Learning polysemous words in elementary school. Coursework the study of polysemous words in elementary school Methods of teaching polysemous words in elementary school

METHODS OF WORKING ON MULTI-SIGNED WORDS

IN THE ELEMENTARY CLASSES

Analyzing textbooks from a performance perspective

over ambiguous words in grades 1-4

Setting grammatical problems, a textbook of the Russian language for primary grades through specific methods of mental activity in the process of consistent, systematic work with a word, sentence, text, through their versatile analysis contributes to the solution of the problem of the development of speech and thinking of a student, expands the horizons of children in the field of their native language, creates a linguistic environment as a condition for the formation of speech skills. Educational material creates a basis for the development of coherent speech: oral speech exercises, familiarization with the simplest pictorial and expressive means of language (narration, restoration of a deformed sentence and a small text, that is, transforming speech activity of students).

For the analysis, we have chosen a system of textbooks edited by the authors S.V. Ivanova, M.I. Kuznetsova, L.V. Petlenko ("Primary school of the 21st century"), t. the experiment is carried out with students in grade 4 who study in this program.

Let's see what exercises and in what quantity are proposed by the author of this textbook (table 1)

Table 1

1 class

2nd grade

Grade 3

4th grade

Exercises that include polysemantic vocabulary, but do not contain tasks

Exercise to determine the lexical meaning of a word

Table continuation

Exercise to replace polysemantic words with synonyms

An exercise in composing sentences with ambiguous words

Total

In the textbooks "Russian language" (the program "Primary school of the 21st century", author SV Ivanov and others) from 1 to 4 grades on the topic: "Polysemous words" the following exercises are presented.

Observation of polysemantic words begins in grade 1 during the literacy period (Figure 1). In this activity, the teacher draws the children’s attention to the wordstand and is working on this word in order to prepare the study of polysemous words.

Figure 1- Definition of a lexical word

Further, the work is carried out at the lessons of the Russian language when studying the topic "Proper and common nouns, capital letter in proper names" when getting acquainted with the dictionary wordRussia (Homeland) .

Children get acquainted with the rule: in the Russian language there are words that are similar in sound, but differ in meaning (Figure 2). The term "polysemous word" is not introduced.

Figure 2- Definition of lexical meaning

After a few lessons, children get acquainted with the polysemy of words, the choice of contextual synonyms (also without using the term). For example, in lesson 19 there is such a poem by V. Lifshits

Kolya pricks, Varya cooks

Fields are flying, Zhora fries,

Leah is pouring water with a watering can. Petya sings songs.

Such consonances are often used for funny poems or for language games.

In the following lessons, children explain the meanings of words in a phrase

(picture 3)

Figure 3- Comparison of phrases. Determining the meaning of a word

There are enough exercises in the 1st grade textbook for preparatory work to study this topic - to determine the lexical meaning of the word (Figure 4).

Figure 4 - Definition of a lexical word

Exercises of this nature are included: is the meaning of the highlighted words the same (How old is heknocked ? Paddleknocked on the side of the boat.) [Ivanov 2014].

Acquaintance with the concept of "polysemous word" occurs in grade 2, lesson 89, after the topic "Word in an explanatory dictionary and text." For acquaintance, the poem by A. Barto "Conversation with my daughter" is given (Figure 5). Children analyze the wordheat, write out from the dictionary of the textbook the meaning of the word in which it is used in the text.

Figure 5 - Getting to know the rule

Figure 6 - Exercises to determine the lexical meaning of a word

In subsequent lessons, the topics are considered: "How polysemantic words appear" (Figure 7), get acquainted with the concept of "figurative meaning of a word" (Figure 8).

Figure 7- How polysemantic words appear

Figure 8 - Acquaintance with the figurative meaning of the word

Figurative means such as figurative comparison and metaphor are associated with the figurative meaning of the word. Acquaintance with figurative comparisons begins in grade 1 and continues in grades 2 and 3 on more and more complicated material.

Also in the second grade, children get acquainted with the topic "How to determine the meaning of a polysemous word" (Figure 9) and for several lessons, work is underway to consolidate the concept of polysemy of a word (Figure 10-12).

Figure 9 - How to determine the meaning of a polysemantic word

Figure 10 - Exercise to consolidate polysemantic vocabulary

Figure 11 - Exercise to consolidate polysemantic vocabulary

Figure 12 -Exercise to consolidate polysemantic vocabulary

Ivanov S.V.'s textbooks acquaints children with synonyms and contains exercises for replacing polysemantic words with synonyms (Figures 13-14).

Figure 13 - Exercise for replacing polysemantic words with synonyms

Figure 14 - Exercise for replacing polysemantic words with synonyms

In the 4th grade textbook of the same author, the tasks for finding words in a figurative meaning lead to a generalization of the information available to children (Figure 15).

