to himself. In particular, this is the opinion of N.A. Troitsky, expressed by him in the monograph "Alexander I and Napoleon": "Historians made the revolutionary General Bonaparte the enslaver of Europe, and the feudal autocrat Alexander its liberator."
Also, the author does not agree with the assessment of Napoleon L.N. Tolstoy, given to him in the novel "War and Peace".

Napoleon Bonaparte

About Napoleon... "Many dreamed of seeing him as a god, a few as Satan, but everyone considered him great."

The phenomenal personality of Napoleon has been studied comprehensively, but no one can say that it has been exhausted to the end.

Here is what N.A. Troitsky: “The first thing that amazed everyone who communicated with him was the power of his intellect. “When you talk with the Emperor Napoleon, the Chancellor of the Russian Empire N.P. Rumyantsev, - you feel as smart as it is his it pleases ".

"V. Goethe talked with Napoleon on literary topics. Subsequently, he wrote that “the emperor interpreted the subject in such a tone, which was to be expected from a person of such an immense mind,” and in general, anything “that could confuse him simply did not exist. In this, Napoleon was helped by phenomenal erudition, adequate to his natural endowments. For all his daily employment with an abyss of affairs, he managed to read an incomprehensible amount - all his life, in any conditions, constantly ”.

Alexander I

About AlexanderI.“The ruler is weak and crafty”, according to Pushkin, and “the shepherd of nations,” according to S. Solovyov.

But P. Vyazemsky said more precisely about Alexander I: “The Sphinx, which has not been solved until the grave, is still being argued about today…”.

From his grandmother Catherine II, the future emperor inherited the flexibility of mind, the ability to seduce the interlocutor, a passion for acting, bordering on duplicity. In this, Alexander almost surpassed Catherine II. "Be a man with a stone heart, and he will not resist the conversion of the sovereign, this is a real deceiver," wrote M. M. Speransky.

The path to power

AlexanderI

The formation of his character was strongly influenced by intra-family relations: his grandmother, Catherine II, who took the boy away from his father and mother and took him into foster care, hated his father (her son Paul I) and tried to raise her grandson in the intellectual atmosphere of her court and in the spirit of the ideas of the Enlightenment ... She raised the boy in her own image and likeness as the future emperor, but bypassing his father.

Alexander also communicated with his father and later even served in the Gatchina troops. He was an affectionate and sensitive child, tried to get along with everyone and please everyone, as a result, he developed this double-mindedness, which was later noted in him by almost everyone who communicated with him. Even as a child, Alexander was used to pleasing both sides, he always said and did what his grandmother and father liked, and not what he considered necessary to do himself. He lived in two minds, had two faces, double feelings, thoughts and manners. He learned to please everyone. Already adults, Alexander conquered with his beauty, gentleness of character, delicacy, grace of manners. “Look, Orthodox Christians, what God has awarded us with a tsar - a beautiful face and soul,” said Metropolitan Platon. Although who could know about his soul? The conspiracy against Paul I was known to Alexander. And even if he did not think about just such an end for his father, he did nothing to prevent the murder.

Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleone Buonaparte)

Born in Ajaccio on the island of Corsica, which was ruled by the Republic of Genoa. He was the second of 13 children of the petty aristocrat Carlo Buonaparte and Letizia, but only 8 survived: five sons and three daughters. Napoleon was the smartest, most active and inquisitive child in the family, the favorite of his parents. Since childhood, he showed a special craving for knowledge, in the future he was engaged in self-education and contemporaries noted that there was not a single person with whom Napoleon could not talk on equal terms. Later, having become a military man, he showed himself in this field.

He received his primary education at school in Ajaccio and already then showed his ability in mathematics.

In 1778, the brothers Joseph and Napoleon left the island and entered college in Autun (France), mainly to study the French language, and the next year Napoleon transferred to a cadet school in Brienne-le-Chateau. Since Napoleon was a patriot of Corsica and treated the French as the enslavers of his native island, he had no friends. But it was here that his name began to be pronounced in the French manner - Napoleon Bonaparte. Then he studied at the Royal Cadet School, where he studied excellently, read a lot.

In 1785, his father died, and Napoleon actually became the head of the family, although he was not the eldest. He finishes his studies ahead of schedule and begins serving with the rank of lieutenant, and takes on the education of an 11-year-old brother to help his mother. His life at this time is very difficult, he cannot even eat normally, but difficulties do not frighten him. At this time, he reads a lot, researchers note that the range of his interests was huge: from the works of Plato to contemporary writers.

Jean-Antoine Gros "Napoleon on the Arkol Bridge"

In 1793 he took part in the suppression of the royalist uprising in Toulon - here his career began: he was appointed chief of artillery and, besieging Toulon, occupied by the British, carried out a brilliant military operation. At 24, he received the rank of brigadier general. So gradually a new star began to rise in the political horizon - he was appointed commander of the Italian army, he defeated the troops of the Kingdom of Sardinia and Austria and became one of the best generals of the Republic.

