In Russian there are 6 basic vowel sounds:
A

They are indicated on the letter by 10 letters:
A I O Y E E U Y U Y I

The use of vowels in the composition of a word has some features in Russian:
The vowel [s] at the beginning of words, as a rule, does not appear; initial [s] is possible in rare borrowed proper nouns.
The sound [s] is used only after solid consonants.
The sound [and] is used only after soft consonants.

The spelling of the letter and after zh, sh, ts (these sounds are always solid) is not determined by pronunciation: letter combinations zhi, shi, qi are pronounced as [zhy], [shy], [tsy].

The vowel [s] is pronounced in place of the letter and also at the beginning of the word after the preposition on a solid consonant (the preposition does not have its own stress and is adjacent to the next word).

The vowel [e] is used in most cases after soft consonants.

But there are digressions here. The sound [e] is combined with hard consonants:
after [w], [w], [c];
in some foreign words;
in some compound words.

A characteristic feature of Russian pronunciation is the different sound of vowels under stress and without stress.

The vowel in the stressed position is in a strong position, that is, it is pronounced most clearly and with the greatest force. A vowel in an unstressed position is in a weak position, that is, it is pronounced with less force and less distinctly.

In an unstressed position (in a weak position), all vowel sounds are pronounced with less force, but some of them retain their qualitative characteristics, while others do not:

The vowels [i], [s], [y] (letters and, s, y, y) do not change the sound quality in an unstressed position;

The exception is the sound [and]: at the beginning of a word, if in the flow of speech the word merges with the previous word ending in a solid consonant, [s] sounds in place;

Classification of vowels

Vowels are tone sounds. Their formation involves a musical tone voice. Noise is not taken into account. The difference in vowels is determined by the different ways of the organs of speech.

In SRY there are 6 vowels [a] [o] [e] [y] [s] [and].

By place of education

The difference between vowels that cause the tongue to move in a horizontal direction is taken into account:

Front vowels - when articulating, the tongue is strongly advanced forward [and] [e]

Middle vowels - the tongue is slightly pushed back [s] [a]

Back vowels [y] [o]

According to the degree of elevation of the tongue vertically relative to the palate

High vowels [and] [s] [y]

Medium vowels [e] [o]

Low vowels [a]

High vowels will be closed or narrow compared to middle vowels, while low vowels will be open or wide. The middle vowels are closed compared to the lower ones, and open compared to the upper ones.

By participation or non-participation of lips

The presence or absence of lavalization - stretching or rounding of the lips.
lavialized [y] [o]
non-lavalized (all others)

The division into 3 rows and the rise does not reflect the full wealth of the SRY. In unstressed syllables ch. pronounced with varying degrees reduction - change, reduction of vowel sounds in an unstressed position. Unstressed vowels are less pronounced. Some vowels are not distinguished.

A feature of the phonetic (sound) system of the Russian language is the heterogeneous pronunciation of stressed and unstressed vowels. They differ in duration: stressed vowels are almost always longer than unstressed ones. Vowels in an unstressed position undergo quantitative reduction (that is, they are pronounced shorter). Vowels also differ in "quality", in the nature of the sound: stressed vowels are pronounced clearly, distinctly; in an unstressed position, some vowels undergo a qualitative reduction, sound less full and clear. The qualitative reduction of unstressed vowels depends on the place that an unstressed vowel occupies in a word in relation to the stressed syllable (closer or further).

Also for your attention exercises

Russian language today in the middle(grades 5-9) there are three official alternative educational complexes that are certified by the Ministry of Education, recommended by him and sent to school libraries.

Complex 1 is an educational complex (authors: M. T. Baranov, T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, L. T. Grigoryan and others for grades 5-7 and S. G. Barkhudarov, S. E. Kryuchkov, L. Yu Maksimov, L. A. Cheshko for grades 8 and 9), reprinted more than 20 times by 2000; to date, this complex continues to be the most common.

Complex 2 is an educational complex edited by V. V. Babaitseva, which appeared in the early 90s.

Complex 3, edited by M. M. Razumovskaya and P. A. Lekant, began to appear in 1995.

These complexes have no conceptual differences: the material is structured by levels from phonetics to syntax and is “diluted” with spelling, punctuation and speech development. However, some discrepancies in theory (the transcription system, the status of formative suffixes, the system of parts of speech, description of phrases and types subordinate clauses), terminology and the order of the sections create tangible difficulties both for the student (especially when moving from school to school), and for the formation of a program for entering a philological university.

It is also necessary to keep in mind the possibility of teaching in a number of schools according to alternative and experimental curricula, which represent a significantly modified course of the Russian language. Unfortunately, recently a large amount of educational literature of extremely dubious quality has appeared.

A feature of this stage of development high school is that after a long break the Russian language in high school introduced as a compulsory subject.

Existing programs and manuals designed for learning the Russian language in grades 10-11 can be divided into several groups: practical significance Russian as subject(spelling and punctuation or speech), and programs in which the main emphasis is on strengthening the theoretical base, its systematization (for the humanitarian or - already - philological profile).

There are programs and benefits for each of these types. Handbooks with a practical spelling and punctuation focus include, for example, “A Handbook for Russian Language Classes in Senior Secondary Schools” by V. F. Grekov, S. E. Kryuchkov, L. A. Cheshko, which has already gone through about 40 reprints. The manuals of D. E. Rosenthal “Russian language. 10-11 grades. Benefit for general education educational institutions”, “Russian language for high school students and university applicants”, “Russian language. A collection of exercises for high school students and those entering universities.

The second group includes programs and manuals with enhanced speech orientation. This is the program of A. I. Vlasenkov “Russian language. 10-11 grades”, provided with a manual for students “Russian language: Grammar. Text. Speech styles” by A. I. Vlasenkov and L. M. Rybchenkova (published since 1996).

The third group should include programs and manuals with a strong theoretical orientation. The main user of these programs is the future philologist, who, due to the variety of programs and textbooks for secondary schools, often receives conflicting information about the language. The future philologist needs a systematizing course that can become an intermediate link in a single chain of "school - university" and ensure the continuity and succession of the teaching of the Russian language. Especially for senior classes of gymnasiums, lyceums of a humanitarian profile at the philological faculty of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov, a program was created for a systematizing course of the Russian language, repeating, generalizing and deepening students' knowledge of the theory of language, forming the skills and abilities of students to work with language material of different levels of complexity. The program is provided with a textbook "Russian language: A textbook for in-depth study in high school" in 2 volumes, authors V. A. Bagryantseva, E. M. Bolycheva, I. V. Galaktionova, L. A. Zhdanova, E. I. Litnevskaya (M., 2000).

In addition, in high school, the Russian language course is often replaced by a course in stylistics, rhetoric or literature.

Such a variety of textbooks and teaching aids on the Russian language sharply raises the question of the need for repetitive and generalizing materials on the Russian language. The proposed materials systematize and generalize information about the Russian language as a language system, presented in the three main educational complexes, if necessary, commenting on the differences between them. Spelling and punctuation are included in the proposed materials only in a theoretically generalized form, specific spelling and punctuation rules are not considered.

Linguistics as a science. The main sections of the science of language

Linguistic science is represented in school studies by the following sections that study the modern Russian literary language:

phonetics,

Lexicology (in school course traditionally called vocabulary and including material on lexicology and phraseology),

Morphemics and word formation (called in different complexes depending on their specificity or morphemics, or word formation),

morphology,

Syntax.

Sections such as graphics and spelling are usually not studied independently, but are combined with other sections. So, graphics are traditionally studied together with phonetics, spelling - throughout the study of phonetics, word formation and morphology.

Lexicography as an independent section is not studied; information about dictionaries is presented in the main sections.

Stylistics is studied during lessons on the development of speech.

Punctuation is taught in conjunction with the syntax section.

Sections of linguistics describe the language from different angles, that is, they have their own object of study:

phonetics - sounding speech,

morphemic - the composition of the word,

word formation - the production of a word,

lexicology - the vocabulary of the language,

morphology - words as parts of speech,

syntax - phrases and sentences.

Morphology and syntax make up grammar.

Modern Russian literary language

The object of study of all sections of the science of the Russian language at school is the modern Russian literary language.

modern is the language that we understand without a dictionary and that we use in communication. These two aspects of language use are not the same.

