The developmental teaching methodology is a system of qualitatively new knowledge that offers a fundamentally different structure learning activities, which has nothing to do with reproductive, based on coaching and memorization, learning and conservative pedagogical consciousness.

The essence of the concept of developmental education is to create conditions when the development of the student turns into the main task for both the teacher and the student himself. This complex pedagogical problem is solved sequentially: at the first stage (primary school - the first 5 years) - by forming the child's need and ability for self-development, and in subsequent years - by strengthening this ability and creating conditions for its maximum realization.

Developmental learning is understood as a way of organizing education, the content, methods and forms of organization of which are directly focused on the all-round development of the child.

The developmental system should provide, in addition to knowledge, skills and abilities, ways of independent comprehension of knowledge in academic subjects. Only then will this knowledge contribute to the development of abilities in the process of implementing independent cognitive activities, as well as ensuring an emotional-value attitude to the content and process of education, the formation of a humanistic orientation of the individual.

This approach cultivates a creative attitude to activity, forms general educational skills, promotes mastering the means and methods of thinking, develops imagination, attention, memory, will, forms an emotional culture and a culture of communication.

The school must provide students with a solid foundation of knowledge. Knowledge is transformed by thinking, and in this sense it is a means of developing thinking.

The development of thinking is provided by purposefully organized activity, when the teacher's focus is not so much on the acquisition of knowledge, but on the process of the student's intellect being involved in solving the educational problem.

Possession of the methods of assimilating knowledge lays the foundation for the activity of a person and his awareness of himself as a cognizing subject, able to independently build the process of cognition.

A school operating in the system of developmental education is designed to pass on experience to the younger generations creative thinking, creative search activities to solve new problems.

Creative thinking is characterized by the following features:

Getting a result that no one else has achieved before;

The ability to act in different ways in a situation where it is not known which of them can lead to the desired outcome;

The variety of methods used to achieve the result;

Lack of sufficient experience in solving such problems;

The need to act independently without prompting.

Developers of the technology of developing education believe that the system of theoretical concepts assimilated by a student, formed in his mind, becomes the basis for further effective creative educational activity of schoolchildren. Solving the problem of the development of the thinking of schoolchildren, which acts as the main goal of the renovating school, the developers of developmental education provide a solution to all the other tasks that educational institutions face, but they approach everything else as a means of achieving it.

Methods and technological foundations of developmental education

To date, within the framework of the concept of developmental education, a number of developmental education technologies have been developed that differ in target orientations, features of content and methodology. In 1996 the Ministry of Education of Russia officially recognized the existence of the system of L. V. Zankov and D. B. Elkonin-V.V. Davydov. The rest of the developing technologies have the status of copyright, alternative.

General foundations of developmental education technologies.

Developmental learning is understood as a new active-activity method (type) of learning, replacing the explanatory-illustrative method (type).

Progressive development of personality is a process of physical and mental change of an individual in time, involving improvement, a transition in any of its properties and parameters from less to more, from simple to complex, from lower to higher.

Properties and patterns of the development process.

The specific properties of personality development are the following:

Immanence: development is an inalienable property of the personality, inherent in nature;

Biogenicity: mental development personality is largely determined by heredity;

Sociogenicity: the influence of the social environment;

Psychogenicity: man is a self-regulating and self-governing system;

Individuality: personality is a unique phenomenon, characterized by an individual selection of qualities and its own development option;

Stages: personality development is subject to the general law of cyclicality;

Non-linearity: each personality develops at its own pace, experiencing accelerations and contradictions of growth randomly distributed in time;

Physical age determines the quantitative and qualitative characteristics and opportunities for mental development. Developmental education takes into account and uses the patterns of development, the level and characteristics of the individual. In developing education, pedagogical influence is ahead, stimulates, directs and accelerates the development of hereditary data of trainees. With this form of training, the student is a full-fledged subject of activity at all its stages. Each stage makes a specific contribution to the development of the personality. In the activity of goal-setting, freedom, purposefulness, dignity, honor, pride, independence are brought up; when planning - initiative, creativity, organization, independence, will; in realizing goals - hard work, discipline, activity, skill; at the stage of analysis, relations, responsibility, and evaluation criteria are formed.

In modern pedagogy, all groups of personality traits:

ZUN - knowledge, abilities, skills;

COURT - ways of mental actions;

SUM - self-governing personality mechanisms;

SEN - emotional and moral sphere;

Pedagogical design and pedagogical technologies 231

SDP - the activity-practical environment - are interconnected and represent the most complex dynamically developing integral structure. Individual differences determine the level of development of a particular group of qualities.

The technology of developmental education (RO) is aimed at the integral harmonious development of the personality, where the whole set of its qualities is manifested:

RO = ZUN + COURT + SUM + SEN + SDP.

Developmental education is focused on the "zone of proximal development", i.e. on the activity that the student can perform with the help of a teacher.

Developmental education takes place in the zone of proximal development (according to L. S. Vygotsky). Of all the technologies of developing education, the greatest interest for the experiment is the system of L.V. Zankov, the technology of D. B. Elkonin-V.V. Davydov, the technology of self-developing education by G.K. Selevko and the system of developmental education with a focus on the development of the creative qualities of the personality of G.S. Altshuller. These innovative technologies, except for the last one, these are technologies of school pedagogy, but their didactic principles are applicable to pedagogy high school and can serve as a basis for the development of their university modification.

The value of L.V. Zankov's conceptual didactic positions in the consistency and integrity of content, learning at a high level of difficulty, a fast pace of advancement, conscious motivation, variance, individuality, the use of the inductive method, problematization of content and in the inclusion of rational and emotional thinking in the learning process.

The technology of D. B. Elkonin - V. V. Davydov is built on "meaningful enrichments", which may include the most general concepts of science expressing deep cause-and-effect relationships and patterns, fundamental genetically initial ideas (number, word, energy, material), concepts in which internal connections are highlighted, theoretical images obtained by abstraction. The emphasis of the goals of the authors of this technology:

Form theoretical consciousness and thinking;

To form not so much ZUNs as methods of mental activity - COURTS;

Reproduce the logic of scientific thinking in educational activities.

A feature of this technique is purposeful educational activity, MCC, the signs of which are cognitive-motivating motives, the goal of conscious development, subject-subject relationship of the teacher and the student, focus on the methodology of forming ZUN and COURT, creative reflection.