Figure 15 - Exercise to consolidate polysemantic vocabulary

In the subsequent exercises of the textbook, it is proposed to find words in a figurative meaning if they are present in didactic material... Of course, due to the complexity of the material, not all exercises give such tasks. The teacher can always organize this work at his own discretion. It is important that students get a practical understanding of the metaphor. The number of such exercisesincluding polysemantic vocabulary, but not containing tasks are given in table 1... We give one of such examples (Figure 16).

Figure 16 - Exercise that includes polysemantic vocabulary, but does not contain an assignment

According to the program, children must first learn to distinguish between real objects and their names, know the nominative and nominative function of a word, then get acquainted with words denoting objects, phenomena, events, states, actions, signs, qualities, learn to find and subsequently use language means of expressing speech: use words in a figurative sense; figurative comparisons; words that are close and opposite in meaning; polysemous and homonymous words.

Having studied all primary school textbooks for the Primary School of the 21st Century program, the following conclusions can be drawn: the authors spent most of the time studying polysemantic words in grade 2, in grade 1 only familiarization takes place, as with words that have multiple meanings. In grades 3 and 4, this type of exercise is not provided. The teacher can, at his discretion, focus on any polysemous word and remind children that they must not forget that polysemous words are included in the student's active vocabulary.

Ascertaining experiment

The study was carried out in the secondary school of the village of Vostochny, Ivanteevsky district of the Saratov region, in grade 4. The task of the ascertaining experiment: to reveal the level of development of the polysemantic vocabulary of students. To solve this problem, one class was defined - experimental. The experiment involved 3 people. As the analysis of school documents has shown, there are no unsuccessful students in the class, but the level of academic performance is different. The ascertaining experiment included students writing a test that contained the following tasks:

1. Add your sentences:

The tongue is not a shoulder blade, knows what is sweet. From bitter torment the onion became bitter. What is the meaning of these words.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

a) book - ...

b) bank - ...

into the nose - …

d) pen - ...

4. Make sentences with the word "fresh "in different meanings.

Table 2 presents the results of the students of the experimental class:

table 2

Job type

FI

student

Definition of the concept

Definition of a polysemantic word and its meanings

Drafting proposals

1.Aksenkina Violetta

2.Panyukova Alexandra

3. Rybakova Alexandra

Total:

Total:

100%

66,6%

66,6%

66,6%

The data in Table 2 showed that the children performed well.

Thus, the ascertaining experiment revealed the completenessvocabulary in the works of students, showed that at the beginning of the experimental work, students do not have significant differences.

The level of formation of speech skills is quite high, with the exception of some shortcomings. Therefore, it is necessary to continue working in this direction, to carry out a special system of exercises to prevent such errors in the work of students. Therefore, the second stage was writing mini-essays using polysemantic words (a fragment of the lesson in Appendix 2).

It can be seen from the work of children that, on the basis of the knowledge gained and by reference words, students compose a coherent text, are able to use polysemantic words, use expressive means of language in written speech (comparisons, epithets, metaphors, personifications).

Exercise system for polysemantic words

In lessons and extracurricular activities, we considered it necessary to acquaint students with the following types of transfer: metaphorical, contiguous and functional. The choice of types was based on such considerations. Students meet with examples of linguistic metaphor every day, widely use derived meanings of words (head of cheese, cockscomb and etc.). Many striking examples are analyzed using the Russian language textbook:road, fluffy snow – fluffy kitten, silver stars and many others. Without familiarity with metaphor, students will not be able to understand the depth of poetic tropes. For example:

I am here again, in my own family.

My land, brooding and tender!

Curly twilight beyond the mountain

Waving a snow-white hand.

(S. Yesenin)

Naturally, only knowing the basis on which the transfer is made, one can understand the full power of the expressiveness of the writer's language with such an economical expenditure of linguistic units.

The metaphorical transference was considered by schoolchildren under the guidance of a teacher using examples:bow (boats) – nose (human); tree trunk) – barrel (guns); gold (watch) – gold (wheat); swim (ducks) – float (clouds) and so on. Similarities were found in location, shape, color, nature of movement. At the direction of the teacher, the students made oral "drawings" for examples from the textbook:block of ice – icy look; Eagle Nest – Roman nose; sleeping baby – the river sleeps.

Metonymy, as you know, is such a transfer of a name, which occurs not on the basis of the similarity of external or internal signs of a former thing and a new one, but on the basis of contiguity, that is, the contact of things in space or in time [Baranov 2001], there is only a connection: without plum! - a tree cannot be a plum; - a fruit, without the action of embroidery, there can be no beautiful embroidery.