It is generally accepted that without a “translator” (dictionary, reference book, commentator) we understand the language starting from the works of A. S. Pushkin, however, modern man will not use many expressions used by the great poet and other writers and thinkers of the 19th and early 20th centuries and some will not understand; in addition, we read the texts of the 19th century in modern orthography, and not in the one that was in force at the time of their writing. Nevertheless, most of the sentences from the work of Russian classical literature of that time correspond to the norms of the modern Russian language and can be used as illustrative material.

If we understand the term "modern language" as a language that we understand and use, then the language should be recognized as modern since the second half of the 20th century. But also in this historical period Significant changes have taken place in the language, especially in its vocabulary: many neologisms have appeared, many words have moved into the passive vocabulary (see the section on lexicology).

Thus, the term "modern language" is understood in two meanings:

1) the language we understand without a dictionary is the language from Pushkin;

2) the language we use is the language from the middle of the 20th century.

Russian language is the language of the Russian people and the Russian nation. It belongs to the group of East Slavic languages ​​and stood out in the XIV - XV centuries, along with Ukrainian and Belarusian language from a common ancestor language - Old Russian (East Slavonic) language.

Literary language - the language of culture and the language of communication of cultured people. The signs of a literary language are its normalization (the presence of a language norm) and codification.

Literary norm - a set of rules for the choice and use of language means in a given society in a given era. It serves for uniformity in the use of linguistic means (the same and therefore understandable to all pronunciation, spelling and word usage), filters the flow of borrowings, jargon, dialectisms; restrains excessively fast development literary language to ensure the continuity of speech culture.

Codification - fixing the language norm in written and oral sources (dictionaries, reference books, textbooks, speech of cultured people).

The literary language is part of the national language, which also includes dialects, professional vocabulary, jargon, and urban vernacular.

Phonetics. Orthoepy. Graphics and spelling

Phonetics - a branch of linguistics that studies the sound structure of a language.

Orthoepy - the science of pronunciation.

Graphic arts - branch of linguistics that studies the principles of reflection sounding speech in writing, as well as the principles themselves.

Spelling- a section of linguistics that studies the system of spelling rules for morphemes in words of different parts of speech that are not regulated by the rules of graphics, as well as the spelling rules themselves.

sound and letter

Sound- This is the smallest, indivisible unit of sounding speech. Letter- a graphic sign for designating sound in a letter, that is, a drawing. Sounds are pronounced and heard, letters are written and perceived by sight. There are sounds in any language, regardless of whether it has a written language or not; sounding speech is primary in relation to speech written down in letters; in phonographic languages, letters represent sounding speech (in contrast to languages ​​with hieroglyphic writing, where meanings, not sounds, are displayed).

Unlike other language units (morphemes, words, phrases, sentences), the sound itself doesn't matter. The function of sounds is reduced to shaping and distinguishing morphemes and words ( small - they say - washed).

There are 33 letters in the Russian alphabet: : Ah- "A", bb- "be", Vv- "ve", Gg- "ge", dd- "de", Her- "e", Her- "yo", Learn- "zhe", Zz- "ze", ii- "And", yy- "y", Kk- "ka", Ll- "el", Mm- "um", Hn- "en", Oo- "O", Pp- "pe", RR- "er", ss- "es", Tt- "te", woo- "at", FF- "ef", xx- "ha" ts- "ce", hh- "che", shh- "sha", Shch- "shcha", b- "hard sign" Yy- "s", b- "soft sign" uh- "e", Yuyu- "Yu", Yaya- "I". The Russian alphabet is called Cyrillic, or Cyrillic.

Letters have a lowercase version (the letter in the line does not rise above the rest of the letters) and an uppercase version (the letter differs from the lowercase height). No capitalization for letters b And b, and capital letter S is used only in foreign proper names to convey real pronunciation (at the beginning of Russian words, the sound [ы] does not occur).

10 letters are designed to represent vowel sounds and are conventionally called vowels ( a, y, o, s, uh, i, u, yo, i, e), 21 letters are intended to denote consonants and are conventionally called consonants ( ), b And b do not refer to either vowels or consonants and are called graphic signs.

There are 36 consonant sounds that are clearly distinguished in Russian (for example, before vowels): [b], [b "], [c], [c"], [g], [g "], [d], [ d "], [g], [h], [h "], [th"], [k], [k "], [l], [l"], [m], [m "], [ n], [n "], [n], [n"], [r], [r "], [s], [s"], [t], [t"], [f], [f "], [x], [x"], [c], [h"], [w], [u"] (in the speech of older people in separate words, such as yeast, reins, splashes etc., a long soft consonant [zh "]) can be pronounced). There are more consonant sounds in Russian than consonant letters (36 and 21, respectively). The reason for this is one of the features of Russian graphics - that the softness of paired consonant sounds in Russian it is denoted not by a consonant, but by a vowel ( e, yo, yu, i, and) or b (small[small] - crumpled[m "al], con[con] - horse[kon "]).

Vowels 10: a, y, o, s, i, uh, i, u, yo, u. There are 6 vowels that differ under stress: [a], [y], [o], [s], [i], [e]. Thus, in the Russian language there are more vowels than vowels, which is associated with the peculiarities of the use of letters i, yu, e, yo(iotized) . They perform the following functions:

1) denote 2 sounds ([th "a], [th" y], [th" o], [th "e]) in the position after vowels, separators and at the beginning of a phonetic word: pit[y" ama] , my[may "ah] , hug[aby"ʹat"];

2) denote the vowel and the softness of the previous paired consonant in terms of hardness / softness: chalk[m "ol] - cf .: they say[say] (an exception may be the letter e in borrowed words, not denoting the softness of the preceding consonant - puree[p "urʹe]; since a number of words of this kind borrowed by origin have become common in modern Russian, we can say that the letter e in Russian it ceased to denote the softness of the previous consonant sound, cf .: pos [t "e] l - pas [te] l);

3) letters e, yo, yu after a consonant that is unpaired in hardness / softness, the vowel sound [e], [o], [y] is indicated: six[shesh "t"], silk[silk], parachute[parachute].

Phonetic transcription

To record sounding speech, phonetic transcription is used, which is built on the principle of a one-to-one correspondence between a sound and its graphic symbol.

Transcription is enclosed in square brackets, in words of two or more syllables stress is indicated. If two words are combined with a single stress, they make up one phonetic word, which is written together or with the help of a league: to the garden[fsat], [f sat].

It is not customary to write in transcription capital letters and put punctuation marks (for example, when transcribing sentences).

Words with more than one syllable are stressed.

The softness of a consonant sound is indicated by an apostrophe: sat down[Sal].

The three main educational complexes offer not exactly the same solution for denoting soft unpaired consonants. Complex 1 denotes the softness of all unpaired ones ([h "], [u"], [th "]). Complex 2 at the beginning of the phonetics section does not indicate the softness of unpaired ones ([h], [u], [th]), then in in the theory textbook, softness is indicated for all unpaired soft ones, as in the 1st complex ([h "], [u"], [th"]), and in the practice textbook, the sound [u"] is indicated by the transcription sign [w"], as it is adopted in high school. Complex 3, like complex 1, denotes the softness of all unpaired soft ([h "], [u"],), while the sound [th] is indicated, as is customary in higher education, with [j], with the difference that that in higher education, softness [j] is not indicated, since it is associated not with an additional, but with the main articulation of this sound. To better remember that unpaired [h "], [u"], [th"] are precisely soft, we decide to designate their softness with an apostrophe.

The following are used to write vowel sounds. transcription marks: stressed vowels: [́а], [́о], [́у], [́и], [́ы], [́э], unstressed: [а], [и], [ы], [у]. Transcription does not use iotized vowels i, yu, e, yo.

Complex 3 uses the transcription marks [a], [s], [i], [y], [ie] (“and, prone to e”), [ye] (“s, prone to e”) to denote unstressed vowels. , [b] (“er”), [b] (“er”). Their correct use will be discussed in the section on unstressed vowels.

Formation of vowels and consonants

Sounds are made during exhalation: a stream of air exhaled from the lungs passes through the larynx and oral cavity. If located in the larynx vocal cords tense and close together, then the exhaled air causes them to oscillate, resulting in voice(tone). Tone is required when pronouncing vowels and voiced consonants. If the vocal cords are relaxed, no tone is formed. This position of the organs of speech is inherent in the pronunciation of deaf consonants.