This technique can be considered as a purposeful educational activity in which the student sets goals and objectives of self-change and creatively solves them. The method includes problem presentation of material, modeling of educational tasks. Problem-solving encourages collective mental activity, dialogue-polylogue, formation interpersonal relationships in educational activities.

Higher education teachers technical school should pay close attention to systems of developmental education with a focus on the development of the creative qualities of the individual (I. P. Volkov, G. S. Altshuller, I. P. Ivanov). The emphases of the goals of these theories are as follows:

1. According to I.P. Volkov - to identify, take into account and develop Creative skills; to introduce trainees to creative activity with an output to a specific product.

2. According to GS Altshuller - to teach creative activity; to acquaint with the techniques of creative imagination; teach to solve heuristic (inventive) problems.

3. According to I.P. Ivanov - to educate a socially active creative person capable of enhancing their own culture, contribute to the building of a legal democratic society.

Features of the content of the above techniques

Didactic reconstruction teaching material and block-parallel learning system is based on intra-subject and inter-subject connections. Instead of a sequence of subjects, sections and topics of a traditionally structured program, it is proposed to combine the key questions on which the section, subject or several subjects are based. These questions are introduced in as soon as possible after the start of training and are studied simultaneously in parallel, in interconnection by performing practical work for all sections included in the block.

Such a reconstruction of educational material can be used in the development of the final interdisciplinary course in blocks of fundamental, humanitarian, professional disciplines.

Acmeology and Acmeological Approach to Engineering Education

Acmeology (from the Greek act - "peak, peak, the highest level of something, blooming power") is a new area of ​​scientific knowledge, a complex of scientific disciplines, the object of study of which is a person in the dynamics of his self-development, self-improvement, self-determination in various life spheres of self-realization ...

The subject of acmeology is the creative potential of a person, the laws and conditions for achieving by the subject of activity (an individual or a union of individuals) various levels of disclosure of creative potential, the heights of self-realization.

The task of acmeology is to equip the subject of activity with knowledge and technologies that provide him with the possibility of successful self-realization in various fields of activity, including in the field of his chosen profession or professions.

A specific method of acmeology is comparative modeling of behavior and professional activity in various areas of work, characteristic of the self-realization of the creative potential of a mature person at various levels of success. To assess the achieved level of self-realization of the subject of activity in various fields, acmeology develops special criteria, assessment norms, and appropriate measurement methods.

The information base of acmeology is all fields of science in their "technological part", i.e. the knowledge that directly answers the question of how to act in order to successfully solve the problems of a particular discipline or specialty.

Studying the patterns and conditions (internal and external) of the subject's achievement of the peaks of self-realization, acmeology develops methods and technologies that allow managers, teachers, students of all types of vocational educational institutions to achieve success in vocational education, activity, self-improvement, to build the author's system of activity.

The end result of the use of acmeological technologies is the ability, acquired by an individual (a union of individuals), for a positive nature-like self-realization in changing living conditions. Including the result of the implementation of these methods, technologies and research should be the readiness of the graduate educational institution to an independent, creative, responsible solution of professional and life tasks - his author's system of activity.

Engineering acmeology is one of the disciplines related to the field of professional acmeology. The subject of engineering acmeology is the creative potential of a person who has devoted himself to engineering, the regularity and conditions that allow the subject of this activity to reach the heights of self-realization in solving engineering problems, to reveal his creative potential in this area. The positive self-realization of a specialist necessarily presupposes adequate self-awareness, a proper representation of one's social role, the significance of one's personality, one's intellect, knowledge of traditions, evaluative norms, and values ​​of one's professional sphere.

A feature, a distinctive feature of a specialist, his characteristic feature is the ability to competently and responsibly solve professional problems.

An important condition for the successful training of a future engineer at a university is the idea of ​​both teachers and students about the structure and information base of engineering activity, its specific features.

Self-realization of an engineer takes place in activities aimed at creating the technosphere, at actually changing the world in which we live. The goal of an engineer's work is an engineering solution containing an information basis for changing reality - the transformation and development of the technosphere. This decision, being made, through the labor of workers materializes, one way or another changes the world, the environment around us, nature, life on our planet. Engineer is the main thing actor, predetermining the fate of the noosphere, the fate of the Earth. Whether the engineer is aware of it or not, but on his shoulders lies the burden of responsibility for the decisions he makes, because the safety of life of people, society, and numerous environmental and social consequences depend on their quality.

The goals of the specialist's activity, the tasks formulated by him, the chosen means of solving them largely depend on the level of humanitarian and methodological training of the specialist, his general culture.

Engineering activity is polydisciplinary. This means that its information base is a variety of scientific disciplines. However, the structure of this information base is similar to the structure of a scientific discipline.

Analysis of science as a system of knowledge and a type of activity allows you to build an information model of a scientific discipline.

Such a model can be quite fully represented by seven structural elements:

Scientific discipline objectives (ND);

ND facts;

ND theories;

ND methods;

ND methodology;

Estimated norms of normative documents;

Thesaurus (dictionary of lexical units, designations and symbols) ND.

Scientific activity within the framework of a specific ND is a process of solving problems that allow obtaining new knowledge about the real world in relation to the object and subject of ND. It is convenient to divide these tasks into two groups. The first group includes tasks that are being solved "for society." This group includes five types of tasks: research; description; explanation; forecasting; transformation.

Everything in relation to the object and subject of ND. The second group of tasks is associated with obtaining new knowledge necessary for the successful functioning of the discipline itself, i.e. for science itself. This group of tasks has six directions: development and improvement of research methods (6); descriptions (7); explanations (8); forecasting (9); transformation (10) and, accordingly, the development and improvement of the ND thesaurus (11). There are 11 problems in both groups.

As an information model of a scientific discipline (modeling its content), an academic discipline is structurally similar to a scientific discipline. It also contains seven elements: tasks, facts, theories, methods, methodology, thesaurus, and evaluative norms.

The fundamental difference between scientific and academic disciplines is not in the content and structure of both, but in their social function. Students do not study a scientific discipline, but an educational discipline. However, this study is carried out in order to ultimately be able to solve the problems of a scientific discipline.

The result of a correctly delivered educational process must become the student's ability to solve the problems of his specialty.