The principle of adjacency transfer was explained by the teacher. The term itself was explained using the example of adjacent rooms, that is, a phenomenon known to children. Examples analyzedgooseberry bloomed – gooseberry ripe; poured plums – ate plums (the tree and the fruit have the same name); beautiful hall – the whole hall sang (the room and the people in it) etc.

It was shown that the metaphor can be expanded into a comparative turnover with unionslike, exactly, like : golden dandelions (or curls) – yellow as gold; sea ​​of ​​tears – there are as many tears as in a sea of ​​water ... This cannot be done with adjacency carry. There is no similarity between objects named in one word (plum - the fruit is completely different neither in color nor in appearance to a plum - a tree), there is only a connection.

Acquaintance with the transfer by function took place in the form of questions-answers. The teacher found out if the students knew what people wrote before the advent of the steel pen. Further, the opinion was heard why the steel object was named with the same word -feather (like a goose). The children did not immediately cope with the task. They offered different options: light in appearance; similar in shape - a pointed end (you cannot blame them for lack of observation); both objects were dipped in ink. And only after the question, why was it dipped in ink, they determined the purpose - for writing and concluded that the one and the other object performs the same work, the purpose is a function. Examples were sorted out: wing (birds) – wing ("aircraft), lit (candle) – lit (lamp). In the first example, some schoolchildren quite correctly identified both the transfer according to the function - to hold the position in flight - and the similarity according to the position of the position.

In the course of work in the classroom, it was clear that transfer by function is perceived somewhat more difficult than metaphorical, but much easier than transfer by contiguity. Students in primary school they practically get acquainted with the method of metaphor, when the actions of an animate being are attributed to inanimate, inanimate objects, when reading works of art, especially fairy tales. And the other two are met for the first time. In the lessons, in the circles, visual aids were used (see Appendix B). To illustrate the types of hyphenation, large-format drawings were used with the image of the wing and tail of a bird and an airplane (the conversation was about the meanings of words and the basics of transferring the name), a tree trunk and a rifle barrel (external similarity was determined), a key as a master key and a wrench (noted that the wrench got its name not by its external resemblance to the key - a device for opening the lock, but by the work performed by activating the mechanisms).

As a training exercise, a coherent text was proposed, including polysemantic words with all types of transfer of names known to students.

During the pilot training, the most effective types of exercises were tested. The students completed the following exercises.

1. At the circle "Entertaining grammar", the context was used to determine the meaning in which the polysemous word was used (orally "drew" the tails of animals, birds, airplanes, seeds, stars - exercise 289 in the textbook for grade 4 edited by Polyakova), found that the word tail is used by the author of the poem in four meanings, which are different meanings of the wordtail have in common, are related to each other - this is the final part of something. Despite the many meanings, the word is one (it is very important to emphasize, to achieve understanding, otherwise there will be confusion in distinguishing between polysemy and homonymy).

Were created "Dictionaries of polysemantic words" and designed in the form of baby books. In these dictionaries, students illustrated the meanings of polysemantic words.

2. Training exercises were performed using SI Ozhegov's "Dictionary", separate from the four volumes of the USSR Academy of Sciences dictionary. Using dictionaries, students: found polysemantic words, got acquainted with the interpretations of different meanings of these words; checked the correctness of the interpretation of the word given by themselves; explained the figurative meaning of the word and checked against the dictionary; found out with a polysemous word or homonym they met. After reading the dictionary entry, a phrase or a sentence with a polysemantic word in the specified meaning was compiled.

According to the dictionary of the textbook, it was proposed to establish whether the words are unambiguous or ambiguous wordschatter, mink, golden, thawed ... Students read a dictionary entry, collectively made a phrase or sentence with a word in the specified meaning (for example, with the wordto chat :

At the table, the mother said:

– Stop talking your tongue!

And son, be careful:

– Can you swing your legs? (G. Boyko)

Determine the meanings of the highlighted words in the explanatory dictionary. Draw a conclusion: are these different words or one word in different meanings? Make up your own phrase and sentence with this word.

3. It was found out with which words polysemantic words in different meanings can be combined. So the wordthawed patch in the main meaning is combined with the defining word first, the same word in the meaningMelted place (there is an example in the dictionary"Blindingly sparkling snow was visible through the thawed windows." ) does not enter into a lexical "connection with the word first. The word is sensitive"Quickly and easily perceiving something by smell, hearing" suggests a combination with nouns denoting living things and their organs;sensitive dog, sensitive deer, sensitive ear of the hunter etc. And in combination with the wordhuman it is used, as a rule, in the meaning"Receptive to various impressions, responsive"; man is understood as a person, and not just a biological being. Therefore, you cannot make a sentence"A sensitive man was walking along the street." Or a wordmiss "Do not hold, drop, lose" combined with wordsbird (tit, dove, starling), beast (hare, fox, etc.), i.e. with animate nouns, and with words,rope, end (thread, rope, etc.), that is, with inanimate nouns. The same word in the meaning"Do not use something in time" has more limited compatibility: missdry weather (sunny days, occasional), that is, it does not associate with animate nouns.