After passing the larynx, the air stream enters the cavities of the pharynx, mouth, and sometimes the nose.

Pronunciation consonants necessarily associated with overcoming an obstacle in the path of the air stream, which is formed by the lower lip or tongue when they approach or close with the upper lip, teeth or palate. Overcoming the barrier created by the organs of speech (slit or bow), the air stream forms noise, which is an obligatory component of a consonant sound: in voiced noise it is combined with a tone, in deaf people it is the only component of a sound.

Pronunciation vowels characterized by the work of the vocal cords and the free passage of the air stream through the oral cavity. Therefore, in the composition of the vowel there is voice and there is no noise. The specific sound of each vowel depends on the volume and shape of the oral cavity - the position of the tongue and lips.

Thus, from the point of view of the ratio of voice and noise in the Russian language, three groups of sounds are presented: vowels consist only of tone (voice), voiced consonants - of noise and voice, deaf consonants - only of noise.

The ratio of tone and noise for voiced consonants is not the same: paired voiced noise has more than tones, unpaired noise has less than tones, therefore deaf and paired voiced in linguistics are called noisy, and unpaired voiced [th "], [l], [l "], [m], [m "], [n], [n"], [p], [p"] - sonorant.

Vowel sounds and vowels Stressed vowels

In Russian, 6 vowel sounds are distinguished under stress: [́а], [́о], [́у], [́i], [́ы], [́э]. These sounds are indicated in writing with 10 vowels: a, y, o, s, i, uh, i, u, yo, u.

The sound [a] can be indicated on the letter with letters A (small[small]) and I (crumpled[m "al]).

The sound [y] is indicated by letters at (storm[bur "a]) and Yu (muesli[m "conventional" and]).

The sound [o] is indicated by letters O (they say[say]) and yo (chalk[m "ol]); according to the established tradition in printed literature, not intended for babies or for teaching reading and writing, instead of a letter yo letter is used e, if it does not interfere with the understanding of the meaning of the word.

The sound [s] is indicated by the letter s (soap[soap]) and And- after and,w And c (live[life "], sew[shut "], circus[circus]).

The sound [and] is indicated by the letter And (Mila[m "ila]).

The sound [e] is indicated by the letter e (measure[m "ʻera] or - after a solid consonant in some borrowings - uh (mayor[mayor]).

Unstressed vowels

In unstressed syllables, vowels are pronounced differently than under stress - more briefly and with less muscular tension of the organs of speech (this process is called reduction in linguistics). In this regard, vowels without stress change their quality and are pronounced differently than stressed ones.

In addition, fewer vowels are distinguished without stress than under stress: vowels that differ under stress in the same morpheme (for example, in the root) in an unstressed position cease to differ, for example: herself And catfish- [herself], fox And forests- [l "isa] (this process is called neutralization).

In Russian, in an unstressed position, 4 vowel sounds are distinguished: [a], [y], [s], [i]. Unstressed [a], [and] and [s] differ in pronunciation from the corresponding percussion ones: they are pronounced not only shorter, but also with a slightly different timbre, which is caused by less muscle tension during their pronunciation and, as a result, the displacement of the organs of speech to a more neutral position (resting position). Therefore, their designation using the same transcription marks as stressed vowels is, to a certain extent, conditional.

The sounds [o] and [e] in Russian are found only under stress. The only exceptions are a few borrowings ( cocoa[cocoa], canoe[kanʹoe]) and some function words, such as union But(cf., for example, the pronunciation of the preposition on and union But: I went to the exhibition, but the exhibition was closed).

The quality of an unstressed vowel depends on the hardness/softness of the preceding consonant.

After solid consonants, sounds [y] are pronounced ( hand[ruќa]), [a] ( milk[small]), [s] ( soap maker[mylavar], stomach[live], turn yellow[zhylt" et "], horses[lashyd "hey"]).

After soft consonants, sounds [y] are pronounced ( be in love[l"ub"́it"]), [and] ( worlds[m "iry], watch[h "issy], lie[l "ijat"]).

As can be seen from the examples given, the same unstressed vowel can be displayed in writing different letters:

[y] - in letters at (empty[empty"]) and Yu (the Bureau[b" uro]),

[a] - letters A (heat[heat]) and O (bed[pas "t" el "]),

[s] - letters s (thinker[thought" itis "silt"]), And (life[zhyz "n"]), A (regret[zhal "́et"] / [zhyl"́et"] - in some words, after solid unpaired [w], [w], [c], pronunciation variability is possible), e (iron[lived" eza]),

[and] - letters And (piston[n "iston]), e (nectar[m "idok]), A (an hour[h "isok]), I (ranks[p "idy]).

What has been said above about the correspondence of unstressed vowels and the letters denoting them can be summarized in a scheme convenient for use in transcription:

After a solid consonant, except for [g], [w], [c]:

at[y] hand[hand

A[A] herself[herself

O[A] catfish[herself

s[s] wash up you[we]t

e[s] test[you] erase

After [w], [w], [c]:

at[y] make noise[make noise

e[s] sixth[sh] stop

O[s] chocolate[shy] colade

O[A] shock[sha] cheat

A[A] balls[sha]ry

A[s] horses lo[shy] dey

s[s] chick[chick

And[s] wide[sh]rocky

After a soft consonant:

Yu[y] be in love[l "y] beat

at[y] wonderful[wonderful

And[And] worlds[m "and] ry

e[And] change[m "and] take

I[And] nickel[p "and] so

A[And] watch[h "and] sy

At the beginning of a phonetic word:

at[y] lesson[lesson

A[A] arba[a]rba

O[A] window[a]no

And[And] a game[a game

uh[And] floor[and] tage

These phonetic laws regulate the pronunciation of unstressed vowels in all unstressed syllables, except for individual borrowings and auxiliary words (see above), as well as the phonetic subsystem of stressed endings and formative suffixes. So, these morphemes represent the pronunciation of the letter reflected in the letter I unstressed [a] after a soft consonant: storm[bur "a], wash yourself[my "s" a], reading[h "itay" a].

Complex 3 describes the unstressed vowel system differently. It says that under stress, vowels are pronounced clearly; sounds [and], [s], [y] are pronounced distinctly and in unstressed syllables. In place of letters O And A in unstressed syllables, a weakened sound [a] is pronounced, which is less distinct (denoted as [a]). In place of letters e And I e pronounced [ye] (w[ye] to lat, sh[ye] to ptat, ts[ye] on). In some unstressed syllables, instead of [a], a short vowel [b] is pronounced, close to [s] (m [b] loko), after soft ones, a short vowel [b] is pronounced, close to [i] ( is reading- [h "itaj" lt]).

It seems that this material requires some commentary.

First, it is necessary to designate the names of these vowels: [ie] (“and, prone to e”), [ye] (“s, prone to e”), [b] (“er”), [b] (“ err").

Secondly, it is necessary to explain when the sounds [a], [ye] and [b] are pronounced, and when [ie] and [b]. Their distinction depends on the position in relation to the stress and to the beginning of the phonetic word. So, in the first stressed syllable(a syllable before a stressed vowel) and in the position of the absolute beginning of a word, an unstressed vowel is longer than in other unstressed syllables (non-first pre-stressed and post-stressed); it is in these positions that the vowels [a], [ye] and [ie] are pronounced.

The sounds [a] and [ye] are found after solid consonants ([ye] - only after [g], [w], [c]) and are indicated in writing by letters A (herself[herself], horses[lyshyed "́эj"]), O (catfish[herself]), e (turn yellow[zhyelt "́et"]).

The sound [ie] occurs after soft consonants and is indicated by letters e (blizzard[m "iet" el"), A (watch[h "ies]), I (row[r "iedʹok]).

The sound [ъ] is pronounced after solid consonants in the non-first pre-stressed and stressed syllables and is indicated by letters A (locomotive[right]), O (milk[mâlaќo]), e (yellowness[zhlt "izn]).

The sound [b] is pronounced after soft consonants in the non-first pre-stressed and stressed syllables and is indicated by letters e (transition[n "rr" ihot]), I (Private[r "davoj"]), A (hourly[h "bsavoj"]).

The pronunciation of unstressed vowels presented in this complex is called “ekany” in linguistics and, representing the so-called “senior” pronunciation norm, is outdated (see also the “Orthoepy” subsection below).