The connecting link in the structure of the polydisciplinary information base of engineering activity is methodological knowledge. Lack of an integrating methodological discipline (or a group of such disciplines) in general education programs for engineers does not allow formulating a holistic professional worldview of a future specialist, without which a university graduate cannot have the proper ability to adapt in a rapidly changing life.

The acmeological approach makes it possible to ensure, from a unified standpoint, the synthesis of all disciplines, both humanitarian and general scientific and special. This synthesis is necessary, because professional activity is polydisciplinary, and in the traditional educational process the student is taught to think within the framework of a separate discipline. Each student, starting from the first year, with an acmeological approach to building the educational process at the university, creates his own (author's) system of activity. Acmeological technologies make it possible to successfully form gnostic, design, constructive, organizational and communication skills. When training engineers, special emphasis should be placed on the analysis of the initial professional situation, goal-setting, the choice of means for solving problems, predicting the consequences of activities, registration and presentation of results (engineering solutions). Learning all of these steps requires the experience of the older generation of engineers.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

Bryansk State University named after academician I.G. Petrovsky

Coursework in Pedagogy

" Developmental education technology and its types of application in a modern school"

• Introduction
• 1. What is developmental learning
• 2. Concepts of developmental education
• 3. Characteristics of developmental learning
• 4. Organization of developmental education
• 5. Practice of developmental education
• Conclusion
• Bibliography

Introduction

School in its function is aimed at the future development of society, it must ensure this future development.

The school will be saved by nature-friendly pedagogy, i.e. really scientific and therefore capable, which is capable of any tasks of today's complexity.

The scientific and technological revolution in the 20th century sharply complicated the nature of labor, it became predominantly intellectual, which required adjustments to the system of mass education. Above the elementary school, secondary and senior levels were built up, with a fundamentally different, scientific content of knowledge. However, it turned out that the majority of students do not possess the necessary abilities to assimilate them. This gave rise to an insoluble contradiction between the mass character of secondary education and the intellectual potential of students.

That was the basis for the search for new forms and methods of teaching and upbringing.

Developmental learning has become the answer to this problem.

The emergence of a system of developmental education is relevant today.

1. Crisis modern system education is a crisis of its initial link. To reveal the content of the crisis in education and to outline the ways out of it, it is necessary to designate the very concept of "educational system".

2. Modern socio-economic conditions, the practice of mastering the system of developing education in the mass school in the last 5 years indicate that the implementation of the integral concept of developing education according to the system of D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydov, unfortunately, is not yet possible in the whole school.

3. The problem of diagnostics on the present stage development of education is an integral part teaching activities in any educational system.

Targetresearch: prove practical relevance systems of developmental education.

Tasks:

1. study the theoretical material on this issue;

2. to identify the practical importance of methods of developmental education;

3. to prove the need to use developmental techniques in the system of training and education.

Item- a system of developmental education.

An object- methods of developmental teaching.

Hypothesis: if you create a teaching system based on laws that reflect the nature of a person, according to which he lives, develops and acts in human society, then it will receive a high level of socialization of the personality of students.

1. What is developmental learning

The system of developing education has taken root in many schools in Russia, in particular, in our region.

Developmental education is a holistic pedagogical system that is an alternative to the traditional school system.

The concept of developing education for schoolchildren was developed in the 60-80s. under the general guidance of D.B. Elkonin and V.V. Davydov.

V last years the attention of teachers is increasingly attracted by the ideas of developing education, with which they associate the possibility of fundamental changes in the school.

With all the variety of historically established forms school education they are related by their focus on preparing students for an independent "adult" life. Hence - the main goal of the modern school: to ensure the assimilation by schoolchildren of a certain range of skills, knowledge and skills that they will need in the professional socio-political, family spheres of life.

The purpose of the experimental work of leading teachers, whose experience I studied from many sources, was, within the framework of a formative experiment, to launch a model of a school - a complex of personality self-development as a separate subdivision in a general education state school with the aim of forming in the younger generation the abilities for self-development, for self-knowledge, for self-education. to self-improvement, through the disclosure of their creative and intellectual capabilities.

The outstanding psychologist Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, on the basis of a number of his studies, established that the development of any mental function, including the child's intellect, passes through the zone of proximal development, when the child knows how to do something only in cooperation with an adult, and only then moves to the level actual development, when he can perform this action independently.

L.S. Vygotsky pointed out that at school the child learns not what he can already do on his own, but only what he can do in cooperation with the teacher, under his guidance, while the main form of teaching is imitation in a broad sense. Therefore, the zone of proximal development is decisive in relation to learning and development, and what a child can do today in this zone, that is, in cooperation, tomorrow he will be able to do on his own and, therefore, will move to the level of actual development.

The ideas of L.S. Vygotsky were developed within the framework of the psychological theory of activity (A.N. Leont'ev, P.Ya. Halperin, A.V. ideas about the development of its relationship with learning. The inclusion of these processes in the context of activity actually meant the refusal to reduce the development of the child to the development of cognitive functions and to highlight his formation as a subject. various types and forms of human activity.

This approach was formulated in the early 60s by D.B. Elkonin, who, analyzing the educational activity of schoolchildren, saw its originality and essence not in the condition of certain knowledge and skills, but in the child's self-change of himself as a subject. Thus, the foundation was laid for the concept of developmental learning, in which the child is viewed not as an object of the teacher's teaching influences, but as a self-changing subject of learning, as a student. This concept acquired its expanded form as a result of a number of studies carried out in the 60-80s. under the general guidance of D.B. Elkonin and V.V. Davydov.

V.V. Davydov believed that by changing the traditional content of education, it is possible to ensure the necessary mental development of schoolchildren, and in the future, their general mental development, including personal development.

That is, the above confirms my hypothesis about the creation of a learning system, in the center of which is the development of personality.

At the end of the 1980s, the first schools appeared that adopted the concept of developing education.

So what is developmental learning?

Developmental training- this is special organization educational activities aimed at the formation of theoretical thinking of students on the basis of methods of scientific creativity and independent creative activity using a system of general scientific technologies.

As well as informational - reproductive, it is carried out through the implementation of three main pedagogical functions - learning, development and education, which are implemented in each lesson for each topic. However, developmental education has fundamental differences from informational - reproductive:

1. The function of teaching involves not memorizing all the material, but assimilating only theoretical concepts.

2. The development function presupposes predominantly the creative activity of students at all stages of educational activity on the topic for the assimilation of the methods of scientific creativity, and not only the fulfillment of individual creative tasks at the end of the study of the topic

3. The function of education involves the organization of communication and cooperation to form students' independence in the use of basic technologies social creativity, and not only the fulfillment of individual creative tasks of research, problematization, examination, design, etc.