By 1799, a crisis of power began in Paris: the Directory was unable to take advantage of the achievements of the revolution. And then Napoleon takes this power - having returned from Egypt and relying on the army loyal to him, he proclaimed the regime of the consulate (provisional government), at the head of which he himself stood. Then Napoleon passed through the Senate a decree on the life of his powers (1802) and proclaimed himself emperor of France (1804). He quickly eliminated the threat to the French borders, and the population of northern Italy greeted him with enthusiasm as a liberator from Austrian oppression.

Thus, the path to power of Napoleon was determined by his personal qualities and abilities, and the path of Alexander was problem-free, power was given to him as a gift (unless, of course, you count the story of Paul I).

Internal politics of AlexanderI

Alexander I, from the first days of his reign, began to implement reforms, relying on an unspoken committee made up of his friends. Read more about the reforms of Alexander I on our website: Most of these reforms remained unfulfilled, largely due to the personal qualities of the emperor. In words and outwardly, he was a liberal, but in deeds he was a despot who did not tolerate objections. Prince Czartoryski, a friend of his youth, said about this: “ He was willing to agree that everyone could be free if they freely did what he wanted.».
The half-heartedness of his decisions was also reflected in the fact that he always supported a new undertaking with temperament, but then used every opportunity to postpone what he had begun. So his reign, begun with great hope for improvement, ended in a burdensome life for the Russian people, and serfdom was never abolished.

Alexander I and Napoleon examine a map of Europe

Domestic policy of Napoleon

In the literature on Napoleon, there are mixed assessments of this person. But these assessments are overwhelmingly enthusiastic. No other great person did not hit the popular imagination so much and did not generate so many controversies. On the one hand, his cult is extolled, his genius is praised, and his death is mourned. On the other hand, his tyranny is condemned, his talents are disputed. It was during his lifetime.

For detractors, Napoleon is a man who stopped the process launched by the revolution, the colossal striving of peoples for freedom. He is simply the defiler of the human race ... The thirst for conquest ultimately destroyed him. His political fame is the fruit of his relentless pursuit of tyranny. According to others, Napoleon was driven by very ordinary ideas ... Deprived of humanity, he turned out to be insensitive to the misfortunes into which he plunged France.

For fans, he is everything. His admirers are Byron, Goethe, Schopenhauer, Hegel, Hugo, Chateaubriand, Pushkin, Lermontov, Tolstoy, Tsvetaeva, Aldanov, Merezhkovsky, Okudzhava write about him ...

At the beginning of his reign, France is on the brink of a civil war, at war with Austria and England. The treasury is empty. The administration is helpless. He restores order, achieves prosperity, promulgates laws, and iron out political divisions. For 4.5 years, working, in his words, like a bull in a harness, while improving his education, he balances the state budget, creates the Council of State, establishes the French Bank, replaces depreciated paper money with gold and silver coins, and develops the Civil Code. That is, in fact, he laid the foundations of the French state, according to which modern France lives.

Interesting aphorisms of Napoleon:

The weakness of the supreme power is the most terrible calamity for the people.

People's love is nothing more than respect.

I don't know half-right. A lasting legal order must be created if you want to avoid tyranny.

My true glory is not that I won 60 battles. If anything will live forever, it is my Civil Code.

First meeting

The first meeting of the emperors Alexander I and Napoleon took place in the summer of 1807 during the signing of the Tilsit armistice, which was proposed by Alexander, fearing for his empire. Napoleon agreed and even stressed that he wants not only peace, but also an alliance with Russia: "The union of France with Russia has always been the object of my desires," he assured Alexander. How sincere was this assurance? It is quite possible that sincere. Both of them need a Russian-French alliance, albeit at different levels: Alexander I - for "self-preservation", Napoleon - to exalt himself and his empire. After the meeting, Napoleon wrote to Josephine: “I was extremely pleased with him. This is a young, extremely kind and handsome emperor. He's much smarter than people think. "

D. Serangeli "Farewell of Alexander to Napoleon in Tilsit"

But during this meeting, Napoleon hinted to Alexander about parricide, which he never forgave Napoleon. But since Alexander I could be a hypocrite from childhood, he skillfully reincarnated and played the role perfectly. In addition, he could simultaneously express friendly feelings to both Franz I and Frederick William III, who were enemies of Napoleon. As N. Troitsky writes about Alexander I, “it was very difficult to understand him, almost impossible to deceive”.

But there was something in both emperors that brought them closer together. And this "something" is contempt for people. " I dont believe anyone. I only believe that all people are scoundrels, "said Alexander I. Napoleon also had a" low opinion of the human race. "

Alexander and Napoleon fought five wars with each other. They ended either with a victory or a defeat for one of the sides. Alexander explained that, fighting France himself and uniting other countries against it in feudal coalitions, "his only and indispensable goal is to establish peace in Europe on solid foundations, to free France from the chains of Napoleon, and other countries from the yoke of France." Although his true goal was the expansion of Russia, the seizure of new lands and domination in Europe, the preservation of the surviving feudal regimes and the restoration of those overthrown by the French Revolution and Napoleon. Alexander considered him a personal enemy, whom he also tried to overthrow. Alexander understood that the nobility needed more feudal England than revolutionary France. And the people followed him to liberate Europe from Napoleon.

