Authors of methods and systems of developing education. Theory and pedagogical technology of developing education in the conditions of the educational process on ships and in units

Introduction

1. The concept of developmental education

2. The system of developing education L.V. Zankova

3. Technology of developing education DB. Elkonin - V.V. Davydova

Conclusion

List of used literature

In recent years, the attention of teachers has increasingly been attracted by the ideas of developmental education, with which they associate the possibility of changes in the school. Developmental education is aimed at preparing students for an independent "adult" life. The main goal of a modern school is to ensure that schoolchildren acquire a certain range of skills, knowledge and skills that they will need in the professional, social, family spheres of life.

The theory of developmental learning originates in the works of I.G. Pestalozzi, A. Distervega, K.D. Ushinsky and others. The scientific substantiation of this theory is given in the works of L.S. Vygotsky. Its further development she received in the experimental works of L.V. Zankova, D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydova, N.A. Menchinskaya and others. In their concepts, learning and development appear as a system of dialectically interrelated aspects of one process. Education is recognized as the leading driving force of the child's mental development, the formation of the whole set of personality qualities in him: ZUN, COURT, SUM, SEN, SDP.

Currently, within the framework of the concept of developmental education, a number of technologies have been developed that differ in target orientations, features of content and methods. Technology L.V. Zankov is aimed at the general, holistic development of the personality, the technology of D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydova emphasizes the development of COURTS, technologies of creative development give priority to SES, the technology of G.K. Selevko focuses on the development of the MSM, I.S. Yakimanskaya - on the SDP.

In 1996, the Ministry of Education of Russia officially recognized the existence of L.V. Zankov and D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydov. The rest of the developing technologies have the status of copyright, alternative.

In this paper, we will consider the concept of developmental education, as well as the developmental technologies of L.V. Zankov and D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydov.

The problem of developing education is of interest to teachers of many generations: Ya.A. Comenius and J.J. Russo, I.G. Pestalozzi and I.F. Herbart, K. D. Ushinsky and others. In Soviet times, it was intensively developed by psychologists and teachers L.S. Vygotsky, L.V. Zankov, V.V. Davydov, D.B. Elkonin, N.A. Menchinskaya, as well as A.K. Dusavitsky, N.F. Talyzina, V.V. Repkin, S.D. Maksimenko and others. Naturally, at different historical times, researchers differently represent and interpret the very concept of developing education. The complexity and at the same time the positive side of the development of this topic lies in the organic, natural combination of the problems of pedagogy and psychology: teaching is a component of didactics, while development is a psychological process.

The term "developmental learning" owes its origin to V.V. Davydov. Introduced to designate a limited range of phenomena, it soon entered mass pedagogical practice. Today, its use is so diverse that a special study is required to understand its modern meaning.

Generalization 1. Developmental learning is understood as a new, active-active method (type) of training, which replaces the explanatory-illustrative method (type).

Personal development and its patterns

Personality is a dynamic concept: it undergoes changes during life, which are called development (progressive or regressive).

Development (progressive) is a process of physical and mental change of an individual in time, involving improvement, a transition in any of its properties and parameters from less to more, from simple to complex, from lower to higher.

The term "personality formation" is used as:

1) a synonym for "development", i.e. the process of internal personality change;

2) a synonym for "education", "socialization", i.e. creation and implementation of external conditions for personal development.

Properties and patterns of the development process. The development of personality occurs in accordance with universal dialectical laws. Specific properties(regularities) of this process are as follows.

Immanence: the ability to develop is inherent in a person by nature, it is an integral property of a person.

Biogenicity: mental development personality is largely determined by the biological mechanism of heredity.

Sociogenicity: the social environment in which a person develops has a huge impact on personality formation.

Psychogenicity: a person is a self-regulating and self-governing system, the development process is subject to self-regulation and self-management.

Individuality: personality is a unique phenomenon, characterized by an individual selection of qualities and its own development.

Stages: personality development obeys the general law of cyclicality, undergoing stages of origin, growth, culmination, withering, decline.

Unevenness (nonlinearity): an individual is unique, each personality develops at its own pace, experiencing accelerations (spontaneity) and growth contradictions (crisis) that are randomly distributed in time.

Physical age determines the quantitative (limited) and qualitative (sensitivity) possibilities of mental development.

Generalization 2. Developmental learning takes into account and uses the patterns of development, adapts to the level and characteristics of the individual.

Education and development

The physical development of a child is carried out very clearly according to the genetic program in the form of an increase in the size of the skeleton, muscle mass, etc. It is also obvious that external conditions determine a huge range of results: a child can be more or less healthy, physically trained, and hardy.

What about the psyche, the personality? To what extent does the development of consciousness depend on learning and social conditions, and to what extent - on natural age maturation? The answer to this question is fundamentally important: it determines the boundaries of a person's potential capabilities, and, consequently, the goals and objectives of external pedagogical influences.

In the history of pedagogy, the problem is presented by two extreme points of view. The first (biologizing, Cartesian) proceeds from the rigid predetermination of development by hereditary or emanating from the Most High factors. Socrates said that the teacher is a midwife, he cannot give anything, but only helps to give birth.

The second (sociologizing, behavioristic), on the contrary, ascribes all the results of development to the influence of the environment. The odious Soviet academician T.D. Lysenko wrote: "A woman must give us an organism, and we will make a Soviet man out of it."

Modern science has established that every act of mental development is associated with the reflection in the brain of the external environment, it is appropriation, the acquisition of the experience of cognition and activity, and in this sense is learning. Education is a form of human mental development, a necessary element of development. Any learning develops and enriches the bank of memory and conditioned reflexes.

Learning and development cannot act as separate processes, they relate as the form and content of a single process of personality development.

However, here, too, there are two fundamentally different concepts (Fig. 1).

The concept of learning development (J. Piaget, Z. Freud, D. Dewey): a child must go through strictly defined age stages in his development (preoperative structures - formal operations - formal intelligence) before learning can begin to perform its specific tasks. Development always goes ahead of learning, and the latter is built on top of it, as if "teaching" it.

Rice. 1. The ratio of learning and development

Developmental learning concept: Learning plays a decisive role in a child's development. It became firmly established in the 20th century thanks to the works of Russian scientists L. S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, S.L. Rubinstein, D.B. Elkonin, P. Ya. Galperin, E.V. Ilyenkova, L.V. Zankova, V.V. Davydova and others. In the interests of society and the person himself, training should be organized in such a way as to achieve maximum development results in a minimum time. It should go ahead of development, making maximum use of genetic age prerequisites and making significant adjustments to them. This is provided by a special pedagogical technology, which is called developmental learning.

Generalization 3. In developing teaching, pedagogical influences anticipate, stimulate, direct and accelerate the development of hereditary personality data.

The child is the subject of his development

In the technology of developing education, the child is assigned the role of an independent subject interacting with environment... This interaction includes all stages of activity: goal setting, planning and organization, implementation of goals and analysis of performance results. Each of the stages makes its own specific contribution to personality development.

In the activity of goal-setting, the following are brought up: freedom, purposefulness, dignity, honor, pride, independence.

When planning: independence, will, creativity, creation, initiative, organization.

At the stage of achieving goals: hard work, skill, diligence, discipline, activity.

At the analysis stage, the following are formed: relationships, honesty, assessment criteria, conscience, responsibility, duty.

The child's position as an object of learning (TO) deprives him of all or part of the actions of goal-setting, planning, analysis and leads to deformations and development costs. Only in the full-fledged activity of the subject is the development of independence, a positive self-concept, the moral-volitional sphere of the individual achieved, self-realization, self-change occurs. Therefore, one of the main goals of developmental education is the formation of the subject of learning - the individual teaching himself.

The recognition of the role of the subject for the learner marks a change in the paradigm of mental development: sociologizing and biologizing theories of learning traditional for the 20th century are giving way to methods based on subjective, psychogenic factors of development.

Generalization 4. In developing education, the child is a full-fledged subject of activity.

An extremely important problem in this hypothesis is the motivation of the child-subject's activity. According to the method of its solution, the technologies of developing education are divided into groups that exploit various needs, abilities and other personality traits as the basis of motivation:

Technologies based on cognitive interest (L.V. Zankov, D.B. Elkonin - V.V.Davydov),

On the needs of self-improvement (G.K. Selevko),

On the individual experience of a person (technology of I.S. Yakimanskaya),

For creative needs (I.P. Volkov, G.S. Altshuller),

On social instincts (I.P. Ivanov).

The modern stage of pedagogical practice is a transition from an information and explanatory teaching technology to an activity-developmental one, which forms a wide range of a child's personal qualities. Not only the acquired knowledge becomes important, but also the methods of assimilation and processing of educational information, the development of cognitive forces and the creative potential of students.

In an effort to develop individuality, the technology under consideration does not single out any of the listed groups of personality traits, it focuses on their all-round development.

Generalization 5. Developmental education is aimed at developing the entire totality of personality traits.

RO = ZUN + COURT + SUM + SEN + SDP

From this point of view, it would be more correct to call developing education developmental pedagogy, or developmental pedagogy.

Zone of proximal development

L.S. Vygotsky wrote: “Pedagogy should be guided not by yesterday, but by tomorrow child development". He distinguished two levels in the development of a child:

2) the zone of proximal development - those activities that the child is not yet able to perform on his own, but which he can cope with with the help of adults.

The zone of proximal development is a greater or lesser opportunity to move from what the child knows how to do on his own, to what he can, knows how to do in cooperation.

For development, it is extremely effective to constantly overcome the line between the sphere of actual development and the zone of proximal development - an area unknown, but potentially accessible for knowledge.

Generalization 6. Developmental learning takes place in the zone of proximal development of the child.

Determining the outer boundaries of the zone of proximal development, distinguishing it from the actual and inaccessible zone is a task that is solved so far only at an intuitive level, depending on the experience and skill of the teacher.

Learning system L.V. Zankova emerged from an interdisciplinary study of the relationship between learning and development. The interdisciplinary nature was expressed, firstly, in the integration of the achievements of several sciences dealing with the study of the child: physiologists, defectologists, psychologists and teachers, and secondly, in the integration of experiment, theory and practice. For the first time, the results of scientific research through a psychological and pedagogical experiment acquired the form of an integral pedagogical system and, thus, were brought to their practical implementation.