Thus, in unstressed syllables, vowels are pronounced differently than in stressed ones. However, this change in the quality of vowels is not reflected in writing, which is due to the basic principle of Russian orthography: only independent, semantic features of sounds are reflected in writing, and their change, caused by the phonetic position in the word, is not reflected in writing. From this it follows that the unstressed position of the vowel is a spelling signal. From the point of view of spelling rules, unstressed vowels can be divided into three groups: stress-checked, stress-unchecked (dictionary), vowels in roots with alternations.

Consonants and consonants

The formation of a consonant sound is associated with overcoming obstacles in the oral cavity by the air stream created by the tongue, lips, teeth, and palate. When overcoming an obstacle, noise arises - an obligatory component of a consonant sound. In some (voiced) consonants, in addition to noise, there is a voice created by the vibration of the vocal cords.

There are 36 consonants in Russian ([b], [b'], [c], [c'], [g], [g'], [d], [d'], [g], [h] , [s'], [d'], [k], [k'], [l], [l'], [m], [m'], [n], [n'], [n] , [n'], [p], [p'], [s], [s'], [t], [t'], [f], [f'], [x], [x'] , [ts], [h'], [w], [w']) and 21 consonants ( b, c, d, e, f, h, d, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x, c, h, w, u). This quantitative difference is associated with the main feature of Russian graphics - the way in which the hardness and softness of consonants are reflected in writing.

Voiceless and voiced consonants

Voiced and voiceless consonants differ in the participation / non-participation of the voice in the formation of a consonant sound.

voiced are made up of noise and voice. When they are pronounced, the air stream not only overcomes the barrier in the oral cavity, but also vibrates the vocal cords. The following sounds are voiced: [b], [b '], [c], [c '], [g], [g '], [d], [d '], [g], [h], [ h'], [d'], [l], [l'], [m], [m'], [n], [n'], [p], [p']. The sound [w ’] is also voiced, occurring in the speech of individuals in words yeast, reins and some others.

Deaf consonants are pronounced without a voice when the vocal cords remain relaxed, and consist only of noise. The following consonants are deaf: [k], [k '], [p], [p '], [s], [s '], [ t], [t'], [f], [f'], [x], [x'] [c], [h'], [w], [u']. To remember which consonants are deaf, there is a mnemonic rule (rule for remembering): in the phrase " Styopka, do you want a shirt?» - « Fi!»contains all deaf consonants (paired in hardness / softness - only in hard or soft varieties).

According to the presence or absence of a voice, consonants form pairs; sounds in a pair should differ in only one sign, in this case, deafness / sonority. Allocate 11 couples consonants opposed in deafness / voicedness: [b] - [p], [b '] - [p '], [c] - [f], [c '] - [f '], [g] - [k] , [g '] - [k '], [d] - [t], [d '] - [t '], [s] - [s], [s '] - [s '], [g] - [w]. The listed sounds are, respectively, either voiced doubles, or deaf couples.

The remaining consonants are characterized as unpaired. TO voiced unpaired refer [th '], [l], [l '], [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [p], [p '], to deaf unpaired- sounds [x], [x’], [c], [h’], [u’].

If there is a long sound [w ’] in the speech of a native speaker, then it is voiced pair to the consonant [w']; in this case, pairs for deafness / sonority 12.

Positional stun / voicing

In Russian, both voiceless and voiced consonants are found in certain positions. This position is before vowels ( volume[volume] - house[house]) and before consonants [in], [in '], [th'], [l], [l '], [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [r ], [R'] ( mine[mine'] - ringing[ringing] swept away[sm'ila] - crushed[razm'ila], sroy[shut '] - tear apart[break ']). These positions, as rightly noted in Complex 2, are strong in voicelessness / voicelessness.

But the appearance of a deaf or ringing sound may be predetermined by its position in the word. Such deafness / voicedness turns out to be dependent, “forced”, and the positions in which this occurs are considered weak in terms of deafness / voicedness.

Voiced doubles are stunned(or rather, change to deaf)

1) at the absolute end of a word: pond[rod];

2) in front of the deaf: booth[butka].

Deaf paired consonants before voiced ones, except [v], [v'], [d'], [l], [l'], [m], [m'], [n], [n'], [p], [p'], voiced, that is, they change to voiced: threshing[malad'baʹa].

Articulatory likening of sounds is indicated in phonetics by the term assimilation. As a result of assimilation, long consonants may occur, arising from the combination of the same sounds. In transcription, the longitude of a consonant is indicated by an overbar or a colon after the consonant ( bath[vana] or [van:a]). The direction of influence is from the next sound to the previous one (regressive assimilation).

Reflection of deafness / voiced consonants in writing

In writing, using special consonants ( there - ladies) only independent deafness / sonority of consonants is reflected; positional deafness / voicedness (the result of positional stunning / voicing) is not reflected in the letter, like most other positional phonetic changes. The exception is 1) the spelling of prefixes on s / s-: scatter, smash; the reflection of pronunciation is also not carried out here to the end, since only the assimilation by deafness / sonority is reflected, but not by signs associated with the place where the barrier is formed in the consonant: stir up[rashiv’il’it’], 2) spelling of some borrowings: transcription - transcribe.

Hard and soft consonants

Solid And soft consonants differ in articulation features, namely the position of the tongue: when soft consonants are formed, the entire body of the tongue moves forward, and the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate, when hard consonants are formed, the body of the tongue moves back.

Consonants form 15 couples contrasted in hardness / softness: [b] - [b '], [c] - [c '], [g] - [g '], [d] - [d '], [h] - [h '] , [k] - [k '], [l] - [l '], [m] - [m '], [n] - [n '], [n] - [n '], [r] - [p '], [s] - [s '], [t] - [t '], [f] - [f '], [x] - [x '].

TO hard unpaired include consonants [c], [w], [g], and to soft unpaired - consonants [h '], [u '], [y '] (unpaired soft is also the sound [w '], found in some words in the speech of individual native speakers).

The consonants [w] and [w’] (as well as [w] and [w’]) do not form pairs, as they differ not only in hardness / softness, but also in brevity / longitude.

This can be summarized in the following table:

Positional softening of consonants

In Russian, both hard and soft consonants are found in certain positions, and the number of such positions is significant. This position is before vowels ( they say[youth] - chalk[m'ol]), at the end of a word: ( con[con] - horse[con ']), for sounds [l], [l '] regardless of their position: ( shelf[shelf] - polka[floor]) and the sounds [s], [s '], [s], [s '], [t], [t '], [d], [d '], [n], [ n'], [p], [p'] before [k], [k'], [g], [g'], [x], [x'], [b], [b'], [ n], [n'], [m], [m'] ( jar[jar] - bathhouse[jar], blizzard[blizzard] - earring[s'ir'ga). These positions are strong in hardness/softness.

Positional changes regarding hardness / softness can only be caused by the influence of sounds on each other.

Positional easing(the change of a hard consonant to a soft pair) is carried out in modern Russian inconsistently in relation to different groups of consonants.

In the speech of all native speakers of the modern Russian language, only the replacement of [n] with [n '] before [h '] and [u '] consistently takes place: drum[drum'ch'ik], drummer[drummer]

In the speech of many speakers, positional softening also occurs [s] before [n '] and [t '], [h] before [n '] and [d ']: bone[kos't'], song[p'es'n'a], life[zhiz'n '], nails[nails].

In the speech of some speakers (in modern language this is more an exception than a rule) positional softening is possible in some other combinations, for example: door[d'v'er'], eat[s'y'em].

Designation of hardness and softness of consonants in writing

Unlike deafness / voicedness, hardness / softness of paired consonants is indicated not with the help of consonant letters, but by other means.

Softness consonants are denoted as follows.

For consonants paired by hardness / softness, softness is indicated by:

1) letters i, e, e, u, and: small - crumpled, they say - chalk, peer - pen, storm - bureau, soap - sweet(before e in borrowing, the consonant can be hard: puree);

2) soft sign - at the end of the word ( horse), in the middle of the word y [l ’] before any consonant ( polka), after a soft consonant before a hard one ( quite, earlier), and in a soft consonant standing in front of soft [g '], [k '], [b '], [m '], which are the result of a change in the corresponding hard ones ( earrings- cf. earring) - see positions strong in hardness / softness.