Basic goals technologies of developing education D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydova:

- the formation of theoretical consciousness and thinking of students, starting from a very early age;

- transferring to children not so much knowledge, skills and abilities, but the ways in which various mental actions can be carried out;

Reproduction of the logic of scientific knowledge in the educational activities of children.

The technology of developing education is based on the following hypotheses:

1. Many general theoretical concepts are available to children from preschool age; they understand and master them before they learn to act with their particular empirical manifestations.

2. The child's opportunities for learning and development are enormous and are not fully utilized by the school.

3. Opportunities to intensify mental development lie, first of all, in the content of educational material, therefore, its content serves as the basis for developing education. The teaching methods are derived from the content.

4. Increasing the theoretical level of educational material in primary school stimulates the growth of the child's mental abilities.

In accordance with the hypotheses put forward, in the technology of developmental education, the selection of the content of education is carried out. Academic subjects model the content and methods of the relevant scientific field. In the classroom, the child learns the logic of construction and the real theoretical basis of each of the areas of knowledge (mathematics, Russian, etc.). Children, starting from the first grade, learn scientific concepts, moral values, artistic images that form the basis of the knowledge accumulated by mankind. It is from the theoretical basis that the cognition of empirical knowledge and the acquisition of practical skills originate.

2. Concepts of developmental education

As mentioned above, the main concept of developmental education is considered to be the concept of D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydov, as well as the technology of developing education by L.V. Zankova.

Consider a brief description of them:

Technologies of developing education L.V. Zankova

The leading role in development belongs to teaching: a change in the structure of teaching entails a change in the mental appearance of the student.

Learning acts by refracting through the internal characteristics of the child, as a result of which each child, under the influence of the same form of learning, reaches his own stages of development.

Learning objectives:

General mental development of the personality;

Creation of the basis for all-round harmonious development.

Didactic principles of the system:

Learning at a high level of difficulty;

Studying the program material at a fast pace;

The leading role of theoretical knowledge;

Awareness by schoolchildren of the learning process;

The general development of all students, including the strongest and the weakest.

Properties of the methodical system

Versatility;

The procedurality of cognition;

Collision resolution;

Variability

Features of organizational forms

Lesson is the main form of organization of training, but it is more dynamic, flexible; its content changes.

Developmental education systemD.B. NSlkonina-V.V. Davydova

The child is viewed as a self-changing subject of learning, having the need and ability to self-change.

Didactic characteristics of the system

Learning objectives:

Form theoretical consciousness and thinking, COURT (methods of mental actions);

Provide conditions for the transformation of a student into a student.

Properties of the methodological system:

The concept of purposeful learning activities;

Problematic presentation of knowledge;

Method of learning tasks;

- collective distribution activities.

On their basis, many other variants of developmental education systems have been formed. Here are some of them.

1. The concept of L.V. Zankova is aimed at the early intensified general psychological development of the personality.

2. The concept of ZI Kalmykova is aimed at the formation of productive or creative thinking.

3. The concept of E.N. Kabanova is aimed at the formation of thinking operations, which she calls techniques educational work.

4. The concept of G.А. Zuckerman aims to teach students skills educational cooperation.

5. The concept of V.V. Davydova - D.B. Elkonina of personal developmental education is aimed at the development of theoretical consciousness and thinking.

6. The concept of S.А. Smirnova is aimed at creating conditions for the maximum development of the child's abilities in combination with the intensive accumulation of social experience and the formation of his inner psychological peace and self-confidence.

7. The concept of I.S. Yakimanskaya aims to develop individual cognitive abilities for each child, for self-knowledge as a person, for self-determination and self-realization in the learning process.

8. The concept of G.K. Selevko is aimed at the formation of the dominant personality self-improvement, which includes attitudes towards self-education, self-education, self-affirmation, self-determination, self-regulation and self-actualization.

9. The concepts of I.P. Volkova, G.S. Altshuller, I.P. Ivanova are aimed at the development of various spheres of personality and have both general and specific features.

3. Characteristics of developmental learning

As long as there is a school in general, so many the best minds solve the problem - how to teach, what to teach, what to develop. I liked many of the thoughts expressed by such outstanding people living in different eras and talking about pedagogy.

Professor V. Kumarin suggests, as at the beginning of our century, to call new. A thorough study of these schools was carried out by N.K. Krupskaya. Here is her testimony: “There are already quite a few“ new ”schools. serious attention. There is no senseless cramming. The independence of students is given a wide scope. The student's interest, satisfaction of his need for activity, creativity are placed at the center of teaching. External discipline and compulsion are minimized. The whole school regime is such that captures the student entirely, contributes to his all-round development. Intelligently organized work together teaches the ability to live and work together with others. School self-government teaches the ability to organize social life. Compared to regular secondary schools, "new" schools are a huge step forward. "

Also Ya.A. Comenius wrote that forcing a child to sit on books every day for 6-8 hours in class and the same amount for homework is "torture leading to fainting and mental breakdown," and argued that learning should be "pleasant and easy" occupying no more than 4 hours per day.

What should a student do in order to master the given method of solving a particular problem? Firstly, he needs to somehow understand the corresponding rule, and secondly, it is possible to reproduce more accurately the operations prescribed by him by performing a series of corresponding exercises. Both at the stage of understanding the rule, and at the stage of its application, the student's activity turns out to be limited by the framework specified in the rule, the way of action fixed in it, that is, it is a reproductive, reproductive activity. The student, as it were, follows the rule, and the more accurately he reproduces the route given in it, the higher the chances of achieving the final goal.

Search activity provides an opportunity to assimilate the system of scientific concepts that allows the student to become a real subject of learning, acquiring the character of "quasi-research" (VV Davydov) educational activity.

A teacher, if he wants to carry out developmental teaching, which presupposes the assimilation of a system of scientific concepts, must take care of organizing an educational activity that is fundamentally new for children, adequate to this task. In this regard, the problem of methods of developmental education arises.

The function of teaching methods ultimately is to organize and support the learning activity of students, ensuring the achievement of learning objectives.