Conclusion on the research problem: development occurs as a complex process of interaction of external and internal factors, that is, the individual, deep qualities of the child. This understanding of the relationship between training and development corresponds to a special type of training, in which, on the one hand, exclusive attention is paid to the construction of training, its content, principles, methods, etc. as reflecting social experience, social order, on the other - just as exclusive attention is paid to the inner world of the child: his individual and age characteristics, his needs and interests.

The general development of L.V. Zankov understands it as an integral movement of the psyche, when each neoplasm arises as a result of the interaction of his mind, will, feelings. At the same time, particular importance is attached to moral, aesthetic development. It is about the unity and equivalence in the development of the intellectual and emotional, volitional and moral.

Currently, the priorities of education are recognized as the ideals of developmental education: the ability to learn, subject and universal (general educational) methods of action, the child's individual progress in the emotional, social, cognitive spheres. To implement these priorities, a scientifically grounded, time-tested developmental pedagogical system is needed. This is the system of L.V. Zankov, which is characterized by the integrity and interdependence of its following parts.

The goal of the training is the optimal overall development of each child.

The task of teaching is to present students with a holistic wide picture of the world by means of science, literature, art and direct cognition.

Didactic principles - teaching at a high level of difficulty with observance of the measure of difficulty; the leading role of theoretical knowledge; awareness of the learning process; fast paced passing teaching material; work on the development of every child, including the weak.

Typical properties methodological system- versatility, procedurality, collisions, variability.

The upbringing of a person who meets the modern requirements of society is possible only if, according to the well-known statement of L.S. Vygotsky, learning will run ahead of the child's development, that is, it will be carried out in the zone of proximal development, and not at the current, already achieved level. This psychological position, basic for the modern school, was comprehended by L.V. Zankov as a didactic principle: "teaching at a high level of difficulty with observance of the measure of difficulty." A prerequisite for its correct implementation is knowledge of the characteristics of the pupils, knowledge of the current level of their development. Constant study of the child, starting from his admission to school, allows us to accurately determine the maximum level of difficulty for each student for the proposed content and methods of its assimilation.

New knowledge about the personality of the student and the rethinking of the already known ones and were the scientific basis on the basis of which the next generation of training courses for primary grades, which are recommended for use in schools by the Ministry of Education and Science.

Below we will dwell on some of the essential features of modern elementary schoolchildren, which were taken into account when developing curricula. Through these features, we will reveal the meaning of the didactic system of L.V. Zankova.

In the unity of the intellectual and emotional in a child of primary school age, the emphasis is on the emotional, which gives impetus to the intellectual, moral, creative principle (the methodological property of versatility).

Collisions can be an impetus to search activity. They arise when:

The child is faced with a lack (excess) of information or methods of activity to solve the problem;

He finds himself in a situation of choice of opinion, approach, solution, etc .;

He is faced with new conditions for using existing knowledge.

In such situations, learning does not go from simple to complex, but rather from complex to simple: from some unfamiliar, unexpected situation through a collective search (under the guidance of a teacher) to its resolution.

The implementation of the didactic principle of "teaching at a high level of difficulty with observance of the measure of difficulty" requires the selection and structure of content so that when working with it, students experience maximum mental stress. The degree of difficulty varies depending on the capabilities of each student, up to direct assistance. But first, the student must face a cognitive difficulty, which causes emotions that stimulate the search activity of the student, class.

Younger schoolchildren are characterized by syncretism (fusion, indivisibility) of thinking, it is enough low level development of analysis and synthesis. We proceed from the general idea of ​​development as a process of transition from low stages, which are characterized by fused, syncretic forms, to more and more dismembered and ordered forms, which are characteristic of high levels. Psychologists call this transition the law of differentiation. Mental development in general and mental development in particular is subject to him. Consequently, at the initial stage of education, the child should be provided with a wide, holistic picture of the world, which is created by integrated courses. The courses arranged in this way are most consistent with the age characteristics of primary schoolchildren and the peculiarities of the modern information flow, which is not divided into separate areas of knowledge.

In accordance with these features, all training courses are built on an integrated basis. I know " The world»The connections between knowledge about the Earth, its nature and the social and cultural life of a person, which takes place at a certain historical time, in certain natural conditions, are activated. The subtitles of the courses on the technology "Create, invent, try!" Speak for themselves. and "Handcrafted". "Literary reading" organically combines work on the perception of works of literature, music and visual arts. On the basis of broad intra-subject integration, the course of the Russian language is built, in which the language system, speech activity and the history of the language are presented in interconnections; on the same integration, a mathematics course is built, which organically combines the content of arithmetic, geometry, the beginnings of algebra, and the history of mathematics. In the music course, students' musical activities are organized as a unity of performance, listening and improvisation. In the course of this activity, knowledge about music, its history, about composers is integrated with knowledge of literature, fine arts, folklore.

L.V. Zankov decisively abandoned the practice, when each segment training course is considered as an independent and complete unit, when it is possible to move on to a new segment only after the previous one has been "thoroughly" mastered. “Genuine knowledge of each element,” writes L.V. Zankov, - he progresses all the time as he masters the other, subsequent elements of the subject and the awareness of the corresponding whole up to the entire training course and its continuation in the next classes. " This ensures the effectiveness of the didactic principle of "rapid pace of passage of educational material." This principle requires constant progress. The continuous enrichment of the student's mind with versatile content creates favorable conditions for its ever deeper understanding, since it is included in a widespread system.

Thus, the development of the main, basic content indicated in the State Standards is carried out systematically:

1) propaedeutic study of the future program material, which is essentially related to the actual content for a given year of study;

2) its study while updating objectively existing links with previously studied material;

3) the inclusion of this material in new connections when studying a new topic.

The novelty of the content or educational situation is a prerequisite for organizing the process of developing education. Therefore, none of the textbooks, as well as in the previous editions, does not contain the sections “Repetition of the past”. The past is organically included in the study of the new. Thus, conditions are created for the repeated operation of the same content for a long time, which ensures its study in various connections and functions, and as a result leads to the strength of the assimilation of the material (a new level of implementation of the methodological property of procedurality and variance).

The next feature of students in primary grades is directly related to the previous ones: the mental operations of younger students (analysis, synthesis, generalization) are most productively carried out at the visual-effective, visual-figurative and, to some extent, verbal-figurative levels.

We will name the important features of the educational and methodological kit, which is based on modern knowledge about age and individual characteristics junior student... The kit provides:

Understanding the relationships and interdependencies of the studied objects, phenomena due to the integrated nature of the content, which is expressed in the combination of material of different levels of generalization (supra-subject, inter- and intra-subject), as well as in the combination of its theoretical and practical orientation, intellectual and emotional saturation;

Possession of concepts necessary for further education;

Relevance, practical relevance educational material for the student;

Conditions for solving educational problems, social and personal, intellectual, aesthetic development of the child, for the formation of educational and universal (general educational) skills;

Active forms of cognition in the course of solving problematic, creative tasks: observation, experiments, discussion, educational dialogue (discussion of different opinions, hypotheses), etc.;

Research and design work, development of information culture;

Individualization of learning, which is closely related to the formation of motives of activity, extending to children of different types by the nature of cognitive activity, emotional and communicative characteristics, by gender. Individualization is realized, among other things, through three levels of content: basic, extended and in-depth.

In the learning process, a wide range of forms of education is used: classroom and extracurricular; frontal, group, individual in accordance with the characteristics of the subject, class characteristics and individual preferences of students.

To study the effectiveness of the development of curricula and the teaching materials developed on their basis, the teacher is offered materials on the qualitative accounting of the success of schoolchildren's education, including integrated testing, which corresponds to the position of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation. Only the results of written work from the second half of the 2nd grade are evaluated by marks. The lesson point is not assigned.

The initial focus of curricula and teaching materials on the development of each student creates conditions for its implementation in all types educational institutions(general education, gymnasiums, lyceums).

The hypotheses of D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydova

a) many general theoretical concepts are available to children from preschool age; they accept and master them before they learn to act with their particular empirical manifestations;

b) the child's opportunities for learning (and, consequently, development) are enormous, but they are not used by the school;

c) the possibilities to intensify mental development lie primarily in the content of the educational material, therefore, the basis for developing education is its content, from which the methods of organizing training are derived;

d) increasing the theoretical level of educational material in primary school stimulates the growth of the child's mental abilities.

Features of the content

A special construction of the academic subject that simulates the content and methods of the scientific field, organizing the child's cognition of genetically original, theoretically essential properties and relationships of objects, the conditions of their origin and transformation.

Raising the theoretical level of education, transferring to children not only empirical knowledge and practical skills, but also "high" forms of social consciousness (scientific concepts, artistic images, moral values).

The developing nature of training in technology D. B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydov is primarily due to the fact that its content is built on the basis of theoretical knowledge. As you know, empirical knowledge is based on observation, visual representations, external properties of objects; conceptual generalizations are obtained by highlighting common properties when comparing objects. Theoretical knowledge, on the other hand, goes beyond sensory concepts, is based on mental transformations of abstractions, and reflects internal relations and connections. They are formed by genetic analysis of the role and functions of some general relations within an integral system of elements.

The most general concepts of science, expressing deep cause-and-effect relationships and patterns, fundamental genetically initial concepts, categories (number, word, energy, matter, etc.);

Concepts in which not external, subject-specific features are highlighted, but internal connections (for example, historical, genetic);

Theoretical images obtained through mental operations with abstract objects.

Didactic structures. Deduction based on meaningful generalizations prevails in the didactic structure of academic subjects.

According to V.V. Davydov, the ways of mental actions, the ways of thinking are subdivided into rational (empirical, based on visual images) to reasonable, or dialectical.

Rational-empirical thinking is aimed at dismembering and comparing the properties of objects in order to abstract the formal community and give it the form of a concept. This thinking is the initial stage of cognition, its types (induction, deduction, abstraction, analysis, synthesis, etc.) are also available to higher animals, the difference is only in degree.

Reasonable theoretical, dialectical thinking is associated with the study of the nature of the concepts themselves, reveals their transitions, movement, development. At the same time, naturally, the rational logic enters the dialectical one as a logic of a higher form.