In other cases, a soft sign in the middle of a word to indicate the softness of paired consonants is not written ( bridge, song), because positional softness, like the others positional changes sounds are not reflected in the letter.

For unpaired consonants, there is no need for an additional softness designation, so graphic rules are possible " cha, cha write with A».

Hardness paired consonants is indicated by the absence of a soft sign in strong positions ( horse, bank), writing letters after the consonant a, o, u, s, uh (small, they say, mule, soap, peer); in some borrowings, the hard consonant is pronounced before e (phonetics).

The hardness of unpaired hard consonants, as well as unpaired soft ones, does not require additional designation, so there may be a graphic rule for writing zhi And shea, spelling habits about writing And And s after c (circus And Gypsy), O And yo after and And w (rustle And whisper).

Functions and spelling of b and b

solid sign performs a separating function in Russian - indicates that after a consonant, an iotated vowel indicates not the softness of the consonant, but two sounds: I- [y'a], e- [y'e], yo- [y'o], Yu- [y'u] ( hug[aby'at'] , will eat[sy'est] , shooting[sy'omka]).

Functions soft sign more difficult. It has three functions in Russian - dividing, the function of designating the independent softness of paired consonants, and the grammatical function:

1. A soft sign can perform a similar separating function before i, yu, e, yo, and inside a word not after a prefix ( blizzard, nightingale) and in some foreign words before O: (broth, companion).

2. A soft sign can serve to indicate the independent softness of a paired consonant at the end of a word and in the middle of a word before a consonant (see above): horse, bath.

3. A soft sign after a consonant unpaired in hardness / softness can perform a grammatical function - it is written according to tradition in certain grammatical forms, without carrying any phonetic load (cf .: the key is night, studying is learning). At the same time, the soft sign does not indicate softness not only in unpaired hard consonants, but also in unpaired soft consonants.

Positional assimilation of consonants on other grounds. Distinguishing consonants

Consonants can be likened to each other (be subjected to assimilation) not only in terms of deafness / sonority, hardness / softness, but also in other ways - the place of formation of the barrier and its nature. So, consonants are likened, for example, in the following combinations:

[s] + [w] → [sh]: sew[shsht '] = [shsht '],

[s] + [h '] → [u '] or [u 'h ']: with something[sch'emta] or [sch'ch'emta],

[s] + [u’] → [u’]: split[rasch'ip'it'],

[h] + [g] → [lj]: outlive[izhzhyt’] = [izhyt’],

[t] + [s] → [tsts] or [tss]: wash[muscle] = [muscle], sprinkle[atssypat’],

[t] + [ts] → [ts]: unhook[atsyp'ʹit '] = [atsyp'ʹit '],

[t] + [h’] → [h’h’]: report[ach’h’ot] = [ach’ot],

[t] + [u’] → [h’u’]: split off[ach'sch'ip'it'].

Several signs of consonants can be subjected to positional change at once. For example, in the word count[pach'shch'ot] there is an alternation [d] + [w'] → [h'sh'], i.e., similarity is presented in terms of deafness, softness and signs of the place and nature of the obstacle.

In separate words, a process is presented that is the opposite of assimilation - dissimilation (dissimilation). Yes, in words easy And soft instead of the expected assimilation due to deafness and the formation of a long consonant ([g] + k’] → [k’k’]), the combination [k’k’] → [h’k’] is presented ( easy[loh'k'y'], soft[mah'k'y ']), where the dissimilarity of sounds according to the nature of the barrier is noted (when pronouncing the sound [k'], the organs of speech close, and when pronouncing [x '] they come closer). At the same time, dissimilation by this trait is combined with assimilation by deafness and softness.

Simplifying consonant clusters (silent consonant)

In some combinations, when three consonants are combined, one, usually the middle one, drops out (the so-called unpronounceable consonant). The fall-out of a consonant is presented in the following combinations:

stl- [sl]: happy happy [lucky]

stn- [sn]: local me[sn] th,

zdn- [sn]: late by [z'n '] y,

zdc- [sc]: by the bridle under u[sc]s,

ndsh- [nsh]: landscape la[nsh]aft,

ntg- [ng]: x-ray re[ng']en,

NDC- [nc]: Dutch golla[nc]s,

RDC- [rc]: heart se [rc] e,

rdch- [rh ']: heart se [rch '] ishko,

lnts- [nc]: Sun so[nc] e.

The sound [th ’] between vowels is also not pronounced if it is followed by a vowel [and]: my[maivo].

Qualitative and quantitative relationships between letters and sounds in Russian

Ambiguous qualitative and quantitative relationships are established between letters and sounds in the Russian language.

The same letter can represent various sounds, for example, a letter A can represent sounds [a] ( small[small]), [and] ( watch[h’isy]), [s] ( regret[zhyl'et']), which is associated with a change in the pronunciation of vowels in unstressed syllables; letter With can represent sounds [s] ( garden[sat]), [s’] ( guest[gos't ']), [h] ( pass[hdat ']), [h '] ( do[z'd'elat']), [zh] ( squeeze[buzz ’]), [w] ( embroider[rashshyt ']), [u '] ( split[rasch'sch'ip'it']), which is associated with the likening of consonants according to various criteria.

And vice versa: the same sound can be indicated in writing by different letters, for example: the sound [and] can be indicated by letters And (world[world]), A (watch[h’isy]), I (ranks[r'ids]), e (pevun[p'ivun]).

If we consider the word from the point of view of those quantitative relationships that are established between letters and sounds, then we can identify the following possible relationships:

1. One letter can represent one sound: the seam[shof]; this relationship takes place when the vowel comes after an unpaired consonant in terms of hardness / softness and the vowel denotes only the quality of the vowel sound: for example, the letter O in a word table[table] cannot be an illustration of this unambiguous relationship, since in this case it denotes not only the sound [o], but also the hardness of the consonant [t].

2. One letter can mean two sounds: pit[y'ama] (letters i, yu, e, yo at the beginning of a word, after vowels and separators).

3. The letter may not have a sound value: local[m'esny'] (unpronounceable consonant) , mouse[mouse] (soft sign in the grammatical function after consonants unpaired in hardness / softness).

4. One letter can indicate a sign of sound: horse[kon'] , bathhouse[ban'ka] (soft sign in the function of denoting the softness of a double consonant at the end and middle of a word).

5. One letter can denote a sound and a sign of another sound: crumpled[m'al] (letter I denotes the sound [a] and the softness of the consonant [m ']).

6. Two letters can represent one sound: washes[moitsa] rushed[n'os'a].

It may seem that three letters can also represent one sound: wash[muscle], but this is not so: the sound [ts] is indicated by letters T And With, A b performs a grammatical function - indicates the form of the infinitive ..

phonetic syllable- a vowel or a combination of a vowel with one or more consonants, pronounced with one expiratory push. There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels in it; two vowels cannot be within the same syllable.

Syllables are stressed and unstressed.

Most Russian syllables end in a vowel, i.e. they are open: milk[ma-la-jo]. So, in the sequence SGSGSG (where C is a consonant, G is a vowel), only one variant of the syllable division is possible: SG-SG-SG.

However, in Russian there are also syllables ending in a consonant (closed). Closed syllables meet:

1) at the end of a phonetic word: railway carriage[railway carriage],

2) in the middle of a word when two or more consonants collide, if

a) after [th "] any other consonant follows: war[wai "-na],

b) after the rest of the unpaired voiced ones ([l], [l "], [m], [m"], [n], [n"], [p], [p"]), a paired consonant follows in deafness / voicedness : lamp[lamp].

In other cases of consonant confluence, the syllabic boundary passes before the group of consonants: booth[bu-tka], spring[in "i-sna].

The phonetic syllable must be distinguished from syllable to transfer. Although in a large number of cases the transfer is carried out at the place of the syllable division ( mo-lo-ko, lamp-pa), but in some cases the syllable for transfer and the phonetic syllable may not coincide.

First, the transfer rules do not allow one vowel to be transferred or left on a line, but the sounds it denotes can form a phonetic syllable; for example, the word pit cannot be transferred, but must be divided into phonetic syllables [y "́a-ma].

Secondly, according to the rules of transfer, identical consonants should be separated: van-na, cash-sa; the boundary of the phonetic syllable passes in front of these consonants, and at the place of the confluence of identical consonants, we actually pronounce one long consonant sound: bath[va-na], cash register[ќa-sa].