Learning is based on learning activity of the reproductive type. The organization of such activity presupposes that students, firstly, clearly identify and fix the method of action proposed for assimilation; secondly, to one degree or another they will understand its meaning and structure; thirdly, they will be able to more or less accurately reproduce it when performing the appropriate exercises. The efforts of the teacher in the learning process are aimed at ensuring these most important conditions for the success of the reproducing learning activity of students. He has to demonstrate, in one way or another, a sample of the method of solution proposed for assimilation, explain it as clearly as possible and ensure reliable control over the correctness of its application in solving training problems.

Necessary the initial stage the deployment of search activity is the formulation of an educational task for the students, requiring them to analyze the situation of the action, a new understanding of it.

If the teacher managed to set an educational task for the students, then his subsequent efforts should be aimed at organizing its solution, that is, at organizing the actual search activity. The teacher must get involved in the students' search activity and organize it "from the inside". Two conditions: first, the teacher must become a real participant in modern search, and not its leader. Secondly, he should not impose on them the "correct" solution.

Finally, when the learning problem is solved, the teacher has to organize an assessment of the solution found.

The statement of the educational problem, its joint solution with the students, the organization of the assessment of the found method of action, these are the three components of the method that is adequate to the goal and content of developmental education.

The teacher and the student carry out a joint search, which takes on the character of a jointly distributed activity.

Engaging in a joint educational and search activity with a student, the teacher guides it, relying on a non-predictive assessment of the student's capabilities, in accordance with which he rearranges the conditions of the educational problem at each next stage of its solution.

The style of educational cooperation can vary within a fairly wide range - from easy-trusting to hard-demanding, but its essence always remains the same: the teacher does not lead the student with him, but only helps him to determine the next goal and find the optimal path to it.

In order for each individual student to act as a subject of educational and search activity, he must interact not only with the teacher, but also with other similar subjects. This means that a student can be a subject of learning if he does not act next to other students, but independently of them, but together with them, if his activity unfolds within the framework of a collective educational dialogue.

The ability to organize and maintain a collective educational dialogue is, I think, the most difficult component of a teacher's methodological skill.

The optimal form of the educational process, which allows organizing the search activity of students and thereby realizing the goals of developmental education, is a collective dialogue, during which the content of the next educational task is determined and the ways of its solution are outlined. At the same time, this form of organization of the educational process has a decisive influence on its communicative characteristics.

The first type of communication is a rather strictly regulated exchange of business information necessary for interacting subjects to perform their functions, outside of which it loses any meaning and usually stops.

Communication takes on a completely different character in the case when subjects of jointly-distributed activity interact, connected by cooperation relations.

In theory, the developmental education system has a significant impact on development emotional sphere students. The very educational interest that arises as a result of a reflexive assessment of a problem situation is a complex emotional experience of dissatisfaction with oneself, one's incompetence, projected onto the object of action. It is this experience that causes a state of internal tension that prompts the student to look for the key to understanding the problem situation, not allowing him to be satisfied with a suggested from outside or accidentally found a way to get out of it.

I believe that developing education first forms the ability to pedagogical creativity, then the inclination to it and, finally, the need for it.

Business information involves the exchange of knowledge about a subject, while communication requires the exchange of thoughts about it, feelings evoked by this subject, and its assessments.

Considering that communication is the main form of communication in preschool age, we can come to the conclusion that it is one of the most important prerequisites for developmental education, which must only be used correctly when organizing it, giving the communication of children with a teacher an educational character.

As a result of the exchange of thoughts, the student comes to a more meaningful and deeper understanding of the situation, based on which he acts both much more confidently and much more successfully. This circumstance gives rise to the student's interest in such an exchange of thoughts with his fellow practitioners and the teacher, which, under favorable conditions, quickly develops into a need for business communication with partners in the activity as the most important condition for its success.

At the same time, there is an intensive development of the most important communicative skills, without which communication is impossible - the ability to reasonably express one's thoughts and the ability to adequately perceive the thoughts of the interlocutor.

All the main characteristics of developmental education - the content and methods, the type of educational activity of students, the features of interaction between participants in the educational process and the nature of the relationship between them, the form of organization of the educational process and the communication unfolding in it - are interrelated and ultimately determined by the goals of developmental education. This means that developmental learning can be carried out only as an integral system, in all its components.

4. Organization of developmental education

General methodological rules for developing education:

1. Psychological comfort in the classroom.

2. Creative tasks form the basis of students' learning activities from the first lesson to the last on the topic.

3. Not all information is subject to assimilation, but only theoretical laws - general scientific, general subject and thematic concepts.

4. Theoretical patterns are not offered to students ready-made, but are formulated through essential signs by students independently or with the help of a teacher in the process of analyzing and systematizing scientific information, solving problems, conducting research and examinations, project and forecasting activities.

5. The implementation of creative tasks and work is carried out using algorithms, some of which are developed by the students themselves and in subsequent educational activities.

6. The structure of the educational material is composed in such a way that in the process of studying new topics, the development of the main - general scientific and general subject concepts of the previously studied topics occurs.

7. In the process of education, students gradually master the methods of scientific creative activity.

8. The mastering of a new method and technology of creative activity at the first stage is carried out in a group form, then through pair work it gradually passes into an individual form of work.

9. Control and analysis of the results of education on the topic include not only theoretical laws, but also methods and technologies of creative activity, analysis of the process of activity itself at the theoretical, methodological levels, as well as drawing up tasks on their own.

The learning technology in the developmental education system can be represented by the following diagram:

1. Motivationaloriented part

- Updating knowledge. The purpose of this stage is to repeat basic knowledge, to create a situation of success for subsequent activities. The result of this stage is the student's answer to the question "Am I ready to learn new things?"

- Motivation. At this stage, the teacher offers students a specific educational and practical task, but its solution leads to certain difficulties.

- Statement of the educational problem. At the stage of setting the educational problem, students themselves must answer the question "What should we learn to solve the problem?"

Planning the solution of the educational problem

2. Operationalexecutive part

Transformation of the job condition. A connection is established between the characteristic properties of the data and the desired objects.

Modeling the rule. These revealed properties are recorded in the form of a certain model. Each group (a group form of work is appropriate) creates its own model, and then, in the course of an intergroup discussion, the best model is identified or worked out jointly, if the model has not been created.

- Model transformation. Fundamentally different cases for the application of the model are revealed.

Working out the rule. Carried out with special system exercise.