The essence of theoretical thinking, according to V.V. Davydov, is that this is a special way of a person's approach to understanding things and events by analyzing the conditions of their origin and development.

The basis of theoretical thinking is mentally idealized concepts, systems of symbols (acting as primary in relation to specific empirical objects and phenomena). In this regard, the methods of mental actions in the technology of D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydov, have a number of characteristic differences from the formal logical interpretation.

Of particular importance in the technology of D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydov has a generalization effect. In formal logic, it consists in isolating essential features in objects and combining objects according to these features, bringing them under a general concept.

Empirical generalization proceeds from particular objects and phenomena through their comparison to a general empirical concept.

Theoretical, meaningful generalization, according to V.V. Davydov, is carried out by analyzing a certain whole in order to discover its genetically original, essential, universal relation as the basis of the internal unity of this whole.

Thus, the content of an academic subject is a system of concepts, given not as a way to write off an object, but as a basis for its transformation, regulating the basis of methods for obtaining meaningful results.

The approaches of V.V. Davydov was originally developed for teaching schoolchildren, but a number of provisions can be useful in teaching adults.

Developing education according to V.V. Davydov is opposed to the existing traditional system schooling, mainly directed from the particular, the concrete, the singular to the general, abstract, whole; from case, fact to system; from phenomenon to essence.

V.V. Davydov raised the question of the possibility of theoretical development of a new teaching system with a direction opposite to the traditional one: from the general to the particular, from the abstract to the concrete, from the systemic to the singular.

V.V. Davydov formulates the main provisions that characterize not only the content of academic subjects, but also those skills that should be formed in students when mastering these subjects in educational activities:

“The assimilation of knowledge of a general and abstract nature precedes the acquaintance of students with more specific and specific knowledge; the latter are deduced by students from the general and the abstract as from their unified basis.

The knowledge that constitutes a given academic subject or its main sections, students acquire, analyzing the conditions of their origin, thanks to which they become necessary.

When identifying the subject sources of certain knowledge, students should be able, first of all, to find in the educational material a genetically original, essential, universal relationship that determines the content and structure of the object of this knowledge.

Students reproduce this attitude in special subject, graphic, or letter models that allow them to study its properties in their purest form.

Students should be able to concretize the genetically initial, universal relation of the object under study in the system of private knowledge about it in such a unity that ensures the thinking of the transition from the general to the particular and back.

Students should be able to move from performing actions mentally to performing them externally and vice versa. ”

In the early 1930s, the outstanding Russian psychologist L.S. Vygotsky substantiated the possibility and feasibility of education focused on the development of the child. According to him, “pedagogy should focus not on yesterday, but on the future of child development ... Education is good only when it goes ahead of development”. Of course, L.S. Vygotsky in no way denied the need to assimilate knowledge, skills and abilities. But they are not the ultimate goal learning, but just a means of student development.

In the early 50s and 60s, L.V. Zankov tried to practically implement the ideas of developing education. He developed a new system primary education, but it was never implemented in the school.

At the beginning of the 60s, D.B. Elkonin, having analyzed the educational activity of schoolchildren, noted its originality and essence not in the assimilation of certain knowledge and skills, but in the child's self-measurement of himself as a subject. The foundation was laid for the concept of developmental learning, in which the child is viewed not as an object of the teacher's teaching objects, but as a self-changing subject of learning.

In the late 1980s, work began on the implementation of this concept. Programs were developed and published, the creation of textbooks and teaching aids began, retraining of teachers who are starting to study in these programs began. The teacher is faced with the need to make a choice between the two learning systems. If a creatively working teacher has to choose between different methods, forms and means of teaching, then this time he is offered a new goal. He must clearly understand where, to achieve what goal his name is, how reliable and realistic this path, on which he is invited to enter, is.

The ultimate goal of developmental learning is to have a need for self-change and be able to satisfy it through learning, i.e. to want, love and be able to learn.

For the first time, a child declares himself as a subject in preschool age(I myself!). But preschoolers have neither the need for self-change, nor the ability for it. Both that and another can develop only at school age. But whether this opportunity will be realized depends on a number of conditions that develop in the learning process.

Crossing the threshold of the school, the child immediately falls into submission to the requirements and norms, which are rigidly determined by the program, textbooks, and the teacher. There is no room left for the child to realize himself as a subject. But one should not look for an explanation of this fact in underestimating the laws of development, in the evil will of the teacher, in the undemocratic nature of the system. school education... A conflict situation is generated by the very content of school education, which is based on methods of solving typical problems.

Main types of training

The work of pioneers in the field of developmental education, primarily with the work of V.V. Davydova: “... development is ...
... further just summarizing and developing technologies). The first type is focused on the accumulation of a sum of knowledge (data and ...

The theory of developmental learning originates in the works of I. G. Pestalozzi, A. Disterveg, K.D. Ushinsky and others. The scientific substantiation of this theory is given in the works of L. S. Vygotsky. It received its further development in the experimental works of LV Zankov, DB Elkonin, VV Davydov, NA Menchinskaya and others. In their concepts, learning and development appear as a system of dialectically interrelated aspects of one process. Education is recognized as the leading driving force of the child's mental development, the formation of the whole set of personality traits in him: ZUN, COURT, SUM, SEN, SDP (see section 1.2.).

Currently, within the framework of the concept of developmental education, a number of technologies have been developed that differ in target orientations, features of content and methods. L.V. Zankov's technology is aimed at the general, holistic development of the personality, the technology of D. B. Elkonin - V. V. Davydov emphasizes the development of SU-Dov, technologies of creative development give priority to SES, the technology of G.K. Selevko is oriented towards the development of SMS, I. Syakimanskaya - on the SDP.

In 1996, the Ministry of Education of Russia officially recognized the existence of the systems of L.V. Zankov and D. B. Elkonin - V. V. Davydov. The rest of the developing technologies have the status of copyright, alternative.

11.1 General foundations of developmental learning technologies

Who does not know which harbor he is sailing to,

there is no tailwind for that.

In the early 30s of the XX century. LS Vygotsky put forward the idea of ​​education that goes ahead of development and is focused on the development of the child as the main goal. According to his hypothesis, knowledge is not the ultimate goal of learning, but only a means of student development.

Vygotsky's ideas were developed and substantiated within the framework of the psychological theory of activity (A. N. Leontiev, P. Ya. Galperin, etc.). As a result of the revision of traditional ideas about development and its relationship with learning, the formation of the child as a subject of various types and forms of human activity was highlighted.

One of the first attempts to implement these ideas was undertaken by L.V. Zankov, who in the 50-60s developed system of intensive all-round development for elementary school. At that time, due to known circumstances, it was not introduced into practice.

A slightly different direction of developmental education in the 60s was developed by D.B. Elkonin and V.V. Davydov and embodied in the practice of experimental schools. Their technology focused on development of intellectual abilities child.

The term "developmental learning" owes its origin to V.V. Davydov. Introduced to designate a limited range of phenomena, it soon entered mass pedagogical practice. Today, its use is so diverse that a special study is required to understand its modern meaning.

Generalization 1. Developmental learning is understood as a new, active-active method (type) of training, which replaces the explanatory-illustrative method (type).

Personal development and its patterns

Personality is a dynamic concept: it undergoes changes throughout life, which are called development (progressive or regressive).,

Development (progressive) is a process of physical and mental change of an individual in time, involving improvement, a transition in any of its properties and parameters from less to more, from simple to complex, from lower to higher.

The term "personality formation" is used as:

1) a synonym for "development", i.e. the process of internal personality change;

2) a synonym for "education", "socialization", i.e. creation and implementation of external conditions for personal development.

Properties and patterns of the development process. The development of personality occurs in accordance with universal dialectical laws. The specific properties (patterns) of this process are as follows.

Immanence: the ability to develop is inherent in man by nature, it is an inalienable property of the personality.

Biogenicity: mental development of the personality is largely determined by the biological mechanism of heredity.

Sociogenicity: the social environment in which human development takes place has a huge impact on the formation of personality.

Psychogenicity: man is a self-regulating and self-governing system, the development process is subject to self-regulation and self-government.

Individuality: personality is a unique phenomenon, characterized by an individual selection of qualities and its own development option.

Staging: personality development is subject to the general law of cyclicality, undergoing stages of origin, growth, culmination, decay, decline.

Irregularity (nonlinearity): the individual is unique, each personality develops at its own pace, experiencing accelerations randomly distributed in time (spontaneity) and contradictions of growth (crisis).

Physical age determines the quantitative (limited) and qualitative (sensitivity) possibilities of mental development.

Generalization 2. Developmental learning takes into account and uses the patterns of development, adapts to the level and characteristics of the individual.

Education and development

The physical development of a child is carried out very clearly according to the genetic program in the form of an increase in the size of the skeleton, muscle mass, etc. It is also obvious that external conditions determine a huge range of results: a child can be more or less healthy, physically trained, and hardy.

What about the psyche, the personality? To what extent does the development of consciousness depend on learning and social conditions, and to what extent - on natural age maturation? The answer to this question is fundamentally important: it determines the boundaries of a person's potential capabilities, and, consequently, the goals and objectives of external pedagogical influences.

In the history of pedagogy, the problem is presented by two extreme points of view. The first (biologizing, Cartesian) proceeds from the rigid predetermination of development by hereditary or emanating from the Most High factors. Socrates said that the teacher is a midwife, he cannot give anything, but only helps to give birth.

The second (sociologizing, behavioristic), on the contrary, ascribes all the results of development to the influence of the environment. The odious Soviet academician T.D. Lysenko wrote: "A woman must give us an organism, and we will make a Soviet man out of it."

Modern science has established that every act of mental development is associated with the reflection in the brain of the external environment, it is appropriation, the acquisition of the experience of cognition and activity, and in this sense is learning. Education is a form of human mental development, a necessary element of development. Any learning develops and enriches the bank of memory and conditioned reflexes.

Learning and development cannot act as separate processes, they relate as the form and content of a single process of personality development.

However, there are also two fundamentally different concepts here (Fig. 16).

Learning development concept(J. Piaget, S. Freud, D. Dewey): a child must go through strictly defined age stages in his development (preoperative structures - formal operations - formal intelligence) before learning can begin to perform its specific tasks. Development always goes ahead of learning, and the latter is built on top of it, as if "teaching" it.