What was Napoleon guided by? He really loved France and therefore wanted to make her the leader in Europe, and Paris - the capital of the world. But he did not love France by itself, but at the head of himself. “Stronger than his love for France was his love for power, for power over France, Europe and the world. “So that the world obeys France, and France obeys me,” is the motto of Napoleon. The goal of Napoleon was only power, he himself said: "My mistress is power."

Death

AlexanderI

Epitaph of A.S. Pushkin: " He spent his whole life on the road, caught a cold and died in Taganrog».

House of the mayor of Taganrog Pankov, where Alexander I died

The sudden death of Alexander I on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog from fever with brain inflammation at the age of 47 gave rise to many rumors and conjectures that exist to this day. In recent years, the emperor was clearly tired of his activities, they said that he even wanted to abdicate in favor of his brother Nicholas and even published a secret Manifesto about this in August 1823. He rushed about on trips around the country, experiencing constant dissatisfaction, having lost faith in companions and people in general. We will not cite here all the legends and unreliable information about the last years of the life of Emperor Alexander I, there is an extensive literature about them.

Napoleon

F. Sandmann "Napoleon on St. Helena"

“… In one of my school notebooks, I think from 1788, there is such a note:“ sainte Helene, petite ila ”(Saint Helena, a small island). I was then preparing for the exam in geography. As now, I see in front of me both the notebook and this page ... And then, after the name of the cursed island, there is nothing else in the notebook ... What stopped my hand? .. Yes, what stopped my hand? He repeated almost in a whisper, with sudden horror in his voice. (M. Aldanov "St. Helena, a small island").

As the Russian army moved westward, the anti-Napoleonic coalition grew. The hastily assembled new French army in the "Battle of the Nations" near Leipzig in October 1813 was opposed by Russian, Austrian, Prussian and Swedish troops. Napoleon was defeated and, after the Allies entered Paris, abdicated the throne. On the night of April 12-13, 1814, in Fontainebleau, experiencing the defeat left by his court (there were only a few servants, a doctor and General Caulaincourt next to him), Napoleon decided to commit suicide. He took poison, which he always carried with him after the battle of Maloyaroslavets, when only by a miracle he was not taken prisoner. But the poison decomposed from long storage, Napoleon survived. By decision of the allied monarchs, he received possession of the small island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea. April 20, 1814 Napoleon left Fontainebleau and went into exile.

The Bourbons and emigres returned to France, seeking the return of their property and privileges ("They learned nothing and forgot nothing"). This caused discontent and fear in French society and in the army. Taking advantage of the favorable situation, Napoleon fled from Elba on February 26, 1815 and, met with the enthusiastic shouts of the crowd, returned to Paris without hindrance. The war resumed, but France was no longer able to bear its burden. "One Hundred Days" ended with the final defeat of Napoleon near the Belgian village of Waterloo in June 1815. He voluntarily arrived on the British warship "Bellerophon" in the port of Plymouth, hoping to get political asylum from his old enemies - the British. So Napoleon became a prisoner of the British and was sent to the distant island of St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean. There, in the village of Longwood, Napoleon spent the last six years of his life.

The British chose Saint Helena because of its remoteness from Europe, fearing the emperor's repeated escape from exile. Napoleon was accompanied by Henri-Gracien Bertrand, Charles Montolon, Emmanuel de Las Kaz and Gaspard Gurgo. In total, there were 27 people in Napoleon's retinue. On August 7, 1815, the former emperor leaves Europe. Nine escort ships with 3,000 soldiers who would guard Napoleon on St. Helena accompanied his ship.

Longwood estate, where Napoleon lived in his last years

The house and grounds were surrounded by a stone wall six kilometers long. Sentries were placed around the wall so that they could see each other. On the tops of the hills, sentinels were stationed, reporting all Napoleon's actions with signal flags. The British did everything to make it impossible for Bonaparte to escape from the island. His contacts with the outside world are cut off. Napoleon is doomed to inactivity. His health is deteriorating dramatically.

Napoleon often complained of pain in his right side, his legs were swollen. His attending physician diagnosed hepatitis. Napoleon suspected it was cancer, the disease from which his father died.

April 13, 1821 Napoleon dictated his will. He could no longer move without assistance, the pains became sharp and excruciating. Napoleon Bonaparte died on Saturday 5 May 1821 and was buried near Longwood. In 1840, Napoleon's remains were transported to France and buried in the House of Invalids in Paris.

"One fate for all ..."

Conclusion

“The Bible (Ecclesiastes) remained on Napoleon’s table ... it was revealed to him on a page where there were the following words:“ To all and to all - one thing: one lot for the righteous and the wicked, good and evil, pure and unclean, offering sacrifice and not offering sacrifice; both the virtuous and the sinner, both the one who swears and the one who fears the oath.