3. Reflexiveappraisal part

It is aimed at determining the assimilation of the model, identifying ocular difficulties.

Control (self-control)

Assessment (self-assessment)

Naturally, it is impossible to implement all these stages in one lesson. All this is a matter of time for a few lessons. The structure of the stages of educational activity can vary, change somewhat in its sequence. The first stage can be problematization and creative work, but the fulfillment of these tasks and work will require the obligatory formulation of theoretical concepts. The main thing is that educational activity at each of the stages involves working with theoretical concepts, methods and technologies. scientific activities, which ensures the formation of theoretical thinking and technological culture of students. The ability to see scientifically - theoretical basis their activities, the ability to create new technologies and products of professional activity and are the most important conditions for achieving professional success in a technological society.

In the lessons in the system of developmental education, the main attention is paid to the development of the student's thinking and speech. Moreover, in the best models of developmental education, even in individual lessons, one can see that the development of thinking and speech is systematic. Students are offered creative tasks, for the implementation of which it is necessary, first of all, to draw up algorithms. This activity requires mental effort, therefore, in the classroom in the system of developmental education, group and pair forms of work prevail, within which constructive communication and cooperation can be organized. Accordingly, speech is not only a means of developing thinking, but also the most important condition for successful educational activity. By discussing the algorithm, the process of completing tasks and the answers received, students develop extremely effectively. In the process of discussion, students develop not only educational, but also social independence. Memory in developmental learning is formed involuntarily. Daily work with theoretical concepts, analysis and transformation of their essential features leads to the fact that students memorize the definitions of basic theoretical concepts without much effort, while they are able not only to reproduce the formulations of concepts, but also to analyze and transform them, which cannot be achieved in the system informational and reproductive education.

To develop a technology for developing education, it is important to take into account how the learning process takes place. Pedagogical technology distinguishes in this process a number of successive stages, the passage of each of which is necessary.

1. Preparation for perception:

Repetition of reference material;

Motivation;

Problematic situation;

Opening of the event;

Other techniques.

2. Perception:

Formulation of the theory;

Search for truth, proof;

Truth registration, proof.

3. Awareness and comprehension of information.

4. Fastening, application.

The curriculum on the subject for developmental education has fundamental differences from the content of the program for information and reproductive education.

1. The introductory topic is always devoted to the formulation of the basic general subject concepts of the subject at the empirical level. Each subject has its own basic concepts, for example, in mathematics - an axiom, theorem, value, in chemistry - matter, reaction, in physics - body, matter.

2. Within each topic, the main informational issues and theoretical concepts are highlighted. This division allows the teacher himself to highlight the main thing for which creative tasks and works will be selected.

3. The types of tasks for the formulation of theoretical concepts are indicated.

4. Methods for solving problems and, if possible, the problems themselves are indicated.

5. The types of creative work on this topic are indicated.

But developmental education has its own problems, but they are of a somewhat different nature. For example: "Where can I get the time to analyze all the ideas proposed by the students?", "Where can I get even more difficult tasks?"

Ready knowledge cannot be transferred to the student as a material object. They must be opened by them on their own.

Comparison of traditional and developmental education

	Traditional teaching	Developmental training
Learning objectives	To give the child certain knowledge, abilities, skills.	To form in the child certain abilities for self-improvement, to provide conditions for development as a self-changing subject of learning (to have a need for self-change and satisfy it through learning).
	Knowledge, abilities and skills, the volume of which is regulated by the teacher.	A system of scientific concepts that ensure the meaningfulness of student research and practical skills and determines the principles of constructing those actions, the methods of implementation of which are to be mastered by the student.
Forms of organization and interaction between teacher and students	Consistent separation of management and execution functions, each of which is assigned to one of the interacting parties.	Organization of collective distribution activities between the teacher and students in the process of finding ways to solve educational and research problems. The main form of work is educational dialogue in the course of exploratory research activities.
Teaching methods	An explanatory and illustrative method based on the associative-reflex psychological theory of learning. Retelling of concepts, translation of general principles for solving a wide range of educational problems.	A search and research method based on an activity approach, aimed at transforming the subject of research, discovering the general and deriving the particular from it through solving educational problems.

5. Practice of developmental education

During the deployment of the experimental work, three stages were identified:

Stage 1 - 1992-1997 - building a basic five-year primary education;

Stage 2 - 1997-2001 - organization of primary - differentiated education in the system of developmental education at the stage of basic school (grades 7-9);

Stage 3 - 2001-2003- organization of deep differentiated education at the high school stage (grades 10-11).

Hence, it was supposed to track the intermediate ascertaining results of the experiment after each stage of education.

Stage 1 (grades 1-6) - the stage of basic primary education.

The main strategic task of this stage is through educational activities to form students' abilities (analysis, planning and reflection) for further self-development, self-study, and self-education. In other words, you need to create a "tool" for students with which they can continue to learn in the next stages.

Stage 2 (grades 7-9) is the stage of primary - differentiated education

The main strategic task of this type is, based on the abilities and inclinations of 12-year-old children, to organize the primary differentiation of education, making it possible for students to more fully reveal their interests and determine their own. educational space through the organization of a system of club work and closed cycles in certain subject areas of knowledge that go beyond the state basic curriculum... Thus, by the end of this stage, reach the personal self-determination of each student.

3rd stage (grades 10-11) - the stage of differentiated education.

The main strategic task is to use the acquired abilities of students to teach themselves, to orient themselves in the spectrum of their further, possibly professional interests, to focus the efforts of students on educational and professional activities for further continuing education in a higher educational institution.

To achieve the desired results, it is proposed four typologies of lessons.

1. The first typology of lessons

This typology is associated with the promotion of a child in academic subject... The typology of lessons is adequate to the structure of educational activity, that is, the structure of educational activity lies at the heart of the first typology.

2. Second typology of lessons.

These are lessons on processing communication media in educational activities. In this case, subject material is used, but there is practically no progress in the subject itself.

1 type- first, there is a training in communication in pairs. But then the teacher must select the material specifically for the pair work.

Type 2- working out interaction in small groups, for example, 4 people. The forms of cooperation are discussed, that is, the distribution of roles and functions.

Type 3- frontal interaction. It is important here to teach children to listen to each other.

4 type- intergroup interaction.

5 type- lessons on self- and mutual assessment, that is, on the formation of the ability to see oneself as such and oneself in a group.