Rice. 16. The ratio of learning and development

Developmental learning concept: the decisive role in the development of the child belongs to learning. It was established in the XX century thanks to the works of Russian scientists L.S.Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, S.L. Rubinstein, D.B. Elkonin, P.Ya. Galperin, E.V. Ilyenkov, L.V. Zankov , VV Davydova, etc. In the interests of society and the person himself, training should be organized in such a way as to achieve maximum development results in a minimum time. It should go ahead of development, making maximum use of genetic age prerequisites and making significant adjustments to them. This is provided by a special pedagogical technology, which is called developmental learning.

Generalization 3. In developing teaching, pedagogical influences anticipate, stimulate, direct and accelerate the development of hereditary personality data.

The child is the subject of his development

V technology of developing education, the child is assigned the role of an independent subject interacting with the environment. This interaction includes all stages of activity: goal setting, planning and organization, implementation of goals and analysis of performance results. Each of the stages makes its own specific contribution to personality development.

In activity goal setting brought up: freedom, purposefulness, dignity, honor, pride, independence.

At planning: independence, will, creativity, creation, initiative, organization.

At the stage achieving goals: hard work, skill, diligence, discipline, activity.

At the stage analysis formed: relationships, honesty, evaluation criteria, conscience, responsibility, duty.

The child's position as an object of learning (TO) deprives him of all or part of the actions of goal-setting, planning, analysis and leads to deformations and development costs. Only in the full-fledged activity of the subject is the development of independence, a positive self-concept, the moral-volitional sphere of the individual achieved, self-realization, self-change occurs. Therefore, one of the main goals of developmental education is the formation of the subject of learning - the individual teaching himself.

The recognition of the role of the subject for the learner marks a change in the paradigm of mental development: sociologizing and biologizing theories of learning traditional for the 20th century are giving way to methods based on subjective, psychogenic factors of development.

Generalization 4. In developing education, the child is a full-fledged subject of activity.

An extremely important problem in this hypothesis is the motivation of the child-subject's activity. According to the method of its solution, the technologies of developing education are divided into groups that exploit various needs, abilities and other personality traits as the basis of motivation:

Technologies based on cognitive interest (L.V. Zankov, D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydov),

On the needs of self-improvement (G.K. Selevko),

On the individual experience of a person (technology of I.S. Yakimanskaya),

For creative needs (I.P. Volkov, G.S. Altshuller),

On social instincts (I.P. Ivanov).

The modern stage of pedagogical practice is a transition from an information and explanatory teaching technology to an activity-developmental one, which forms a wide range of a child's personal qualities. Not only the acquired knowledge becomes important, but also the methods of assimilation and processing of educational information, the development of cognitive forces and the creative potential of students.

All groups of personality traits:

ZUN - knowledge, abilities, skills;

COURT- ways of mental actions;

SUM - self-governing personality mechanisms;

SEN - emotional and moral sphere;

SDP - the activity-practical sphere are interconnected and represent the most complex dynamically developing integral structure. Individual differences determine the level of development of a particular group of qualities, certain abilities.

In an effort to develop individuality, the technology under consideration does not single out any of the listed groups of personality traits, it focuses on their all-round development.

Generalization 5. Developmental education is aimed at developing the entire totality of personality traits.

RO = ZUN + COURT + SUM + SEN + SDP

From this point of view developmental education it would be more correct to call developing pedagogy, or developmental pedagogy.

Zone of proximal development

LS Vygotsky wrote: "Pedagogy should be guided not by yesterday, but by the future of child development." He singled out two levels in the development of the child: 1) the sphere (level) of actual development - already formed qualities and what the child can do on his own; 2) the zone of proximal development - those activities that the child is not yet able to perform on his own, but which he can cope with with the help of adults.

The zone of proximal development is a greater or lesser opportunity to move from what the child knows how to do on his own, to what he can, knows how to do in cooperation.

For development, it is extremely effective to constantly overcome the line between the sphere of actual development and the zone of proximal development - an area unknown, but potentially accessible for knowledge.

An essential feature of developing learning is that it creates a zone of proximal development, causes, stimulates, sets in motion the internal processes of mental neoplasms.

Generalization 6. Developmental learning takes place in the zone of proximal development of the child.

Determining the outer boundaries of the zone of proximal development, distinguishing it from the actual and inaccessible zone is a task that is solved so far only at an intuitive level, depending on the experience and skill of the teacher.

Literature

1. Vygotsky LS Thinking and speech. - M., 1974.

2. Vygotsky L.S. Pedagogical psychology. - M., 1991.

3. Halperin P.Ya. Teaching methods and mental development. - M., 1985.

4. Halperin P. Ya. Psychology of thinking and the doctrine of the phased formation of mental actions // Research of thinking in Soviet psychology. - M., 1966.

5. Davydov V.V. Developmental learning problems. - M., 1986.

6. Davydov V.V. Developmental learning theory. - M., 1996.

7. Locks L.V. Didactics and life. - M., 1968.

8. Ilyenkov E.V. Dialectical logic. - M., 1984.

9. Lebedeva V.P. et al. Psychodidactic aspects of developing education // Pedagogy. -1996. - No. 6.

10. Leontiev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. - M., 1975.

11. Lerner I.Ya. Developing teaching from a didactic position / / Pedagogy. -1996. - No. 2.

12. Petrovsky VA Subjectivity: a new paradigm in education // Psychological science and education. -1996. - No. 3.

13. Elkonin D.B. The psychology of teaching a younger student. - M., 1974.

First of all, it is worth paying attention to the fact that at the moment there are many variations of the existing teaching and educational processes. At the same time, absolutely any performer or author who came into contact with this topic brings an exceptional individual approach and teaching and educational methods, which determines their author's origin. However, a lot of similar classifying characteristics are revealed, which equally both unite and share the general process of classification of teaching and educational technologies and methods. These include the versatility of the content, goals and applied copyright techniques, which can be conditionally divided into separate subgroups. The functional diagram of pedagogical technologies has a multilevel structure and is defined as follows. (Fig. 1).

By instrumental and essential properties (in particular, by the organization of training, the nature of the teacher-student interaction, target orientation), the following classes of pedagogical technologies are identified:

According to the leading factor of mental development: psychogenic, sociogenic, idealistic, and biogenic technologies. At the moment, it is considered accepted to believe that the aggregate component of the personality includes the influence of biogenic, psychogenic and sociogenic factors, but, nevertheless, the basic classification includes an orientation towards a separate forming factor. However, it should be borne in mind that so far no separate monotechnology has been identified that would classify all semantic aspects according to one, clearly identified factor in the manifestation of psychological characteristics of a person. Pedagogical technology should always be comprehensive and not monotheistic. In accordance with the analysis of specific psychological aspects, in the field of classified consideration, psychological and pedagogical technology gets its name.

On a philosophical basis: anthroposophical and theosophical, materialistic and idealistic, humanistic and inhuman, dialectical and metaphysical, scientific (scientistic) and religious, pragmatic and existentialist, free education, as well as classified by the type of coercion and other varieties.

According to the level of application, local (modular), private methodological (subject) and general pedagogical technologies are distinguished.

Taking into account the scientific conceptual assimilation of experience, the following are revealed: developmental, associative-reflex, gestalt technologies, interiorization, behavioral pedagogical technologies. Also in this aspect, we can mention some of the less common suggestive technologies and technologies of neurolinguistic programming.

Pedagogical technologies can be classified into personal structures by orientation: operational (the formation of methods of mental actions - COURT); information Technology(the formation of school knowledge, ability, skills in the subjects of ZUN); applied (the formation of an effective and practical sphere - SDP); self-development technologies (the formation of self-governing personality mechanisms - SUM) and heuristic (development of creative abilities).

According to the structure and nature of the content, it is customary to subdivide the following pedagogical technologies: educational and teaching, religious and secular, technocratic and humanitarian, professionally oriented and general educational, private and industry-specific, group and differentiated teaching methods, when the teacher has penetrating technologies, mono-technologies and complex ( polytechnology). It is also possible to distinguish the following types of names and functional units of pedagogical technologies according to the general classification (Fig. 2).

Monotechnologies are classified by the fact that they are characterized by the existence of one individualized idea, concept, or practically realizable position, which are combined when all factors are combined. Also, as part of the study of this technology, it was revealed the presence of a penetrating element, which is analyzed from the standpoint of the presence of certain catalysts and analyzers. Salnikova T.P. Pedagogical technologies: Tutorial/ M.: TC Sphere, 2012.- P.57.

Considering the position of V.P. Bespalko, within the framework of individualization of the principles of activation and construction of pedagogical systems and their classification, a number of the following general organizational principles were identified (Fig. 3).

Based on the position of V.P. Bespalko, it can be said that the dominant component of achieving a pedagogical effect is formed by a direct and immediate relationship between a teacher and a student, in which his social skills are formed, and cognitive activity also develops. In the presence of this factor, it is necessary to take into account the necessary presence of open communication (uncontrolled and uncorrected activity of students), carrying out work with direct cyclicality and periodicity (with control, self-control and mutual control), frontal work with absent-mindedness, characterized by individualization and manual (verbal) or automated ( by using training facilities) control. Based on these signs, Bespalko V.P. reveals the following series of pedagogical systems and didactic technologies:

1) classical lecture training (control - open, absent-minded manual);

2) teaching with the help of audiovisual technical means (open, diffuse automated);

3) "consultant" system (open, directed, manual);

4) learning with the help of a textbook (open, directed, automated) - independent work;

5) the system of "small groups" (cyclical, scattered manual) - group, differentiated ways of teaching;

6) computer training (cyclical, scattered, automated);

7) “tutor” system (cyclical, directed, manual) - individual training;

8) "software training" (cyclical, directed, automated); for which there is a pre-compiled program.

In practice, various combinations of these "monodidactic systems are usually used, the most common of which are:

The traditional classical class-lesson system of Ya.A. Kamensky, representing a combination of a lecture method of presentation and independent work with a book (didachography);

Modern traditional teaching using didachography in combination with technical means;

Group and differentiated teaching methods, when the teacher has the opportunity to exchange information with the entire group, as well as pay attention to individual students as a tutor;

Programmed learning based on adaptive programmed control with partial use of all other types.