This is what is bad in everything that happens under the sun, that there is one lot for all, and the hearts of the sons of men are filled with evil, and madness is in their hearts; and after that they go to the dead.

And I turned and saw under the sun that it is not the nimble ones who get a successful run, not the brave - victory, not the wise - bread, and not the wise have wealth, and not the skillful - goodwill, but time and opportunity for all of them ... "(M. Aldanov "Saint Helena, a small island").

The personality and state practice of Alexander I was most vividly revealed in his confrontation with Napoleon, a confrontation that led the French emperor to the island of Saint Helena, and Alexander broke down and devastated him so much that he, apparently, could not recover from this until the end of his days.

Russia met the beginning of the century with the settlement of its relations with the European powers. Friendly relations with England were restored, diplomatic relations with Austrian Empire... Alexander I declared that he refuses to interfere in the internal affairs of foreign states and recognizes in them the political system that is supported by the "common consent" of the peoples of these countries. The former friendly relations with France remained, however, every month Alexander was imbued with more and more distrust of the first consul of France. This mistrust was based not only on politics, the ever-increasing expansion of France on the European continent, about which a lot has been written by our historians, but also Alexander's attitude to the internal political problems of France, which was not paid attention to.

Being an admirer of the ideas of the French revolution, republic, constitutional order and ardently condemning the dictatorship and terror of the Jacobins, the young Russian monarch closely followed the development of events in France. Already in 1801, reflecting on Napoleon's desire to raise his power in France, over his international claims, which were actively promoted by Foreign Minister Talleyrand, Alexander remarked: "What swindlers!" And in 1802, when Napoleon declared himself consul for life, Alexander wrote to Laharpe: “I completely changed, just like you, my dear, the opinion about the first consul. Since the establishment of his life-long consulate, the veil has fallen: since then, things have gone from bad to worse. He began by stripping himself of the greatest glory that can fall to the lot of man. The only thing left for him was to prove that he acted without any personal benefit, only for the happiness and glory of his homeland, and to remain faithful to the Constitution, to which he himself vowed to transfer his power in ten years. Instead, he chose to copy the customs of the royal courts like a monkey, thereby violating the Constitution of his country. Now he is one of the greatest tyrants that history has ever produced. " As you can see, Alexander is concerned about the constitutional order of France. Moreover, it is not at all necessary to consider this demagoguery, since in all recent years Alexander professed precisely these views, and the letter was of a purely personal, closed nature. In addition, Alexander quite rightly grasped the sovereign claims of the "little corporal".

Since 1803, the expansion of France has increased. Bonaparte organizes the Bois Camp to prepare troops for the invasion of the British Isles, occupies Hanover and the Kingdom of Naples. The Russian ambassador in Paris begins to demonstrate his opposition to Napoleon's policies, which infuriates the first consul. The shooting by Napoleon of the Duke of Enghien, the son of the Bourbons and a relative of the Petersburg court, caused shock in the Russian capital.

The Russian government protested. It, in particular, said that Napoleon violated the neutrality of another state (the duke was captured in Baden) and human rights. After the proclamation of Napoleon as emperor, Russia went to an active rapprochement with Prussia, and then with England. It was heading towards a European war. So by the force of circumstances, rather by the force of his humanistic aspirations, rejection of Napoleon's cynical defiance of the laws of his own country, as well as the principles of legitimacy, the established system in Europe, Alexander was forced to abandon his position of non-interference in European affairs, although confrontation with France at this stage was not caused interests of Russia. But already at this time, the desire to make Russia happy through the reforms that were beginning began to coexist more and more in the soul of Alexander with the desire to “save” Europe from the French tyrant. And this desire should not be underestimated or replaced by the concept of “saving the reactionary regimes of Europe” and so on, since it lay in the general mainstream of Alexander I's attitude at that time.

For Russia, military confrontation with France was objectively undesirable, since already at that time there was a natural striving of the parties through political combinations to achieve the desired results for themselves. Russia sought to build on the successes of the Russian-Turkish wars and claimed the straits and Poland, the annexation of Moldavia and Wallachia; Finland was also in the sphere of interests of Russia. Napoleon sought to ensure freedom in the struggle against England and wanted to extend his power to southern and central Europe. Compromises were allowed along the way, but war was also possible. The subsequent development of events showed the regularity of both. And yet it should be said about two main trends that dictated Alexander's behavior. The first is, of course, the policy of Russia as a great European power capable of dividing Europe with Bonaparte, and the growing autocratic ambitions of the Russian emperor. The second is his liberal complexes, which spilled over from domestic politics to the international arena. It was at this time that Alexander's idea was born, later expressed in the organization of the Holy Union, about the possibility of organizing the European world on the basis of humanism, cooperation, justice, respect for the rights of nations, respect for human rights. Laharpe's lessons were not in vain. So, sending Novosiltsev to England for negotiations in 1804, he gave him instructions in which he outlined the idea of ​​concluding a general peace treaty between the peoples and the creation of a league of peoples. Here is what he wrote in this document: “Of course, this is not about the fulfillment of the dream of eternal peace, but it would still be possible to get closer to the benefits that are expected from such a peace, if in the treaty, when determining the conditions of a general war, it was possible to establish clear and precise principles of the requirements of international law. Why not include in such a treaty a positive definition of the rights of nationalities, ensure the advantages of neutrality and establish obligations never to start a war without first exhausting all the means provided by arbitration, which makes it possible to clarify mutual misunderstandings and try to eliminate them? On such conditions it would be possible to begin the implementation of this general pacification and create an alliance, the provisions of which would form, so to speak, a new code of international law. " An excellent document, albeit very premature for that time. Nevertheless, Alexander was almost the first statesman in Europe who put forward the idea of ​​legal regulation of international relations, which long anticipated real steps in this direction already in the second half of the 20th century.