Thirdly, when transferring, morpheme boundaries in a word are taken into account: it is not recommended to tear off one letter from a morpheme, so you should transfer smash, forest-noy, but the boundaries of phonetic syllables are different: smash[ra-zb "́it"], forest[l "and-snoy"].

stress

stress- this is the pronunciation of one of the syllables in the word (or rather, the vowel in it) with greater force and duration. Thus, phonetically Russian accent power And quantitative(in other languages, other types of stress are presented: power (English), quantitative (Modern Greek), tonic (Vietnamese).

Other distinguishing features of Russian stress are its heterogeneity and mobility.

Diversity Russian stress is that it can fall on any syllable in a word, in contrast to languages ​​with a fixed place of stress (for example, French or Polish): tree, road, young.

Mobility stress lies in the fact that in the forms of one word, the stress can move from the stem to the ending: legs - legs.

Compound words (i.e., words with multiple roots) can have multiple stresses: instrument and aircraft manufacturing, but many Difficult words do not have collateral stress: steamer[parachot].

Stress in Russian can perform the following functions:

1) organizing - a group of syllables with a single stress makes up a phonetic word, the boundaries of which do not always coincide with the boundaries of a lexical word and can combine independent words together with auxiliary ones: into the fields[fpal" ʻa], he[ʹonta];

2) semantic - stress can distinguish

A) different words, which is connected with the diversity of Russian stress: flour - muќa, castle - castle,

b) the forms of one word, which is associated with the heterogeneity and mobility of Russian stress: lands - lands.

Orthoepy

The term "orthoepy" is used in linguistics in two meanings:

1) a set of norms of the literary language associated with sound design significant units: norms of pronunciation of sounds in different positions, norms of stress and intonation;

2) the science that studies variation pronunciation norms literary language and develops pronunciation recommendations (orthoepic rules).

The differences between these definitions are as follows: in the second understanding, those pronunciation norms that are associated with the operation of phonetic laws are excluded from the field of orthoepy: a change in the pronunciation of vowels in unstressed syllables (reduction), positional stunning / voicing of consonants, etc. Only such pronunciation norms that allow variability in literary language, for example, the possibility of pronunciation after hissing both [a] and [s] ([heat], but [zhysm" ́in]).

Educational complexes define orthoepy as the science of pronunciation, that is, in the first sense. Thus, according to these complexes, all the pronunciation norms of the Russian language belong to the sphere of orthoepy: the implementation of vowels in unstressed syllables, the stunning / voicing of consonants in certain positions, the softness of a consonant before a consonant, etc. These pronunciation norms were described by us above.

Of the norms that allow variability of pronunciation in the same position, it is necessary to note the following norms, updated in the school course of the Russian language:

1) the pronunciation of a hard and soft consonant before e in borrowed words

2) pronunciation in individual words of combinations thu And ch like [pcs] and [shn],

3) pronunciation of sounds [zh] and [zh "] in place of combinations zhzh, zhzh, zhzh,

4) variability of positional softening of consonants in separate groups,

5) variability of stress in individual words and word forms.

It is these pronunciation norms associated with the pronunciation of individual words and forms of words that are the object of description in orthoepic dictionaries.

Let's give brief description these pronunciations.

Pronunciation of hard and soft consonant before e in loanwords is regulated separately for each word of this type. So, you should pronounce k[r"]em, [t"]ermin, mu[z"]ey, shi[n"]el, but fo[ne]tika, [te]nnis, sw[te]r; in a number of words, a variable pronunciation is possible, for example: prog [r] ess and prog [r "] ess.

Pronunciation in single word combinations thu And ch like [pcs] and [sn] is also given by the list. So, with [pcs] words are pronounced what to, with [shn] - words of course boring, in a number of words, a variable pronunciation is acceptable, for example, two [h "n"] ik and two [shn"] ik, bulo [h "n] th and bulo [shn] th.

As already mentioned, in the speech of some people, mainly the older generation, there is a long soft consonant sound [zh "], which is pronounced in separate words in place of letter combinations zhzh, zhzh, zhd: yeast, reins, ride, rain: [shiver "and], [vozh" and], [y "ezh" y], [dazh" ́i]. In the speech of people of the younger generation at the place of combinations LJ And zzh the sound [zh] = [zhzh] ([yeast], [y "zhu]) can be pronounced, at the place of the combination railway in a word rains- [wait"] (thus, when stunned in a word rain we have pronunciation options [dosch"] and [dosht"]).

The variability of positional softening in separate groups of consonants has already been discussed in the description of cases of positional softening. Mandatory positional softening in different groups of words is not the same. In the speech of all native speakers of the modern Russian language, as already mentioned, only the replacement of [n] with [n"] before [h"] and [u"] consistently takes place: drum[drum "h" ik], drummer[drummer]. In other groups of consonants, softening or does not occur at all (for example, shops[lafk "and]), or it is presented in the speech of some native speakers and is absent in the speech of others. At the same time, the representation of positional softening in different groups of consonants is different. So, in the speech of many speakers, positional softening occurs [s] before [n "] and [t "], [h] before [n"] and [d"]: bone[kos "t"], song[p "es" n "a], life[zhiz "n"], nails[gvoz "d" and], softening the first consonant in the combinations [sv"], [dv"], [sv"], [zl"], [sl"], [sy"] and some others is rather an exception than rule (for example: door[dv"er"] and [d"v"er"], eat[ss"em] and [s"th"em], If[th "esl" and] and [th" es "l" and]).

Since Russian stress is diverse and mobile, and because of this, its setting cannot be regulated by the same rules for all words, the placement of stress in words and word forms is also regulated by the rules of orthoepy. "Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language", ed. R. I. Avanesova describes the pronunciation and stress of more than 60 thousand words, and due to the mobility of Russian stress, all forms of this word are often included in the dictionary entry. So, for example, the word call in the forms of the present tense, it has an accent on the ending: calling, calling. Some words have variable stresses in all their forms, for example cottage cheese And cottage cheese. Other words may have variable accents in some of their forms, for example: weaving And tula, braid And ќosu.

Differences in pronunciation can be caused by a change in the orthoepic norm. So, in linguistics it is customary to distinguish between "older" and "younger" orthoepic norm: the new pronunciation gradually replaces the old one, but at some stage they coexist, though mainly in the speech of different people. It is with the coexistence of the "senior" and "junior" norms that the variability of the positional softening of consonants is associated.

This is also related to the difference in the pronunciation of unstressed vowels, which is reflected in educational complexes. The system for describing the change (reduction) of vowels in unstressed syllables in complexes 1 and 2 reflects the “junior” norm: in the unstressed position, the pronunciation coincides in sound [and] after soft consonants, all vowels that differ under stress, except for [y]: worlds[m "iry], village[with "ilo], five[p "it" ʻorca]. IN unstressed syllable after hard hissing [w], [w] and after [c], an unstressed vowel [s] is pronounced, reflected in the letter by the letter e(w[s] to lay, sh[s] to fetch, ts[s] on).

Complex 3 reflects the “older” norm: It says that the sounds [and], [s], [y] are pronounced clearly not only in stressed, but also in unstressed syllables: m[i] ry. In place of letters e And I in unstressed syllables, after soft consonants, [ie] is pronounced, that is, the sound between [i] and [e] (p [ie] grater, s [ie] lo). After hard hissing [w], [w] and after [c] in place e pronounced [ye] (w[ye] to lat, sh[ye] to ptat, ts[ye] on).

The variability of pronunciation can be associated not only with the dynamic process of changing pronunciation norms, but also with social significant factors. So, pronunciation can distinguish between the literary and professional use of the word ( compass And compass), neutral style and colloquial speech ( thousand[tys "ich" a] and [tysch" a]), neutral and high style ( poet[paet] and [poet]).

Complex 3 proposes to produce in addition to the phonetic (see below) orthoepic analysis, which should be produced "when a word is possible or has an error in pronunciation or stress." For example, more beautiful- the stress is always on the second syllable; horse[shn] o. Orthoepic analysis in addition to phonetic analysis is necessary when variability in the pronunciation of a given sound sequence is possible in a language or when the pronunciation of a word is associated with frequent errors (for example, in stress).

Graphic arts. Spelling

Graphic arts is defined in all three complexes as a science that studies the designation of sounding speech in writing.