A fundamentally important aspect in pedagogical technology is the position of the child in the educational process, the attitude of adults towards the child. Several types of technologies stand out here.

a) Authoritarian technologies, in which the teacher is the sole subject of the educational process, and the student is only an "object", a "cog". They are distinguished by the rigid organization of school life, suppression of the initiative and independence of students, the use of demands and coercion.

6) Didactocentric technologies are distinguished by a high degree of inattention to the personality of the child, in which the subject also dominates - the object relationship of the teacher and the student, the priority of teaching over education, and didactic means are considered the most important factors in the formation of personality. Didactocentric technologies in a number of sources are called technocratic; however, the latter term, in contrast to the first, refers more to the nature of the content, and not to the style of pedagogical relations.

c) Personality-oriented technologies are placed at the center of the entire school educational system the personality of the child, ensuring comfortable, conflict-free and safe conditions for its development, the realization of its natural potentials. The child's personality in this technology is not only a subject, but also a priority subject; it is the goal of the educational system, and not a means of achieving any abstract goal (which is the case in authoritarian and didactocentric technologies). Such technologies are also called anthropocentric.

Thus, personality-oriented technologies are characterized by anthropocentricity, humanistic and psychotherapeutic orientation and are aimed at versatile, free and creative development child.

Within the framework of personality-oriented technologies, human-personal technologies, technologies of cooperation and technologies of free education are distinguished as independent directions.

d) Humanitarian-personal technologies are distinguished primarily by their humanistic essence, psychotherapeutic focus on supporting the individual, helping her. They "profess" the idea of ​​full respect and love for the child, an optimistic faith in his creative powers, rejecting coercion.

e) Technologies of cooperation realize democracy, equality, partnership in the subject - subject relations of the teacher and the child. The teacher and the students jointly develop goals, content, give marks, being in a state of cooperation, co-creativity.

f) Technologies of free upbringing focus on providing the child with freedom of choice and independence in a greater or lesser sphere of his life. Making a choice, the child realizes the position of the subject in the best way, going to the result from an internal motivation, and not from an external influence.

g) Esoteric technologies are based on the doctrine of esoteric ("unconscious, subconscious") knowledge - Truth and the ways leading to it. Pedagogical process- this is not a message, not communication, but an introduction to the Truth. In the esoteric paradigm, the person (child) himself becomes the center of information interaction with the Universe. Selevko G. K. "Technologies of developing education" Moscow, "Public education", 2009.

The method, method, means of teaching determine the names of many existing technologies: dogmatic, reproductive, explanatory and illustrative, programmed teaching, problem learning, developmental learning, self-developing learning, dialogical, communicative, playful, creative, etc.

Mass (traditional) school technology, designed for the average student;

Advanced technologies (in-depth study of subjects, gymnasium, lyceum, special education, etc.);

Compensatory learning technologies (pedagogical correction, support, alignment, etc.);

Various victimological technologies (surdo-, ortho-, typhlo- oligophrenopedagogy);

Technologies for working with deviant (difficult and gifted) children within the framework of a mass school.

And finally, the names of the big class modern technologies are divided into the content of those modernizations and modifications that the existing traditional system undergoes in them. Kirillova G. D. "Theory and practice of the lesson in the conditions of developing education" Moscow, "Education", 1980

Monodidactic technologies are rarely used. Usually, the educational process is structured in such a way that some polydidactic technology is constructed that unites and integrates a number of elements of various mono-technologies on the basis of some priority original author's idea. It is essential that the combined didactic technology can have qualities that exceed the qualities of each of the technologies included in it.

Usually, combined technology is called according to the idea (monotechnology) that characterizes the main modernization, does the greatest in achieving the learning goals. In the direction of modernization of the traditional system, the following groups of technologies can be distinguished.

a) Pedagogical technologies based on humanization and democratization of pedagogical relations. These are technologies with a procedural orientation, priority of personal relations, individual approach, not tough democratic governance and a bright humanistic orientation of the content. These include the pedagogy of cooperation, the humane and personal technology of Sh.A. Amonashvili, the system of teaching literature as a subject that forms a person E.N. Ilyina and others.

b) Pedagogical technologies based on the revitalization and intensification of students' activities. Examples: game technologies, problem learning, learning technology based on the abstracts of reference signals V.F. Shatalova, communication training E.I. Passova and others.

c) Pedagogical technologies based on the effectiveness of the organization and management of the learning process. Examples: programmed learning, differentiated learning technologies (V.V. Firsov, N.P. Guzik), technologies of individualization of learning (A.S. Granitskaya, Inge Unt, V.D.Shadrikov), forward-looking learning using support schemes with commented management (S.N. Lysenkova), group and collective methods of teaching (I.D. Pervin, V.K.Dyachenko), computer (information) technologies, etc.

d) Pedagogical technologies based on methodological improvement and didactic reconstruction of educational material: enlargement of didactic units (UDE) P.M. Erdniev, technology "Dialogue of Cultures" V.S. Bibler and S.Yu. Kurganova, the system "Ecology and Dialectics" L.V. Tarasova, the technology of the implementation of the theory of the stage-by-stage formation of mental actions by M.B. Volovich and others.

e) Nature-friendly, using the methods of folk pedagogy, based on the natural processes of child development; training according to L.N. Tolstoy, literacy education according to A. Kushnir, M. Montessori technology, etc.

f) Alternative: Waldorf pedagogy by R. Steiner, technology of free labor by S. Frene, technology of probabilistic education by A.M. Pubis.

g) Finally, examples of complex polytechnologies are many of the existing systems of author's schools (the most famous are the "School of Self-Determination" by A.N. Tubelsky, "Russian School" by I.F. Goncharov, "School for All" by E.A. Yamburg, "School-Park" M. Balaban and others).

Description and analysis of pedagogical technology

The description of the technology presupposes the disclosure of all its main characteristics, which makes it possible to reproduce it.

Description (and analysis) of pedagogical technology can be presented in the following structure.

1. Identification of this pedagogical technology in accordance with the adopted systematization (classification system).

2. The name of the technology, reflecting the basic qualities, the fundamental idea, the essence of the applied training system, and finally, the main direction of modernization of the educational process.

3. Conceptual part ( short description guiding ideas, hypotheses, principles of technology, contributing to the understanding, interpretation of its construction and functioning):

Targets and orientations;

Basic ideas and principles (the main development factor used, the scientific concept of assimilation);

The position of the child in the educational process.

4. Features of the content of education:

Orientation to personal structures (3UN, COURT, SUM, SEN, SDP)

The volume and nature of the content of education;

Didactic structure curriculum, material, programs, presentation form.

5. Procedural characteristics:

Features of the methodology, application of methods and teaching aids;

Motivational characteristic;

Organizational forms of the educational process;

Control educational process(diagnostics, planning, regulations, correction);

6. Software and methodological support:

Curricula and programs;

Educational and methodological aids;

Didactic materials;

Visual and technical teaching aids;

Diagnostic tools.

As part of the analysis and examination of pedagogical technologies, first of all, it is worth taking into account its different planning and multidimensionality, while its conceptual connection is considered from the standpoint of modernity, democracy and humanism, alternativeness, as well as novelty (innovativeness). P.R. Atutov Technology and modern education/ NS. Atutov // Pedagogy. - 2011. - No. 2.-С.236.

As part of the study of the issue of modern pedagogical technologies, the content of the theory teacher education, the consideration should be made on the basis of the analysis of social order and developmental education, as well as from the standpoint of the principles of consistency and theories of general secondary education.

Considering this issue from the standpoint of procedural characteristics, it is worth noting the dominant presence of the complexity of all methodological means, the adequacy of the content of education to the contingent of students, controllability, optimality and appropriateness of the corresponding individual elements of education.

DEVELOPMENTAL TRAINING:

methodology and technology

Historical aspects: The theory of developmental learning originates in the works of I.G. Pestalozzi, A.Disterweg, KD.Ushinsky and others. In the early 30s of the XX century. L.S.Vygotsky put forward the idea of ​​education that is ahead of development and focused on the development of the child as the main goal. According to his hypothesis, knowledge is not the ultimate goal of learning, but only a means of student development.

Vygotsky's ideas were developed and substantiated within the framework of the psychological theory of activity (A. N. Leontiev, P. Ya. Galperin, etc.). The formation of the child as a subject was highlighted. various types and forms of human activity.

One of the first attempts to implement these ideas was undertaken by L.V. Zankov, who in the 50-60s developed a system of intensive all-round development for primary school.

A slightly different direction of developmental education in the 60s was developed by D.B. Elkonin and V.V. Davydov and embodied in the practice of experimental schools. Their technology focused on the development of intellectual abilities child.

Definition of the concept: The term "developmental learning" was introduced into pedagogical theory and practice by VV Davydov. Developmental learning is understood as a new, active-activity method of learning, which is replacing the explanatory-illustrative method. That is, it based on the formation of mechanisms of thinking, and not on the exploitation of memory. Students must master those mental operations with the help of which the assimilation of knowledge and the operation of them takes place. Developmental education is teaching, the content, methods and forms of organization of which are based on the laws of the child's development.

The position of the child in learning: R A baby boy is an independent subject interacting with the environment. This interaction includes all stages of activity: goal setting, planning and organization, implementation of goals and analysis of performance results. Thus, a student from an object of pedagogical influence turns into a subject cognitive activities... The educational process is structured in such a way that in the course of it the student, as it were, “experienced” the entire cognitive cycle completely, mastered it in the unity of empirical and theoretical knowledge.

Principles of Developmental Learning

The principle of the leading role of theoretical knowledge in primary education.

The principle of teaching at a high level of difficulty.

The principle of learning at a fast pace.

The principle of students' awareness of the learning process.

The principle of purposeful and systematic work on the overall development of all students.

Relationships between participants educational process ... Student - teacher: partnership, business cooperation. Student - student: collective and distributive activity, a prerequisite for which is dialogue.

System of developing education L.V. Zankova.

Features of the technique. The main motivation for learning activity is cognitive interest. The idea of ​​harmonization requires a combination of rational and emotional, facts and generalizations, collective and individual, informational and problematic, explanatory and search methods in the methodology. The methodology involves the involvement of the student in different kinds activities, the use in teaching of didactic games, discussions, teaching methods aimed at enriching imagination, thinking, memory, speech.