And yet, the reasoning of that time remained a chimera. The reality turned out to be more prosaic. England sought an alliance with Russia to crush Napoleon. A new anti-French coalition appeared, consisting of England, Russia, Austria, Prussia. At the same time, Russian claims to Turkey and Poland were satisfied. Russian troops moved to Europe. The goal of the great absolutist power outweighed the good fantasies of the liberal young man. But these fantasies remained in his mind, and they would arise again as soon as the right circumstances appeared for this.

On December 2, 1805, the united Russian-Austrian army, despite the warnings of M.I. Kutuzova met with Napoleon at Austerlitz. The defeat of the allies was complete. Crushed to dust and Alexander's illusions. He led the troops, determined their disposition, was confident of victory ... When the troops fled and the catastrophe became obvious, he burst into tears. Alexander that day narrowly escaped captivity, having lost contact with the headquarters, with the troops. He took refuge in the hut of a Moravian peasant, then rode for several hours among the fleeing army, was tired, dirty, did not change his sweaty clothes for two days, and lost his luggage. The Cossacks got him some wine, and he warmed up a little, fell asleep in the barn on straw. But he was not broken, but only realized that it was necessary to fight such a rival as Napoleon fully armed with the physical and spiritual forces and all the forces of the empire. From now on, for him, an extremely proud person, claiming the role of a benefactor of Russia and Europe, Napoleon became a mortal enemy, and since 1805 he purposefully and stubbornly went to his destruction. But on the way to this there were still new defeats in the fields of Prussia, Tilsit, Erfurt, 1812, the fire of Moscow, the European campaign of the Russian army, new defeats from Napoleon.

Contemporaries noted that after Austerlitz, Alexander changed in many ways. L.N. Engelhardt, who closely watched the king at that time, wrote: “The battle of Austerlitz made a great influence on the character of Alexander, and it can be called an era in his reign. Before that, he was meek, trusting, affectionate, and then he became suspicious, stern to the extreme, unapproachable and could no longer tolerate anyone telling him the truth. "

From that time on, Arakcheev became a more noticeable figure under him, and the activities of the Secret Committee gradually dies down. And although the tsar's reform efforts continue - all the same leisurely and cautiously - but the time of former hobbies and revelations is already passing: life, the system takes its toll. In essence, the very first encounter with Napoleon taught Alexander a cruel life lesson, which he learned very thoroughly.

This was already evident during the negotiations in Tilsit, where the emperors talked face to face in a house on a raft in the middle of the Nemunas.

The world of Tilsit sharply reoriented Russian foreign policy. Russia joined the continental blockade against England, was forced to abandon support for Prussia, which was dismembered by Napoleon, but received a free hand in relation to Moldova, Wallachia and Finland. In fact, the monarchs made one of the next partitions of Europe. Alexander showed Napoleon all his charm and friendliness and seems to have deceived him. Napoleon, in a conversation with his adjutant Caulaincourt, considered the tsar a handsome, intelligent, kind man who puts "all the feelings of a good heart in the place where the mind should be ..." This was Bonaparte's big mistake and, possibly, the beginning of his future defeat. Meanwhile, Alexander wrote to his sister Ekaterina Pavlovna that Bonaparte has one vulnerable trait - this is his vanity, and that he is ready to sacrifice his pride for the salvation of Russia. A little later, in a conversation with the Prussian king Frederick William III and his wife, the charming queen Louise, Alexander said: “Be patient, we will turn our back on. He will break his neck. Despite all my demonstrations and external actions, in my heart I am your friend and I hope to prove it to you in practice ... At least I will gain time. "

On the way to Erfurt - the second meeting with Napoleon and the next negotiations with him - Alexander I continued this line: restraint, calmness, benevolence, playing on the vanity of the French emperor and the desire to obtain certain foreign policy benefits for Russia. Trade continued over Poland, the straits, Constantinople, the Danube principalities, Finland, the German states, etc. At the same time, Alexander sent secret letters to England, calming the British cabinet, expressing his firm desire to fight Bonaparte. Mistrust, secrecy, duplicity - this is how Alexander presented himself in his relations with Napoleon in 1807–1808. At the same time, Caulaincourt transmitted to Paris the words of Alexander that Napoleon had conquered him at Tilsit.