Russian graphics have specific features regarding the designation of the softness of consonants in writing, the designation of the sound [th "] and the use of graphic signs (see above). Graphics establish spelling rules for all words, determine how units of the language are transmitted in all words and parts of words ( as opposed to spelling rules, which establish the spelling of specific classes of words and their parts).

Spelling- a branch of linguistics that studies the system of rules for the uniform spelling of words and their forms, as well as these rules themselves. The central concept of orthography is spelling.

A spelling is a spelling regulated by a spelling rule or set in dictionary order, i.e., the spelling of a word that is selected from a number of graphics that are possible from the point of view of the laws.

The spelling is made up of several sections:

1) writing significant parts of the word (morphemes) - roots, prefixes, suffixes, endings, that is, lettering sound composition words where it is not defined by graphics;

2) continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings;

3) the use of uppercase and lowercase letters;

4) transfer rules;

5) rules for graphic abbreviations of words.

Let us briefly describe these sections.

Writing morphemes (meaningful parts of a word)

The spelling of morphemes is regulated in Russian by three principles - phonemic, traditional, phonetic.

Phonemic the principle is leading and regulates more than 90% of all spellings. Its essence lies in the fact that phonetically positional changes are not reflected in the letter - reduction of vowels, stunning, voicing, softening of consonants. At the same time, vowels are written as if under stress, and consonants - as in a strong position, for example, positions before a vowel. In different sources, this basic principle may have a different name - phonemic, morphematic, morphological.

Traditional the principle governs the spelling of unchecked vowels and consonants ( dog, pharmacy), roots with alternations ( put together - add up), differentiating spellings ( burn - burn).

Phonetic the principle of spelling is that in separate groups of morphemes, the writing can reflect the actual pronunciation, i.e., positional changes in sounds. In Russian orthography, this principle is implemented in three spelling rules - the spelling of prefixes ending in s/s (break - drink), the spelling of the vowel in the prefix roses / times / grew / races (schedule - painting) and the spelling of roots starting with And, after prefixes ending in a consonant ( history - backstory).

Continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling

Merged, separate and hyphenation regulated by the traditional principle, taking into account the morphological independence of units. Individual words are mostly written separately, except for negative and indefinite pronouns with prepositions ( with no one) and some adverbs ( hugging), parts of words - together or through a hyphen (cf .: in my opinion And In my).

Use of uppercase and lowercase letters

The use of uppercase and lowercase letters is regulated by the lexico-syntactic rule: proper names and appellations are written with a capital letter ( Moscow State University, Moscow State University ), as well as the first word at the beginning of each sentence. The rest of the words are capitalized.

Transfer Rules

The rules for transferring words from one line to another are based on the following rules: when transferring, first of all, the syllabic articulation of the word is taken into account, and then its morphemic structure: war, smash, but not * war, *smash. One letter of the word is not transferred or left on the line. Identical consonants in the root of the word are separated when transferred: cash register.

Rules for graphic word abbreviations

The abbreviation of words in writing is also based on the following rules:

1) only the whole, undivided part of the word can be omitted ( lit-ra - literature, higher education - higher education);

2) when abbreviating a word, at least two letters are omitted;

3) it is impossible to shorten a word by throwing out its initial part;

4) the abbreviation must not fall on a vowel or letters y, y, y.

You can get information about the correct spelling of a word from spelling dictionaries of the Russian language.

Phonetic parsing

1. Phonetic parsing of a word is carried out according to the following scheme:

2. Transcribe the word, putting the stress.

3. On the transcription, hyphens (or vertical lines) indicate the syllable section.

4. Determine the number of syllables, indicate stress.

5. Show what sound each letter corresponds to. Determine the number of letters and sounds.

6. Write out the letters of the word in a column, sounds next to them, indicate their correspondence.

7. Indicate the number of letters and sounds.

Describe sounds according to the following parameters:

vowel: stressed / unstressed;

· consonant: deaf / voiced with indication of pairing, hard / soft with indication of pairing.

Sample phonetic parsing:

his [th "and-vo] 2 syllables, second stressed

[th "] consonant, voiced unpaired, soft unpaired

e - [and] vowel, unstressed

g - [c] consonant, voiced double, solid double

o - [́o] vowel, stressed

IN phonetic analysis show the correspondence of letters and sounds, connecting letters with the sounds they designate (with the exception of the designation of hardness / softness of a consonant with a subsequent vowel). Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to the letters denoting two sounds, and to the sounds indicated by two letters. Particular attention must be paid soft sign, which in some cases denotes the softness of the preceding paired consonant (and in this case, it, like the consonant preceding it, is combined with a consonant sound), and in other cases does not carry a phonetic load, performing a grammatical function (in this case, next to it in transcription brackets put a dash), for example:

Please note that for consonants, pairing is indicated separately on the basis of deafness / sonority and on the basis of hardness / softness, since not only absolutely unpaired consonants are presented in Russian ([y "], [ts], [h"], [ u "]), but also consonants, unpaired in only one of these signs, for example: [l] - voiced unpaired, hard paired, [g] - voiced paired, hard unpaired.

PHONOLOGY.

§ 10. The concept of a phoneme as a unit of language. phoneme and sound. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

§ 11. The system of vowel phonemes. Strong and weak positions of vowel phonemes.

§ 12. The system of consonant phonemes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

§ 13. Strong and weak positions of consonant phonemes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

GRAPHIC ARTS

§ 14. The subject of graphics as a scientific discipline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

§ 15. Characteristics of the Russian alphabet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

§ 16. The syllabic principle of Russian graphics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

II. BRIEF DICTIONARY OF TERMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

III. PRACTICAL LESSONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

IV. TASKS FOR INDEPENDENT WORK. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

V. CONTROL WORKS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Test#1 on Phonetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Examination No. 2 on the topics “Phonetics. Phonology. Graphic arts." . . . . .

VI. TESTS ON THE TOPICS “PHONETS. PHONOLOGY. GRAPHIC ARTS"

VII. SCHEMES AND SAMPLES OF THE ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE UNITS. . . . . . .

VIII. QUESTIONS FOR THE EXAM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

IX. LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I. THEORETICAL INFORMATION ON THE MAIN SECTIONS OF THE PROGRAM

PHONETICS

The concept of phonetic transcription

Phonetic transcription called special system speech recordings. This transcription is done in square brackets. One character in transcription always denotes the same sound (i.e., the same character is always used to denote one sound). There are several basic transcription rules.

1. The transcription uses signs resembling the vowels of the Russian alphabet, except i, yo, yu. Sign e denotes the sound [e] of the front row, the sign uh- the sound [e] of the front-middle row.

2. Signs b And b are used to denote reduced vowels of the 2nd degree of reduction: [b] - reduced middle row of the middle rise, non-labialized, [b] - reduced front row of the upper-middle rise, non-labialized.

3. A reduced sound close to [a] is denoted in transcription by the sign [Λ]. The reduced sound, the middle one between [i] and [e] (or “[i] with an overtone [e]”), is indicated in the transcription [and e]. The sound intermediate between [s] and [e] (or “[s] with an overtone [e]”) is indicated in the transcription [s e].

4. A dot above the vowel of the non-front row indicates the advancement of the stressed vowel forward under the influence of neighboring soft consonants, for example: [lʹ˙n '], [l'˙on], [l'˙у́˙d' And].

5. The sign ^ above the front vowel indicates tension, closeness of the stressed vowel, which appears under the influence of soft consonants:.

6. A line under a vowel indicates a quantitative reduction of an unstressed high vowel, for example: [ s].

7. The transcription uses signs resembling the consonants of the Russian alphabet, except for u. The sound denoted by it in transcription is transmitted by the sign [w':], for example: [w': and]. To designate a middle language sonorant consonant, the sign of the Latin alphabet [j] or [й] is used. To indicate a voiced fricative back-lingual consonant, often used in words of church subjects, the sign of the Greek alphabet [γ] is used, for example: [bóγъ radʹ˙d’ And].

8. The softness of a consonant is indicated by the apostrophe sign, for example: [d ']. The absence of an apostrophe indicates the hardness of the consonant sound, for example: [d].

9. The longitude of a consonant sound is indicated either by a bar above the sound [ka´sъ], or by a colon after the sound, for example: [ka´s:ъ].