Mandatory requirements for the lesson. 1) goals are subject not only to the communication and verification of the ZUN, but also to the development of other personality traits; 2) polylogue in the classroom, based on the independent thought activity of children; 3) cooperation between teacher and student; 4) creating conditions for manifestation in the lesson cognitive activity students.

Features of the lesson: 1. Flexible lesson structure. 2. The course of cognition is "from the disciples."

3. The transformative nature of student activity: observe, compare, group, classify, draw conclusions. Hence the different nature of the tasks: not only to write off and insert missing letters, to solve the problem, but to awaken them to mental actions, their planning.

4. The intensity and emotionality of students' independent activity, it is provided by the effect of the unexpectedness of the assignment, the inclusion of a research position and creativity, help and encouragement from the teacher.

5. Collective search, guided by a teacher, is provided with questions that awaken the independent thought of students, preliminary homework assignments.

6. Creation of communication situations in the lesson, allowing each student to show initiative, independence, selectivity in ways of working, creating an environment for natural expression of the student.

Tracking the development of the child. To identify and track the level overall development the child L.V. Zankov suggested the following indicators: a) observation; b) abstract thinking - analysis, synthesis, abstraction, generalization; c) practical actions - the ability to create a material object.

The technology of developing education by D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydova.

The theory of meaningful generalization of V.V. Davydov - D.B. Elkonin is based on the hypothesis of the leading roletheoretical knowledge in the formation research institutes of intelligence. The subject matter does not just presentsystem of knowledge, and in a special way organizes thehowling baby meaningful generalizations - genetically original, theoretically essential properties and relationships of objects, conditions of their originand transformation.This comprehension of an object is not through its visual, external similarity with others, but through its hidden concrete relationships, through the contradictory path of its internal development.The concept of "subject of cognition" appears in this conceptas the student's ability to master scientific concepts,reproduce in your own activity the logic scientificallyth knowledge, move from the abstract to the concrete.

The introduction of a new concept in the learning process goes through four stages.

1) Acquaintance with the task proposed by the teacher, orienteering in it.

2) Mastering a sample of such a transformation of the material that revealsthe most essential relationships that serve as the basis for solving the problem of this species.

3) Fixation of the revealed relations in the form of one or another (objective oriconic) model.

4) Revealing those properties of the selected relationship, thanks to which it is possiblededuce the conditions and methods for solving the original particular problem.

The technology of D. B. Elkonin - V. V. Davydov is based on the cognitive motivation of activity, therefore, it gives the best results in the initial stage of development.

Target benchmarks. 1. The child has internal cognitive motives. 2. The child has a goal of conscious self-change. 3. The position of the child as a full-fledged subject of activity, carrying out all its stages independently. 4. The focus on the assimilation of theoretical ZUN, methods of educational activity, the search and construction of the bases for actions, mastering the general principles of solving problems of a certain class. 5. The disciple is placed in the position of a researcher-creator. All rules and laws are built by the child himself. 6 ... The reflective nature of considering one's own actions. The experience of the implementation of reflection is the basis of personality development.

Basic concepts:

othe ways of thinking identified by V.V. Davydov are R associative-empirical thinking (aimed at dismembering and comparing the properties of objects in order to abstract the formal community) and R theoretical, dialectical thinking (connected with the study of the nature of the concepts themselves, reveals their transitions, movement, development).

omeaningful analysis - a method of detecting the initial basis of some integral object.

omeaningful abstraction represents the selection of the initial general relationship in this material and its formulation in sign-symbolic form.

otheoretical generalization - is carried out by analyzing a certain whole in order to discover its original, essential, universal relation as the basis of the internal unity of this whole.

oascentfrom abstract to concrete - the use of meaningful generalization as a high-level concept for the subsequent derivation of other, more particular concepts.

omeaningful reflection - search and consideration of the essential grounds for their own mental actions. Developmental training is carried out as a purposeful learning activities, in which the child consciously sets goals and objectives for self-change and creatively achieves them.

oproblematization: the teacher not only informs the children of the conclusions of science, but also leads them along the path of discovery, makes them follow the dialectical movement of thought to the truth, makes them accomplices in scientific research.

omethod of educational tasks. The educational task in the technology of developmental education is similar to a problem situation. This is ignorance, a collision with something new, unknown, and the solution to the educational problem consists in finding a general method of action, a principle for solving a whole class of similar problems. .

omodeling.To solve a problem theoretically means to solve it not only for a given particular case, but also for all homogeneous cases. In this case, modeling in a subject, graphic or in a symbolic form of a method for solving a problem plays an important role. An educational model can be called such an image that captures the general attitude of some integral object and provides its further analysis. The educational model acts as a product of mental analysis.

Content

Introduction

3. Technology of developing education DB. Elkonin - V.V. Davydova

Conclusion

Introduction

In recent years, the attention of teachers has increasingly been attracted by the ideas of developmental education, with which they associate the possibility of changes in the school. Developmental education is aimed at preparing students for an independent "adult" life. The main goal of a modern school is to ensure that schoolchildren acquire a certain range of skills, knowledge and skills that they will need in the professional, social, family spheres of life.

The theory of developmental learning originates in the works of I.G. Pestalozzi, A. Distervega, K.D. Ushinsky and others. The scientific substantiation of this theory is given in the works of L.S. Vygotsky. It received its further development in the experimental works of L.V. Zankova, D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydova, N.A. Menchinskaya and others. In their concepts, learning and development appear as a system of dialectically interrelated aspects of one process. Education is recognized as the leading driving force of the child's mental development, the formation of the whole set of personality qualities in him: ZUN 1, COURT 2, SUM 3, SEN 4, SDP 5.

Currently, within the framework of the concept of developmental education, a number of technologies have been developed that differ in target orientations, features of content and methods. Technology L.V. Zankov is aimed at the general, holistic development of the personality, the technology of D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydova emphasizes the development of COURTS, technologies of creative development give priority to SES, the technology of G.K. Selevko focuses on the development of the MSM, I.S. Yakimanskaya - on the SDP.

In 1996, the Ministry of Education of Russia officially recognized the existence of L.V. Zankov and D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydov. The rest of the developing technologies have the status of copyright, alternative. 6

In this paper, we will consider the concept of developmental education, as well as the developmental technologies of L.V. Zankov and D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydov.

1. The concept of developmental education

The problem of developing education is of interest to teachers of many generations: Ya.A. Comenius and J.J. Russo, I.G. Pestalozzi and I.F. Herbart, K. D. Ushinsky and others. In Soviet times, it was intensively developed by psychologists and teachers L.S. Vygotsky, L.V. Zankov, V.V. Davydov, D.B. Elkonin, N.A. Menchinskaya, as well as A.K. Dusavitsky, N.F. Talyzina, V.V. Repkin, S.D. Maksimenko and others. Naturally, at different historical times, researchers differently represent and interpret the very concept of developing education. The complexity and at the same time the positive side of the development of this topic lies in the organic, natural combination of the problems of pedagogy and psychology: teaching is a component of didactics, while development is a psychological process.

The term "developmental learning" owes its origin to V.V. Davydov. Introduced to designate a limited range of phenomena, it soon entered mass pedagogical practice. Today, its use is so diverse that a special study is required to understand its modern meaning.

The concept of "developing learning" can be considered a meaningful generalization (VV Davydov). Its content, semantic meaning, relationships with the main psychological and pedagogical categories are revealed in this chapter in a number of definitions and generalizations.

Generalization 1. Developmental learning is understood as a new, active-active method (type) of training, which replaces the explanatory-illustrative method (type).

Personal development and its patterns

Personality is a dynamic concept: it undergoes changes throughout life, which are called development (progressive or regressive).

Development (progressive) is a process of physical and mental change of an individual in time, involving improvement, a transition in any of its properties and parameters from less to more, from simple to complex, from lower to higher.

The term "personality formation" is used as:

1) a synonym for "development", i.e. the process of internal personality change;

2) a synonym for "education", "socialization", i.e. creation and implementation of external conditions for personal development.

Properties and patterns of the development process. The development of personality occurs in accordance with universal dialectical laws. The specific properties (patterns) of this process are as follows.

Immanence: the ability to develop is inherent in a person by nature, it is an integral property of a person.

Biogenicity: the mental development of a personality is largely determined by the biological mechanism of heredity.

Sociogenicity: the social environment in which a person develops has a huge impact on personality formation.

Psychogenicity: a person is a self-regulating and self-governing system, the development process is subject to self-regulation and self-management.

Individuality: personality is a unique phenomenon, characterized by an individual selection of qualities and its own development.

Stages: personality development obeys the general law of cyclicality, undergoing stages of origin, growth, culmination, withering, decline.

Unevenness (nonlinearity): an individual is unique, each personality develops at its own pace, experiencing accelerations (spontaneity) and growth contradictions (crisis) that are randomly distributed in time.

Physical age determines the quantitative (limited) and qualitative (sensitivity) possibilities of mental development.

Generalization 2. Developmental learning takes into account and uses the patterns of development, adapts to the level and characteristics of the individual.

Education and development

The physical development of a child is carried out very clearly according to the genetic program in the form of an increase in the size of the skeleton, muscle mass, etc. It is also obvious that external conditions determine a huge range of results: a child can be more or less healthy, physically trained, and hardy.

What about the psyche, the personality? To what extent does the development of consciousness depend on learning and social conditions, and to what extent - on natural age maturation? The answer to this question is fundamentally important: it determines the boundaries of a person's potential capabilities, and, consequently, the goals and objectives of external pedagogical influences.

In the history of pedagogy, the problem is presented by two extreme points of view. The first (biologizing, Cartesian) proceeds from the rigid predetermination of development by hereditary or emanating from the Most High factors. Socrates said that the teacher is a midwife, he cannot give anything, but only helps to give birth.

The second (sociologizing, behavioristic), on the contrary, ascribes all the results of development to the influence of the environment. The odious Soviet academician T.D. Lysenko wrote: "A woman must give us an organism, and we will make a Soviet man out of it."

Modern science has established that every act of mental development is associated with the reflection in the brain of the external environment, it is appropriation, the acquisition of the experience of cognition and activity, and in this sense is learning. Education is a form of human mental development, a necessary element of development. Any learning develops and enriches the bank of memory and conditioned reflexes.