The meeting in Erfurt brought Russia incomparable success: Napoleon agreed to the annexation of Finland, Moldavia and Wallachia by Russia, but opposed the seizure of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. But at the same time, he forced Russia to come out on his side in the event of a war between France and Austria. The Russian emperor, saving his unlucky ally, the Prussian king, got France to reduce the indemnity from Prussia. He also insisted on the withdrawal of French troops from the Grand Duchy of Warsaw.

And here Alexander continued his double game. Talleyrand wrote later in his memoirs: “The favors, gifts and impulses of Napoleon were completely in vain. Before leaving Erfurt, Alexander wrote a letter to the Emperor of Austria with his own hand in order to allay the fears he had about the meeting. "

Despite the outward cordiality, the negotiations in Erfurt were very tense. At one point, Napoleon threw his hat to the ground, to which Alexander objected: “You are hot-tempered. I am stubborn. You won't get anywhere with anger from me. Let's talk, reason, otherwise I'll leave. "

The true attitude of the Russian emperor to Napoleon was also manifested in the fact that the Russian court practically refused to the French emperor in claims for the hand of the tsar's sister, the charming Catherine Pavlovna. Reference was made to the position of Catherine Pavlovna herself and the Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna. After some time, Napoleon's attempt to get the hand of another sister of the tsar, Anna Pavlovna, ended with the same result.

For the Russian ruling house, this marriage would be an undoubted misalliance, and in Paris they understood this correctly. Napoleon was furious.

From 1807–1808, especially in connection with the dissatisfaction in Russian society with the results of the Tilsit Peace, some evidence of Alexander's real attitude to the events reached them. Of course, they could be defensive in nature, but when compared with his general line in relation to Napoleon, Prussia, England, as well as compared with each other, they give a remarkable picture. In a letter to his mother shortly before the meeting in Erfurt, Alexander wrote: “Our recent interests forced us to conclude a close alliance with France. We will do our best to prove to her the sincerity and nobility of our way of acting. " And in the same year, after the Erfurt meeting, he noted in a letter to Ekaterina Pavlovna: “Bonaparte thinks that I am only a fool, but the one who laughs the last laughs better, and I pin all my hopes on God, and not only on God , but also on their abilities and willpower. " It is no accident that Callencourt, in one of his personal letters to Napoleon of that time, apparently having seen his sight, wrote: “Alexander is not taken for who he is. He is considered weak and wrong. Undoubtedly he can endure annoyance and hide his dissatisfaction ... But this lightness of character has its limits - he will not go beyond the circle outlined for himself, but this circle is made of iron and does not bend ... "

It is no coincidence that Napoleon himself, already on the island of St. Helena, recalled Alexander of that Tilsit-Erfurt period: “The Tsar is smart, graceful, educated; he can easily charm, but this must be feared; he is insincere; this is a real Byzantine of the times of the decline of the empire ... It is quite possible that he fooled me, for he is subtle, deceitful, dexterous ... ". It seems that Napoleon saw his sight too late. And this is proved, by the way, by the entire subsequent history of the relationship between the two emperors. Alexander opposed the military genius, strength, and the onslaught of Napoleon with the highest diplomatic skill, subtle mind, distant calculation.

Beginning in 1808, the tsar, preparing for a future confrontation with the French emperor, began to rebuild and reform the Russian army. Two wonderful, talented assistants helped him in this matter - A.A. Arakcheev and M.B. Barclay de Tolly. By the beginning of 1811, he already had 225 thousand soldiers, but was striving to increase the army by another 100 thousand people. At the same time, he established relations with the British government, with high-ranking Polish officials.

By the spring of 1812, relations between France and Russia were heating up to the limit. In these conditions, Alexander showed great restraint, firmness of spirit, genuine patriotism. In response to the words of Napoleon, transmitted to him with one of the envoys: "We will create our bridgeheads not only on the Danube, but also on the Neman, Volga, Moskva River, and for two hundred years we will move the threat of raids from the north", Alexander brought him to the map and pointing to the shores of the Bering Strait, he replied that the emperor of the French would have to go to these places in order to obtain peace on Russian soil. In those days, Alexander said to his friend, the rector of the University of Dorpat, Parrat: “I do not hope to triumph over the genius and the forces of my enemy. But in no case will I conclude a shameful peace and would rather bury myself under the ruins of the empire. "

Having invaded the borders of Russia, great army Napoleon began to move freely into the interior of the country. According to the memoirs of Caulaincourt, Napoleon hoped to end the campaign quickly, defeat the Russians in a general battle and sign peace. "I will sign the peace in Moscow! ... And it won't take two months for the Russian nobles to force Alexander to ask me for him! ..."