3. The third typology of lessons.

It is associated with intersubject interaction. These are special lessons when a situation is created in which the unknown in a given subject turns out to be known in another. For example, when adding multi-digit numbers, children begin by identifying overflow and alignment. In Russian, there is a similar concept of a strong position. Then the question arises, which situation in mathematics will correspond to the concept of a weak position.

1 type- unknown knowledge within the subject.

Type 2- the use of known knowledge for another subject.

For example, a child is confronted with a trigonometric concept, that is, with a generally new unknown section within mathematics.

4. The fourth typology of lessons.

It is possible to output lessons with "unpredictable results" into it. This happens when, during the discussion, a question arises that does not relate to this topic. It is important for the teacher to understand that it is necessary to continue the discussion of this issue when the children already have the means for this. Otherwise, it is better to use the notebook of "unsolved secrets".

Based on their practices high school№1, we can conclude that the typology of lessons №1 turned out to be more acceptable.

The emergence and development of theoretical thinking is one of the first and most important results of developmental education, which were obtained during the application of this system in practice.

I believe that developmental learning is specifically designed to form this type of theoretical thinking, therefore, its presence or absence in students is a fairly convincing indicator of whether the goal of developmental learning has been achieved.

The emergence and intensive development of truly voluntary memory is one of the specific results of developmental learning, which is clearly revealed by the end of primary school age.

If, at the basis of abstract-associative thinking, already in primary school age, rational intelligence begins to form, which ensures successful behavior under standard conditions, but turns out to be inconsistent when the situation requires an independent search for means and methods of activity, then content-theoretical thinking is intensively formed in the process of developing learning, becomes a reliable foundation of intelligence, capable of providing a reasonable choice of goals, means and ways to achieve them based on understanding the real situation, taking into account the objective conditions and their capabilities, a critical assessment of their own activities and its results this is this vector intellectual development, clearly defined already in the first half of primary school age, and should be considered one of the main results of developmental education.

Conclusion

developing learning creativity thinking

With the introduction of developmental education into mass practice, a number of problems have emerged:

1. Coexistence of developmental education with the traditional system within the same educational institution.

2. Training of specialists in developmental education.

3. The technology of teaching in a new for the teacher is not described holistically educational system where the old methods and forms of work turn out to be ineffective.

The peculiarity of the technology of developing education lies in the fact that it is built in the joint actions of teachers and students. Working methods and techniques can be created right in the lesson, students have the opportunity to choose certain forms of interaction. All this makes the technology of developing education multifunctional.

Despite the existing problems, the system of developmental education, I think, is relevant and promising. Many schools have started to master this system. In order to solve scientific and practical problems of developing education, the Association "Developing Education" was created, which unites scientists, teachers, psychologists from Russia, Ukraine and other countries. It can be assumed that the achievements of domestic pedagogy and psychology of creating a fundamentally new system of developmental education will contribute to the formation of national education systems that meet the realities of the 21st century.

The new century requires a new personality: free, highly developed intellectually, capable of independently making decisions. That is, such a personality can be created using the developmental training system.

Bibliography

1. Vorontsov A.B. The practice of developing education - M., 1998.

2. Davydov V.V. Developmental learning problems - M .: Pedagogy. - 1986.

3. Davydov V.V. Developmental learning theory. M., 1996.

4. Davydov V.V. and other Organization of developing education in the V-IX grades of secondary school // Psychological science and education. - 1997 - No. 1.

5. Training and development / Ed. L.V. Zankova - M., 1975

6. Repkin N.V. What is developmental learning? - Tomsk, 1993

7. Elkonin D.B. From the book: "Age and individual characteristics younger adolescents "- M.," Phoenix "magazine 1995, №4.

8. Yakimanskaya I.S. Developing education - M., 1979.

Posted on Allbest.ru

...

Similar documents

The history of development and formation of the system of developing education. Studying the system of developing education based on the works of V.V. Davydov. Forms of educational work in the system of developmental education. Usage information technologies in developmental education.

term paper, added 07/04/2010


Developmental learning is one of the main problems of pedagogy. Historical roots of developmental education. The process of acquiring knowledge. The idea of ​​developing education in the legacy of outstanding thinkers of the past. The introduction of developmental education in a modern school.

test, added 10/04/2008


The main goals of a modern school are to ensure that schoolchildren master the range of skills, knowledge and skills that they will need in the professional, social, family spheres of life. Developmental education systems L.V. Zankova, D.B. Elkonina, V.V. Davydov.

abstract, added 06/03/2010


Psychological and pedagogical characteristics of developing education. The concept and stages of development of developmental education, its use in labor lessons. Revealing the essence and description of the method of creative projects, its role in the development of the thinking of schoolchildren.

term paper added 07/23/2015


Theoretical aspects of developmental teaching and teaching listening in the classroom of English language, characteristics and possibilities of developing education. Using a communicative approach in teaching listening. Analysis of the elements of developmental education.

term paper, added 09/02/2011


Basic principles of developmental education. Essence, sources and varieties pedagogical technologies... Purposes and basic tasks of use game forms learning. Methods of teaching literacy and literacy in the lessons of the Russian language in primary school.

term paper added 09/03/2013


The role of non-traditional teaching technologies in modern schools and the criteria for their selection. Game methods learning: concept gaming technologies... Varieties and possibilities of using educational business games. Differences between lessons in modern schools and teaching methods.

term paper, added 07/22/2008


Characteristics of technologies of developing education and upbringing at the present stage. The use of design research technologies in the process of teaching biology. Analysis of methods for enhancing cognitive activity - riddles, rebuses, crosswords.

term paper, added 01/27/2010


The history of the creation of a system of developing education. Advantages and disadvantages of the generally accepted form of organization of the educational process in the form of group work of students. Organization of the student's search activity in the work of V. Davydov "Problems of Developmental Education".

abstract, added 10/19/2012


Features of traditional and developmental teaching methods, the use of modern technologies in the classroom, levels of pedagogical skills. Features of traditional and developmental teaching methods, the main teaching methods used in the lesson.

Developmental learning technologies

1. The relevance of developmental education

The main goal of the school is to teach the child to think. The development of thinking activity is the basis of human intelligence.

It is the development of thinking and imagination that determines the intellectual level of students, their transition from one stage of mental development to another..