Learning and development cannot act as separate processes, they relate as the form and content of a single process of personality development.

However, here, too, there are two fundamentally different concepts (Fig. 1).

The concept of learning development (J. Piaget, Z. Freud, D. Dewey): a child must go through strictly defined age stages in his development (preoperative structures - formal operations - formal intelligence) before learning can begin to perform its specific tasks. Development always goes ahead of learning, and the latter is built on top of it, as if "teaching" it.

Rice. 1. The ratio of learning and development

Developmental learning concept: Learning plays a decisive role in a child's development. It became firmly established in the 20th century thanks to the works of Russian scientists L. S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, S.L. Rubinstein, D.B. Elkonin, P. Ya. Galperin, E.V. Ilyenkova, L.V. Zankova, V.V. Davydova and others. In the interests of society and the person himself, training should be organized in such a way as to achieve maximum development results in a minimum time. It should go ahead of development, making maximum use of genetic age prerequisites and making significant adjustments to them. This is provided by a special pedagogical technology, which is called developmental learning.

Generalization 3. In developing teaching, pedagogical influences anticipate, stimulate, direct and accelerate the development of hereditary personality data.

The child is the subject of his development

In the technology of developing education, the child is assigned the role of an independent subject interacting with the environment. This interaction includes all stages of activity: goal setting, planning and organization, implementation of goals and analysis of performance results. Each of the stages makes its own specific contribution to personality development.

In the activity of goal-setting, the following are brought up: freedom, purposefulness, dignity, honor, pride, independence.

When planning: independence, will, creativity, creation, initiative, organization.

At the stage of achieving goals: hard work, skill, diligence, discipline, activity.

At the analysis stage, the following are formed: relationships, honesty, assessment criteria, conscience, responsibility, duty.

The child's position as an object of learning (TO) deprives him of all or part of the actions of goal-setting, planning, analysis and leads to deformations and development costs. Only in the full-fledged activity of the subject is the development of independence, a positive self-concept, the moral-volitional sphere of the individual achieved, self-realization, self-change occurs. Therefore, one of the main goals of developmental education is the formation of the subject of learning - the individual teaching himself.

The recognition of the role of the subject for the learner marks a change in the paradigm of mental development: sociologizing and biologizing theories of learning traditional for the 20th century are giving way to methods based on subjective, psychogenic factors of development.

Generalization 4. In developing education, the child is a full-fledged subject of activity.

An extremely important problem in this hypothesis is the motivation of the child-subject's activity. According to the method of its solution, the technologies of developing education are divided into groups that exploit various needs, abilities and other personality traits as the basis of motivation:

Technologies based on cognitive interest (L.V. Zankov, D.B. Elkonin - V.V.Davydov),

On the needs of self-improvement (G.K. Selevko),

On the individual experience of a person (technology of I.S. Yakimanskaya),

For creative needs (I.P. Volkov, G.S. Altshuller),

On social instincts (I.P. Ivanov).

Development content

The modern stage of pedagogical practice is a transition from an information and explanatory teaching technology to an activity-developmental one, which forms a wide range of a child's personal qualities. Not only the acquired knowledge becomes important, but also the methods of assimilation and processing of educational information, the development of cognitive forces and the creative potential of students.

In an effort to develop individuality, the technology under consideration does not single out any of the listed groups of personality traits, it focuses on their all-round development.

Generalization 5. Developmental education is aimed at developing the entire totality of personality traits.

RO = ZUN + COURT + SUM + SEN + SDP

From this point of view, it would be more correct to call developing education developmental pedagogy, or developmental pedagogy.

Zone of proximal development

L.S. Vygotsky wrote: "Pedagogy should be guided not by yesterday, but by the future of child development." He distinguished two levels in the development of a child:

1) the sphere (level) of actual development - already formed qualities and what the child can do on his own;

2) the zone of proximal development - those activities that the child is not yet able to perform on his own, but which he can cope with with the help of adults.

The zone of proximal development is a greater or lesser opportunity to move from what the child knows how to do on his own, to what he can, knows how to do in cooperation.

For development, it is extremely effective to constantly overcome the line between the sphere of actual development and the zone of proximal development - an area unknown, but potentially accessible for knowledge.

Generalization 6. Developmental learning takes place in the zone of proximal development of the child.

Determining the outer boundaries of the zone of proximal development, distinguishing it from the actual and inaccessible zone is a task that is solved so far only at an intuitive level, depending on the experience and skill of the teacher. 7

2. The system of developing education L.V. Zankova

Learning system L.V. Zankova emerged from an interdisciplinary study of the relationship between learning and development. The interdisciplinary nature was expressed, firstly, in the integration of the achievements of several sciences dealing with the study of the child: physiologists, defectologists, psychologists and teachers, and secondly, in the integration of experiment, theory and practice. For the first time, the results of scientific research through a psychological and pedagogical experiment acquired the form of an integral pedagogical system and, thus, were brought to their practical implementation.

Conclusion on the research problem: development occurs as a complex process of interaction of external and internal factors, that is, the individual, deep qualities of the child. This understanding of the relationship between training and development corresponds to a special type of training, in which, on the one hand, exclusive attention is paid to the construction of training, its content, principles, methods, etc. as reflecting social experience, social order, on the other - just as exclusive attention is paid to the inner world of the child: his individual and age characteristics, his needs and interests.

The general development of L.V. Zankov understands it as an integral movement of the psyche, when each neoplasm arises as a result of the interaction of his mind, will, feelings. At the same time, particular importance is attached to moral, aesthetic development. It is about the unity and equivalence in the development of the intellectual and emotional, volitional and moral.

Currently, the priorities of education are recognized as the ideals of developmental education: the ability to learn, subject and universal (general educational) methods of action, the child's individual progress in the emotional, social, cognitive spheres. To implement these priorities, a scientifically grounded, time-tested developmental pedagogical system is needed. This is the system of L.V. Zankov, which is characterized by the integrity and interdependence of its following parts.

The goal of the training is the optimal overall development of each child.

The task of teaching is to present students with a holistic wide picture of the world by means of science, literature, art and direct cognition.

Didactic principles - teaching at a high level of difficulty with observance of the measure of difficulty; the leading role of theoretical knowledge; awareness of the learning process; fast pace of passing educational material; work on the development of every child, including the weak.

Typical properties of the methodological system are versatility, procedurality, collisions, variance.

The upbringing of a person who meets the modern requirements of society is possible only if, according to the well-known statement of L.S. Vygotsky, learning will run ahead of the child's development, that is, it will be carried out in the zone of proximal development, and not at the current, already achieved level. This psychological position, basic for the modern school, was comprehended by L.V. Zankov as a didactic principle: "teaching at a high level of difficulty with observance of the measure of difficulty." A prerequisite for its correct implementation is knowledge of the characteristics of the pupils, knowledge of the current level of their development. Constant study of the child, starting from his admission to school, allows us to accurately determine the maximum level of difficulty for each student for the proposed content and methods of its assimilation.

New knowledge about the student's personality and the rethinking of already known ones were the scientific basis on the basis of which the next generation of training courses for primary grades was created, which were recommended for use in schools by the Ministry of Education and Science.

Below we will dwell on some of the essential features of modern elementary schoolchildren, which were taken into account when developing curricula. Through these features, we will reveal the meaning of the didactic system of L.V. Zankova.

In the unity of the intellectual and emotional in a child of primary school age, the emphasis is on the emotional, which gives impetus to the intellectual, moral, creative principle (the methodological property of versatility).

Collisions can be an impetus to search activity. They arise when:

The child is faced with a lack (excess) of information or methods of activity to solve the problem;

He finds himself in a situation of choice of opinion, approach, solution, etc .;

He is faced with new conditions for using existing knowledge.

In such situations, learning does not go from simple to complex, but rather from complex to simple: from some unfamiliar, unexpected situation through a collective search (under the guidance of a teacher) to its resolution.

The implementation of the didactic principle of "teaching at a high level of difficulty with observance of the measure of difficulty" requires the selection and structure of content so that when working with it, students experience maximum mental stress. The degree of difficulty varies depending on the capabilities of each student, up to direct assistance. But first, the student must face a cognitive difficulty, which causes emotions that stimulate the search activity of the student, class.

Younger schoolchildren are characterized by syncretism (unity, indivisibility) of thinking, a rather low level of development of analysis and synthesis. We proceed from the general idea of ​​development as a process of transition from low stages, which are characterized by fused, syncretic forms, to more and more dismembered and ordered forms, which are characteristic of high levels. Psychologists call this transition the law of differentiation. Mental development in general and mental development in particular is subject to him. Consequently, at the initial stage of education, the child should be provided with a wide, holistic picture of the world, which is created by integrated courses. The courses arranged in this way are most consistent with the age characteristics of primary schoolchildren and the peculiarities of the modern information flow, which is not divided into separate areas of knowledge.

In accordance with these features, all training courses are built on an integrated basis. The course "The World Around" activates the links between knowledge about the Earth, its nature and the social and cultural life of a person, which takes place at a certain historical time, in certain natural conditions. The subtitles of the courses on the technology "Create, invent, try!" Speak for themselves. and "Handcrafted". "Literary reading" organically combines work on the perception of works of literature, music and visual arts. On the basis of broad intra-subject integration, the course of the Russian language is built, in which the language system, speech activity and the history of the language are presented in interconnections; on the same integration, a mathematics course is built, which organically combines the content of arithmetic, geometry, the beginnings of algebra, and the history of mathematics. In the music course, students' musical activities are organized as a unity of performance, listening and improvisation. In the course of this activity, knowledge about music, its history, about composers is integrated with knowledge of literature, fine arts, folklore.

L.V. Zankov decisively abandoned the practice, when each segment of the training course is viewed as an independent and complete unit, when it is possible to move on to a new segment only after the previous one has been "thoroughly" mastered. “Genuine knowledge of each element,” writes L.V. Zankov, - he progresses all the time as he masters the other, subsequent elements of the subject and the awareness of the corresponding whole up to the entire training course and its continuation in the next classes. " This ensures the effectiveness of the didactic principle of "rapid pace of passage of educational material." This principle requires constant progress. The continuous enrichment of the student's mind with versatile content creates favorable conditions for its ever deeper understanding, since it is included in a widespread system.