Indeed, in the current situation and in the future, after the fall of Moscow, the Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, Chancellor Rumyantsev, Arakcheev, and a number of prominent dignitaries spoke for peace with Napoleon. But Alexander was relentless. When, in July, Napoleon made the first attempt at peace negotiations, transmitted through General Balashov, Alexander simply did not answer him. On August 24, the French emperor wrote a new letter to the tsar from Smolensk, and again there was no answer. Having received from Kutuzov the news of the abandonment and subsequent fire of Moscow, Alexander burst into tears, but quickly pulled himself together and, according to Colonel Michaud sent to him, said: “Return to the army, tell our brave men, declare to all my loyal subjects wherever you go that if I do not have a single soldier left, I will become the head of my dear nobility and my good peasants and sacrifice all the means of the empire ... Having exhausted all the means that are in my power, I will grow myself a beard and would rather agree to eat potatoes with the last of my peasants than sign the shame of my fatherland and my dear subjects, whose sacrifices I know how to value. Napoleon or me, me or him, but together we cannot reign; I learned to understand him; he will no longer deceive me. "

Firm assurances on this score were made to Kutuzov. The military conflict with France took for Alexander I, quite obviously, the form of a personal and uncompromising conflict with Napoleon, and the Russian emperor put into it all the strength of his hatred, hurt pride, and firmness of will. In this confrontation, Alexander suddenly appeared as what he was in reality, or rather, became after gaining confidence on the throne - an imperious, strong, far-sighted ruler.

At the same time, the events of the beginning of the war, and especially the fire of Moscow, shocked him so much that, according to eyewitnesses, he was often sad, began to retire in his Kamennoostrovsky palace, which remained almost unguarded. Then for the first time he turned to God so earnestly, so passionately. “The fire of Moscow illuminated my soul,” he later confessed to the Prussian Bishop Eulert, “and filled my heart with a warmth of faith, which I had not felt until now. And then I knew God. "

All attempts by Napoleon from Moscow to enter into peace negotiations with the Russian Tsar also remained unanswered. Alexander continued to fulfill his vow.

In December 1812, the Russian army, having driven out the French from Russia, went to state border Russia on the Neman. The question arose about the further fate of the campaign. M.I. Kutuzov believed that the war could have ended there, that there was no point in killing Russian soldiers anymore. The aged field marshal, not without reason, believed that the fall of Napoleon would only strengthen England and the concern of European powers in spite of Russia. However, Alexander had different feelings. He aspired now to become the savior of Europe, to be its arbiter. What was more in these aspirations - the autocratic claims of the master of the empire, the messianic claims of the believer, offended by Napoleon, the person humiliated by him. It seems that both the first, and the second, and the third. And yet, personal confrontation with Napoleon was one of the dominants of the behavior of the Russian tsar.

Now the goal of Alexander was the indispensable capture of Paris, the overthrow of Napoleon. The Russian tsar motivated this goal with the noble feelings of helping oppressed peoples. In this regard, all the propaganda support of the campaign was carried out. The entry of the allied forces into France was justified by the need to save the French people from the tyranny of Bonaparte. And yet we cannot fail to recall this decisive phrase of Alexander: "Napoleon or me, me or him." It seems that this was his real program, not so much of the sovereign as of the person. Moreover, when the allies showed hesitation, Alexander said that he would go to the French capital with one Russian army.

During the overseas campaign of the Russian army, the battles between the allies and Napoleon, Alexander was constantly with the army. But this was no longer an enthusiastic newcomer to Austerlitz, but a husband wise with military experience, and a brave husband. In the battle near Dresden, on the Lutsen fields, he participated in the leadership of the troops and stood under fire. During the battle of Bautzen, Alexander positioned himself so that he saw the French emperor, and he saw him. In the battle of Dresden, Alexander narrowly escaped death. A cannonball exploded next to him, mortally striking General Miro. In the battle of Leipzig, Alexander himself commanded the troops on the first day, made a number of important decisions, including the introduction of reserve artillery, which turned the tide of the battle in favor of the allies. During the clash between the convoy of Life Cossacks and French cuirassiers, the emperor was almost fifteen paces from the fighters. Alexander showed personal courage and good military command on the second day of the Battle of Leipzig, as well as in the battle for Paris.

After the success of the French at Bautzen, Napoleon again turned to the Russian tsar with peace proposals and was again refused. Alexander showed firmness even further, throughout 1814, however, in conditions when the scales were already tilting in favor of the Allies.

After the solemn entry into Paris, Alexander said to Caulaincourt, who was trying in vain to save his emperor: “We decided to continue the struggle to the end, so as not to resume it under less favorable circumstances, and we will fight until we reach a lasting peace, which cannot be expected from a man who devastated Europe from Moscow to Cadiz ". The Allies declared that they would not have any dealings with Napoleon or anyone of his family name. On April 6, Napoleon signed his abdication, and a few days later he left for the island of Elba. These days, Alexander finally showed generosity to the defeated enemy and insisted on relatively mild conditions for his removal from power (possession of the island of Elba, a huge pension, 50 guards to guard), in spite of Talleyrand, who proposed a link to the Azores and a stricter regime of detention ...