Since the development of the child's intellect is associated with the development of mental activity, the applied technology of developmental education should provide motivation and constant movement of thought to external sign speech and vice versa. Developing technologies are precisely the main means of adaptation to the requirements of training programs, i.e. full development of knowledge and skills.

To date, within the framework of the concept of developmental education, a number of developmental education technologies have been developed that differ in target orientations, features of content and methodology. In 1996, the Ministry of Education of Russia officially recognized the existence of the system of L.V. Zankov and D. B. Elkonin-V.V. Davydov. The rest of the developing technologies have the status of copyright, alternative.

2. General foundations of developmental education technologies... Developmental learning is understood as a new active-activity method (type) of learning, replacing the explanatory-illustrative method (type).

As Disterweg said:

"A bad teacher teaches the truth, a good teacher teaches how to find it"

Concept development.The technology of developing education, developed by Elkonin - Davydov, is fundamentally different from others in that it focuses ondevelopment of theoretical thinking of schoolchildren, it is considered one of the most efficient technologies available.

GOAL in the system of developmental educationElkonina-Davydova: Formation of the foundations of creative thinking in children through the implementation of educational activities, as well as certain abilities (reflection, analysis, planning) for self-improvement. Knowledge in this system is not an end in itself, but only a means. In the process of this activity, the student generalizes the essential features of objects, as well as his own actions and the actions of others with these objects, thereby he learns to think.

Subject content
Scientific knowledge is built in the structure of the tool. Movement in content from general to specific.

Teaching method

Activity or problem approach - by presenting a system of educational tasks.

Perception method

Research. The student is viewed as a subject, i.e. source of activity. The educational task is considered as the goal of achievement, personally significant for the student.

Perception form

Educational dialogue. The teacher not only informs the children about the conclusions of science, but, if possible, leads them to the discovery, forcing them to follow the dialectical movement of thought, thereby making children accomplices in scientific research.

The technology of developmental education (RO) is aimed at the holistic harmonious development of the personality, where the whole set of its qualities is manifested, namely:

ZUN - knowledge, abilities, skills;

COURT - ways of mental actions;

SUM - self-governing personality mechanisms;

SEN - emotional and moral sphere;

SDP - activity-practical environment

RO = ZUN + COURT + SUM + SEN + SDP

"The categories of learning and development are different. The effectiveness of learning, as a rule, is measured by the quantity and quality of acquired knowledge, and the effectiveness of development is measured by the level that the abilities of students reach, that is, by how developed the basic forms of their students are. mental activity, allowing you to quickly, deeply and correctly orient yourself in the phenomena of the surrounding reality ”D. B. Elkonin.

The effectiveness of developing technologies

Students make up the largest percentage of the participants and winners of the Olympiads;

The level of development of the intelligence of students is significantly higher than that of students with a traditional form of education (graduates show high results in the Unified State Exam, even in tasks designed for non-standard thinking);

Development of children's abilities for deep analysis and outlook, the ability to reasonably reason and express their point of view;

Development and implementation of hidden opportunities inherent in the child;

The coefficient of comprehended new material is significantly higher, since the form of teaching itself does not imply a passive perception of information from the teacher, but leads to its assimilation through a series of sequential logical reasoning by the student himself. In fact, the student himself forms the next level of knowledge;

Development of the ability to think unconventionally and find non-standard solutions;

An active form of learning develops students' self-esteem and reduces the factor of complexes;

The implementation and development of all individual natural data of each student, the inherent ability to make non-standard decisions, the development of analytical abilities and the ability to reasonably express their point of view allow children to achieve the highest professional results in their future life.

Student statements: “During the years of study at school, I understood the uniqueness of each person, the school taught me to feel responsible for my actions”,

“We have learned to be free, although obey general rules, do not assume that the opinion of a teacher or someone who is above you is absolutely ",

“The teachers tried to develop personal qualities in us, not the qualities of the crowd, to think and evaluate the situation,”

"The school made me understand that my life is in my hands."

Flaw: The general drawback of the Zankov and Elkonin-Davydov system is that they do not receive a worthy continuation at higher levels of school education. And if you prefer one of them, be prepared that after primary school your child will still have to reorganize to traditional teaching, and this can create problems for him at first.

At present, particular interest in this system is associated, first of all, with the fact that it almost completely corresponds to the Concept and modernization Russian education adopted by the Government of the Russian Federation and new standards. The main goal of the modernization of Russian education is to form in the younger generation such qualities as initiative, independence and responsibility, capable of mobilizing their potential in the new socio-economic conditions.

"The position of the student is not just the position of a student attending school and carefully following the instructions of the teacher and home lessons, but the position of a person who improves himself." (To improve, to teach oneself means to build a relationship with oneself as with “others”). D.B. Elkonin.

Systems of traditional and developmental education.

	Traditional training system	Developing education according to the system of D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydova
Learning objectives	Assimilation of knowledge, abilities, skills.	The development of the child as a subject of educational activity.
	1. The choice of rules governing the ways of solving specific problems. 2. Didactic principle: from particular to general, from concrete to abstract. 3. The construction of educational material proceeds in a linear way from particular facts to subsequent generalization at the final stage. 4. General concepts do not help students in the study of particular concepts, and at the same time, they cannot be completely generalized, because appeared at the end. 5. Knowledge is given ready-made.	1. The system of scientific concepts of the subject, which determines general principles solving problems of a wide class. 2. The principle of meaningful generalization, when knowledge of a general nature is prescribed to knowledge of a particular and specific nature. 3. The construction of the educational material proceeds as a spiral movement from the center to the periphery. General abstract concepts in the process of their deployment are enriched with concrete facts and knowledge. 4. General concepts serve as a guide for students and help to comprehend particular concepts and ideas. They allow finding solutions to new problems that have not been encountered before. 5. Knowledge is not given off-the-shelf.
Learning activity of students	1. Reproductive, reproductive, educational activity 2. The student, as it were, follows the rule and the more accurately he reproduces the route given in it, the higher the chances of mastering it.	1.Search-research ("quasi-research") educational activity. 2. The general principle must be extracted by analyzing and generalizing the conditions of the problem, searching for a way to solve new task of the same class. In carrying out the search, the students basically reproduce the actions that the scientist performs in the process of research.
Teaching methods	Illustrative and explanatory: Showing a sample of the seeded mode. Explanation. Control over the correctness of the application of the method in solving training problems.	Statement of the educational problem. Joint solution of the educational problem. Organization of the evaluation of the found method of action.