Thus, the development of the main, basic content indicated in the State Standards is carried out systematically:

1) propaedeutic study of the future program material, which is essentially related to the actual content for a given year of study;

2) its study while updating objectively existing links with previously studied material;

3) the inclusion of this material in new connections when studying a new topic.

The novelty of the content or educational situation is a prerequisite for organizing the process of developing education. Therefore, none of the textbooks, as well as in the previous editions, does not contain the sections “Repetition of the past”. The past is organically included in the study of the new. Thus, conditions are created for the repeated operation of the same content for a long time, which ensures its study in various connections and functions, and as a result leads to the strength of the assimilation of the material (a new level of implementation of the methodological property of procedurality and variance).

The next feature of students in primary grades is directly related to the previous ones: the mental operations of younger students (analysis, synthesis, generalization) are most productively carried out at the visual-effective, visual-figurative and, to some extent, verbal-figurative levels.

Let us name the important features of the educational and methodological kit, which is based on modern knowledge about the age and individual characteristics of a younger student. The kit provides:

Understanding the relationships and interdependencies of the studied objects, phenomena due to the integrated nature of the content, which is expressed in the combination of material of different levels of generalization (supra-subject, inter- and intra-subject), as well as in the combination of its theoretical and practical orientation, intellectual and emotional saturation;

Possession of concepts necessary for further education;

Relevance, practical significance of the educational material for the student;

Conditions for solving educational problems, social and personal, intellectual, aesthetic development of the child, for the formation of educational and universal (general educational) skills;

Active forms of cognition in the course of solving problematic, creative tasks: observation, experiments, discussion, educational dialogue (discussion of different opinions, hypotheses), etc.;

Research and design work, development of information culture;

Individualization of learning, which is closely related to the formation of motives of activity, extending to children of different types by the nature of cognitive activity, emotional and communicative characteristics, by gender. Individualization is realized, among other things, through three levels of content: basic, extended and in-depth.

In the learning process, a wide range of forms of education is used: classroom and extracurricular; frontal, group, individual in accordance with the characteristics of the subject, class characteristics and individual preferences of students.

To study the effectiveness of the development of curricula and the teaching materials developed on their basis, the teacher is offered materials on the qualitative accounting of the success of schoolchildren's education, including integrated testing, which corresponds to the position of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation. Only the results of written work from the second half of the 2nd grade are evaluated by marks. The lesson point is not assigned.

The initial focus of curricula and teaching materials on the development of each student creates conditions for its implementation in all types of educational institutions (general education, gymnasiums, lyceums). eight

3. Technology of developing education DB. Elkonina - V.V. Davydova

The hypotheses of D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydova

a) many general theoretical concepts are available to children from preschool age; they accept and master them before they learn to act with their particular empirical manifestations;

b) the child's opportunities for learning (and, consequently, development) are enormous, but they are not used by the school;

c) the possibilities to intensify mental development lie primarily in the content of the educational material, therefore, the basis for developing education is its content, from which the methods of organizing training are derived;

d) an increase in the theoretical level of educational material in primary school stimulates the growth of the child's mental abilities.

Features of the content

A special construction of the academic subject that simulates the content and methods of the scientific field, organizing the child's cognition of genetically original, theoretically essential properties and relationships of objects, the conditions of their origin and transformation.

Raising the theoretical level of education, transferring to children not only empirical knowledge and practical skills, but also "high" forms of social consciousness (scientific concepts, artistic images, moral values).

The developing nature of training in technology D. B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydov is primarily due to the fact that its content is built on the basis of theoretical knowledge. As you know, empirical knowledge is based on observation, visual representations, external properties of objects; conceptual generalizations are obtained by highlighting common properties when comparing objects. Theoretical knowledge, on the other hand, goes beyond sensory concepts, is based on mental transformations of abstractions, and reflects internal relations and connections. They are formed by genetic analysis of the role and functions of some general relations within an integral system of elements.

Meaningful generalizations. The system of theoretical knowledge is based on meaningful generalizations. It can be:

The most general concepts of science, expressing deep cause-and-effect relationships and patterns, fundamental genetically initial concepts, categories (number, word, energy, matter, etc.);

Concepts in which not external, subject-specific features are highlighted, but internal connections (for example, historical, genetic);

Theoretical images obtained through mental operations with abstract objects.

Substantial generalization is the comprehension of an object not through its visual, external similarity with others, but through its hidden concrete relationships, through the contradictory path of its internal development.

Didactic structures. Deduction based on meaningful generalizations prevails in the didactic structure of academic subjects.

According to V.V. Davydov, the ways of mental actions, the ways of thinking are subdivided into rational (empirical, based on visual images) to reasonable, or dialectical.

Rational-empirical thinking is aimed at dismembering and comparing the properties of objects in order to abstract the formal community and give it the form of a concept. This thinking is the initial stage of cognition, its types (induction, deduction, abstraction, analysis, synthesis, etc.) are also available to higher animals, the difference is only in degree.

Reasonable theoretical, dialectical thinking is associated with the study of the nature of the concepts themselves, reveals their transitions, movement, development. At the same time, naturally, the rational logic enters the dialectical one as a logic of a higher form.

The essence of theoretical thinking, according to V.V. Davydov, is that this is a special way of a person's approach to understanding things and events by analyzing the conditions of their origin and development.

The basis of theoretical thinking is mentally idealized concepts, systems of symbols (acting as primary in relation to specific empirical objects and phenomena). In this regard, the methods of mental actions in the technology of D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydov, have a number of characteristic differences from the formal logical interpretation.

Content analysis is a way of discovering the genetically original basis of some integral object; it is aimed at finding and isolating an essential relation among its attendant and particular features.

Substantial abstraction is the selection of the initial general relationship in a given material and its formulation in sign-symbolic form.

Of particular importance in the technology of D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydov has a generalization effect. In formal logic, it consists in isolating essential features in objects and combining objects according to these features, bringing them under a general concept.

Empirical generalization proceeds from particular objects and phenomena through their comparison to a general empirical concept.

Theoretical, meaningful generalization, according to V.V. Davydov, is carried out by analyzing a certain whole in order to discover its genetically original, essential, universal relation as the basis of the internal unity of this whole.

The ascent from the abstract to the concrete is the use of meaningful generalization as a high-level concept for the subsequent derivation of other, more particular "concrete" abstractions. The ascent from the abstract to the concrete is general principle orientation of students in all the variety of actual teaching material.

Substantial reflection is the search and consideration of the essential foundations of one's own mental actions.

Thus, the content of an academic subject is a system of concepts, given not as a way to write off an object, but as a basis for its transformation, regulating the basis of methods for obtaining meaningful results. nine

The approaches of V.V. Davydov was originally developed for teaching schoolchildren, but a number of provisions can be useful in teaching adults.

Developing education according to V.V. Davydov is opposed to the existing traditional system of school education, mainly directed from the particular, concrete, individual to the general, abstract, whole; from case, fact to system; from phenomenon to essence.

V.V. Davydov raised the question of the possibility of theoretical development of a new teaching system with a direction opposite to the traditional one: from the general to the particular, from the abstract to the concrete, from the systemic to the singular.

V.V. Davydov formulates the main provisions that characterize not only the content of academic subjects, but also those skills that should be formed in students when mastering these subjects in educational activities:

“The assimilation of knowledge of a general and abstract nature precedes the acquaintance of students with more specific and specific knowledge; the latter are deduced by students from the general and the abstract as from their unified basis.

The knowledge that constitutes a given academic subject or its main sections, students acquire, analyzing the conditions of their origin, thanks to which they become necessary.

When identifying the subject sources of certain knowledge, students should be able, first of all, to find in the educational material a genetically original, essential, universal relationship that determines the content and structure of the object of this knowledge.

Students reproduce this attitude in special subject, graphic, or letter models that allow them to study its properties in their purest form.

Students should be able to concretize the genetically initial, universal relation of the object under study in the system of private knowledge about it in such a unity that ensures the thinking of the transition from the general to the particular and back.

Students should be able to move from performing actions mentally to performing them externally and vice versa. ” ten

Conclusion

In the early 1930s, the outstanding Russian psychologist L.S. Vygotsky substantiated the possibility and feasibility of education focused on the development of the child. According to him, “pedagogy should focus not on yesterday, but on the future of child development ... Education is good only when it goes ahead of development” 11. Of course, L.S. Vygotsky in no way denied the need to assimilate knowledge, skills and abilities. But they are not the ultimate goal of teaching, but only a means of developing students.

In the early 50s and 60s, L.V. Zankov tried to practically implement the ideas of developing education. He developed a new primary education system, but it was never implemented in the school.

At the beginning of the 60s, D.B. Elkonin, having analyzed the educational activity of schoolchildren, noted its originality and essence not in the assimilation of certain knowledge and skills, but in the child's self-measurement of himself as a subject. The foundation was laid for the concept of developmental learning, in which the child is viewed not as an object of the teacher's teaching objects, but as a self-changing subject of learning.

In the late 1980s, work began on the implementation of this concept. Programs were developed and published, the creation of textbooks and teaching aids began, retraining of teachers who are starting to study in these programs began. The teacher is faced with the need to make a choice between the two learning systems. If a creatively working teacher has to choose between different methods, forms and means of teaching, then this time he is offered a new goal. He must clearly understand where, to achieve what goal his name is, how reliable and realistic this path, on which he is invited to enter, is.

The ultimate goal of developmental learning is to have a need for self-change and be able to satisfy it through learning, i.e. to want, love and be able to learn.

For the first time, a child declares himself as a subject at preschool age (I myself!). But preschoolers have neither the need for self-change, nor the ability for it. Both that and another can develop only at school age. But whether this opportunity will be realized depends on a number of conditions that develop in the learning process.

Crossing the threshold of the school, the child immediately falls into submission to the requirements and norms, which are rigidly determined by the program, textbooks, and the teacher. There is no room left for the child to realize himself as a subject. But one should not look for an explanation of this fact in underestimating the laws of development, in the evil will of the teacher, in the undemocratic nature of the school education system. A conflict situation is generated by the very content of school education, which is based on methods of solving typical problems.

List of used literature

1 Knowledge, abilities, skills

2 Ways of mental action university students, Rostov-on-Don, "Phoenix", 2004, p. 144-145.