10. A sign under a sonorant consonant indicates the deafening of a sonorant sound, for example: [wet ^].

11. An arc over a combination of consonants means their continuous pronunciation: [no˙d’zh’-b s]

12. A dash "-" means that two (or more) lexical words are one phonetic ( unstressed words in pronunciation are adjacent to the shock), for example: [ at-house] [to-us-l' And]

13. The transcription does not use capital letters and there are no punctuation marks.

14. The sign / denotes a pause in the speech flow; with the help of this sign, the phrase is divided into syntagmas. // is put at the end of the phrase, because this pause is longer.

15. In each phonetic word when transcribing stress is indicated.

Classification of vowels

The vowel sounds of the modern Russian language are classified according to three criteria:

1. according to the degree of elevation of the tongue during the formation of a vowel sound;

2. on the basis of a row (according to the place where the tongue is raised), i.e. by the movement of the tongue horizontally in the oral cavity;

3. in relation to labialization, i.e. participation / non-participation of lips in the formation of a vowel sound.

Basic stressed vowels

§3. Classification of consonants

All consonants of the modern Russian language are classified according to four articulatory features:

2. at the place of noise generation;

3. according to the method of noise generation;

4. by the presence/absence of palatalization (additional iot articulation).

Sonorant are the most sonorous of all consonants. Their formation involves the voice with little participation of noise (approximately 75% - voice, 25% - noise).

noisy are those consonants in the formation of which noise prevails over the voice or the voice is completely absent. Noisy voiced the consonants are composed of noise with little voice participation (approximately 75% noise, 25% voice). Noisy deaf are formed without the participation of voice, consist entirely of noise.

Many noisy consonants are paired according to the participation of voice and noise. Noisy consonants are paired, differing only in this one feature (with others in common): [b] - [p]; [b '] - [n '], etc. Sonorant consonants do not have a pair on the basis of "participation of voice and noise."

Note: For a list of consonants, paired and unpaired by the participation of voice and noise, see the Phonology section.

Target: to acquaint students with the correspondence of a vowel sound and a letter in a stressed syllable and their possible discrepancy in an unstressed syllable.

Lesson objectives:

Educational:

• to study the features of the correspondence or inconsistency of vowels and letters in stressed and unstressed syllables;
• to teach to identify vowel sounds in a word, the designation of which in writing must be checked;

Educators:

• to form in children a sense of compassion and mutual assistance to others;
• cultivate love for the native language;

Developing:

• develop imagination, memory, curiosity;
• develop students' speech;
• Expand the horizons of students;

During the classes

1. Relaxation.

- “Today is a beautiful day, I am in a great mood, I will carefully listen to the teacher and everything will work out for me!”

(Students, closing their eyes, repeat the text after the teacher in parts, then sit down at their desks).

2. Organizational moment.

Guys, today we are with you(suddenly there is a knock and the postman enters with a telegram) . The teacher, having thanked him, reads the telegram, then turns to the children.

Trouble in the land of Multland. Where funny little men from famous fairy tales live. Senttelegram to our old friend Dunno, he needs our help.

(Presentation, slide 2 )

Can we help him guys?

3. Statement of the topic and purpose of the lesson.

Letter A and letter O
Long offended:
We are not guilty of anything
Guys are often confused.
Most of all Dunno is yours,
Who loves your whole class.
He spoils the word
Writes via A- "karova".
letter,Ait's embarrassing to be here.
And in bad words - it's a shame!

Why letter A and letter Ooffended by the Dunno?

What does he forget to do before writing the word?

I even made a mistake in the telegram. What?

4. Calligraphy.

Let's get the letterA and letter O did not take offense at Dunno, we will write in written lowercase letters.

5. Work on the topic of the lesson.

1) - Look at the drawings Dunno drew for us, let's help sign them.

(Presentation, slide 4).

Highlight the stressed vowel in the first word. How do you think the pronunciation of the stressed vowel coincides, or does the pronunciation of the stressed vowel in this word coincide with its designation in writing?

What about other words?

Write the words in a notebook, put an accent mark in them.

2) - But in many words, the pronunciation and spelling of vowels that are not stressed do not match.

(Presentation, slide 5.)

What do you think should be done with these words?

Such words need to be checked and it is imperative to select test words or cognates in which this vowel will be stressed. Write these words together with the test words in your notebook.

In total, there are five vowels in Russian that need to be checked. And even Pinocchio remembered them. Let's name them.

Read a poem about the letters to be checked. The children at the lesson were very active, they really enjoyed working with the presentation. The objectives of the lesson were achieved, the material was learned.

MOU Marfinskaya secondary school

Topic: "Stressed and unstressed vowels"

Open lesson in Russian in 1st grade

Developed and implemented:

primary school teacher

Kushakova Tamara Ivanovna

Target . Be able to distinguish between stressed and unstressed vowels. Develop the ability to select a test word.

During the classes:

Organizing time

Setting the task of the lesson

a) Phonetic warm-up. Tongue Twisters.

Three magpies chattering

Chattered on the hill.

Our regiment fell into a trap

What sound is repeated? What letter do we write?

What is the difference between sound and letter?

b) Visual-auditory dictation.

It's written on the board.

Native language, be friends with me.

It will be so if you know the rules of the Russian language, including the rules for stressed and unstressed vowels. Today we will observe stressed and unstressed vowels, we will learn how to write words with an unstressed vowel correctly.

What tasks can be completed with this offer? (separate words for hyphenation, put an accent mark).

Children write the number, sentences, complete the task. Are there any words that cannot be transferred? (language, mine) Why? Read words with emphasis.

Explanation of new material

Every word has an accent. The stress is the heart of the word. And if the word consists of one syllable, then the stress is placed? Why?

What is the name of the syllable, where is the accent mark?

Where is the accent? Where is the accent placed?

The stress mark is always placed above the letter that denotes the stressed vowel.

I say a word, and you only write the letter that represents the stressed vowel.

Pencil case. What letter was written? (letter A)

albO m, pen, Lucy, teacher, briefcase, Friday, flowers, Christmas tree.

The letters on the board are: a, o, y, u, i, e, i, s, yo.

What did you notice? (write down all the letters of the vowels).

This means that the stress is always placed over any vowel, except yo(she is always shock).

Suggestions are written on the board.

Field covered with snow. Here are the pines.

aroundfields . Onpine squirrel.

Read the sentences, underline the words.

Compare the pronunciation of the same vowels.

In what way do the pronunciation match the spelling? In what - do not match? (Coincident - shock, does not match - unstressed).

What do we conclude?

The sound is always clearly pronounced under stress.

We write what we hear.

And unstressed - matches?

And unstressed - matches? (Unstressed may not match).

In Russian, the vowel sound a can be denoted by letters a, oh

We are watching.

On the board is written: home ← home

owl ← owls

Read, write in two columns, put an accent mark.

What do we hear in an unstressed position? ( A)

Under stress? ( O)

In which column are the helper words?

Draw arrows from them to the words to be checked.

Physical education minute

A minute of calligraphy

"I write beautifully" och ok óko → window óchi → glasses

Grammar task.

Explain the meaning of the words. (meaning they are the same)

Put the stress mark, name the unstressed vowel. What words can help? Testing? Put arrows from them.

Percussive sounds are sounds of a strong position.

Unstressed - sounds of a weak position.

A sound in a strong position helps to select (check) a letter to indicate a sound in a weak position.

Explanation of new material

How to find the check word?

Selection of test words.

It is written on the board: I check

to · for - goats

g ra - mountains

gr chi - rook

s dy - garden

There is one more vowel sound that must be checked before it is denoted by letters. This is a vowel And. what letters does it stand for? (Letters And,i, e).

On the board is written:

arrow - arrows

letters - letters

To check an unstressed vowel means to correctly find the test word, i.e. a word where the sound is in a strong position, under stress.

The children repeat the conclusion in chorus.

Fixing the material

Text on the board.

A dog is a true friend and helper of a person.

Dogs guard the st · yes. There are rescue dogs.

They will help a person in rah, na na de.

Solve the riddle.

Lives under the porch

and a ring tail.

Outcome

What should be done to correctly write an unstressed vowel?

An algorithm is being developed.

Find the letter to be tested.

Choose a test word.

The rule is written on the board.

If the vowel letter is in doubt,

You immediately put it under stress.