However, as soon as the news of Napoleon's flight from Elba and the onset of the era of the Hundred Days spread throughout Europe and reached Vienna, where the leaders of the then Europe gathered for its next redistribution, Alexander again showed determination and militancy, which largely determined the rallying of the allies and the final crushing of Napoleon Bonaparte. Alexander did not abandon his line in relation to Napoleon even when he sent the Russian emperor an anti-Russian treaty signed by Russia's recent allies - Austria, England and Louis XVIII Bourbon, who was seated on the parental throne. The treaty was secret and provided for the possibility of joint actions, including military ones, against Russia in connection with serious differences between the allies and Russia on territorial issues. Summoning the Austrian Foreign Minister Metternich, Alexander introduced him to the document, then threw it into the fireplace and said that further struggle with Napoleon requires strengthening allied actions.

Plan

Napoleon Bonaparte and Alexander I3

Foreign policy and their friendship5

Reasons for dissolution of friendship, their common interests and contradictions15

Literature25

Napoleon Bonaparte and Alexander I

NAPOLEON I (Napoleon) (Napoleon Bonaparte) (1769-1821), French emperor 1804-14 and March June 1815. Born in Corsica. Began service in the army in 1785 with the rank of junior lieutenant of artillery; promoted during the French Revolution (reaching the rank of brigadier general) and under the Directory (army commander). In November 1799, he made a coup d'état (18 Brumaire), as a result of which he became the first consul, who in fact concentrated in his hands over time all the power; in 1804 he was proclaimed emperor. Established a dictatorial regime. He carried out a number of reforms (adoption of the civil code, 1804, foundation of the French bank, 1800, etc.). Thanks to victorious wars, he significantly expanded the territory of the empire, made most of the Western states dependent on France. and Center. Europe. The defeat of Napoleon's troops in the war of 1812 against Russia marked the beginning of the collapse of the empire of Napoleon I. The entry of the troops of the anti-French coalition in Paris in 1814 forced Napoleon I to abdicate. He was exiled to Fr. Elbe. He re-took the French throne in March 1815 (see One Hundred Days). After the defeat at Waterloo, he abdicated the throne for the second time (June 22, 1815). The last years of his life he spent on about. St. Helena a prisoner of the British.

Aleksa? Ndr I (Blessed), Alexa? Ndr Pa? Vlovich (12 (23) December 1777, St. Petersburg 19 November (1 December) 1825, Taganrog) Emperor of the Russian Empire from 11 (23) March 1801 to 19 November (December 1) 1825), the eldest son of Emperor Paul I and Maria Feodorovna. At the beginning of his reign, he carried out moderately liberal reforms developed by the Secret Committee and M.M. Speransky. In foreign policy, he maneuvered between Great Britain and France. In 1805-07 he participated in the anti-French coalitions. In 180712 he temporarily became close to France. He fought successful wars with Turkey (1806-12) and Sweden (1808-09). Under Alexander I, the territories of Eastern Georgia (1801), Finland (1809), Bessarabia (1812), Azerbaijan (1813), and the former Duchy of Warsaw (1815) were annexed to Russia. After the Patriotic War of 1812, he headed the anti-French coalition of European powers in 1813-14. He was one of the leaders of the Congress of Vienna 1814-15 and organizers of the Holy Alliance. In the last years of his life, he often spoke of his intention to abdicate and retire from the world, which, after his unexpected death from typhoid fever in Taganrog, gave rise to the legend of Elder Fyodor Kuzmich. According to this legend, in Taganrog, it was not Alexander who died and was then buried, but his double, while the tsar lived for a long time as an old hermit in Siberia and died in 1864.

Foreign policy and their friendship

Russia and France were tied by a common destiny, which determined much not only in their lives. The two empires turned out to be both parallel to each other and very different. Historians talk about this in long phrases. Art clearly shows this without words. The cultural affinity forged by the Age of Enlightenment was not only stronger than political animosity. It included this enmity (and its version of a touching union) within itself, made it a concrete version of cultural history, more durable and important for posterity than political history. Monuments tell us about the same situation of love and hate that politicians felt and are feeling.

In the west, Russia was actively involved in European affairs. In the first decade and a half of the XIX century. implementation of the western direction was associated with the fight against the aggression of Napoleon. After 1815, the main task of Russian foreign policy in Europe was to maintain the old monarchical regimes and fight the revolutionary movement. Alexander I and Nicholas I were guided by the most conservative forces and most often relied on alliances with Austria and Prussia. In 1848, Nicholas helped the Austrian emperor suppress the revolution that broke out in Hungary and stifled revolutionary uprisings in the Danube principalities.

At the very beginning of the 19th century. Russia adhered to neutrality in European affairs. However, the aggressive plans of Napoleon, from 1804 the French emperor, forced Alexander I to oppose him. In 1805, the third coalition was formed against France: Russia, Austria and England. The outbreak of the war turned out to be extremely unsuccessful for the Allies. In November 1805, their troops were defeated at Austerlipem. Austria withdrew from the war, the coalition collapsed.