4. In order to prevent lexical errors, phrases were compiled, for example: with the wordsensitive "easily feeling something by smell, hearing" + noun with which this word can be used:sensitive (dog, elk, deer, ear, man, leaf); in meaning"Responsive, attentive to others" : sensitive (person, boy, comrade, leaf, ear, neighbor). The correctness of the execution was checked using the dictionary.

The teacher will arouse interest in learning the native language, will give in-depth knowledge if he uses the most optimal methods of working in vocabulary. And this work “... is needed” for mastering skills, and for mental development, and for understanding many grammatical phenomena ”[Cit. according to: Baranov 1988].

CONCLUSION

As a result of the experiment, the following conclusions can be drawn: students have mastered the necessary minimum of knowledge on this topic, actively use polysemantic words both orally and in writing.

In elementary school, lexicology is studied in the narrow sense of this term, that is, as a vocabulary system of the language. However, the school vocabulary course also includes some information about stable phrases and dictionaries (explanatory dictionary, dictionary foreign words, phraseological dictionary).

Vocabulary as a section of the science of language in elementary school is studied both in the educational and cognitive aspect (acquaintance of students with the lexical system of the Russian language) and in the normative and practical aspect (the formation of their ability to apply different lexical layers in different situations communication, as well as enrichment of the vocabulary of students with different lexico-semantic groups of words).

Despite the fact that vocabulary work and vocabulary study have the same object - a word, in vocabulary classes the word is studied as a unit of the lexical system and the task of enriching the vocabulary, although it is worth it, is not the leading one, while for vocabulary work this the main task. However, it should be borne in mind that the expansion of the vocabulary of students is much more intensive if this work is based on the knowledge acquired in the process of learning vocabulary.

The role of studying the polysemy of a word in school to improve the culture of a student's speech, and therefore his general culture, is difficult to overestimate, understanding several meanings of polysemantic words and the ability to use them correctly in different meanings enriches the student's vocabulary (without expanding it quantitatively, increasing the semantic load of the words known to him) ), warns and corrects shortcomings in the use of polysemantic words, enriches and streamlines the syntax of students' speech. With the correct study of a polysemantic word, synonymous series of words expand, the mechanism for selecting antonyms is improved, and, consequently, the expressive possibilities of the students' language are enriched.

As a result of acquaintance with the structure of polysemous words, the types of hyphenation of names, the student gets the opportunity to apply the methods of determining different meanings of a word to words that he does not understand; he will be interested in the patterns of combining words in different meanings with other words, while reading he will establish the types of these connections. He will think over the language. The technique of the expedient selection of linguistic means of a certain style of speech will be improved, since in the study of polysemy it is impossible not to touch upon the issue of different stylistic coloration, the belonging of a word with different meanings to certain styles of speech.

LIST OF USED SOURCES

Arbatsky, D.I. Errors in the interpretation of the meanings of words and ways to eliminate them / D.I. Arbatsky // Russian Language at School, 1996. No. 4. P. 32-37.

Baranov M.T.On working with an explanatory dictionary at Russian language lessons / M.T. Baranov // Russian language at school, 2001. No. 6. P. 45.

Baranov, M.T. Vocabulary / M.T. Baranov // Teaching the Russian language in IV-VI grades according to the new program, Moscow: Education, 1970.368 p.

Baranov, M.T. Lexico-semantic aspect of Russian language lessons in grades 4-8 / MT Baranov // Russian language lesson at the present stage. M .: Enlightenment, 1978.S. 30

Baranov, M.T. Methods of vocabulary and phraseology at the lessons of the Russian language / M.T. Baranov M .: Education, 1988.191 p.

Bobrovskaya, G.V. Activation of the vocabulary of primary schoolchildren / G.V. Bobrovskaya // Primary school, 2003. No. 4. P. 47-52.

Valgina, N.S., Rosenthal, D.E., Fomina, M.I. Modern Russian language / N.S. Valgin, D.E. Rosenthal, M.I. Fomina // Textbook. M .: Logos, 2002. Electronic resource. Resource address: http://www.sinykova.ru/doc/rus_yaz.htm. (date of access: 15.01.2016).

Ivanov, S. V. "Russian language" Grade 1 / S.V. Ivanov, M.I. Kuznetsova, L.V. Petlenko. M .: Ventana-Graf, 2014.S. 192.

Ivanov, S. V. "Russian language" Grade 2. At 2 pm Part 1 / S.V. Ivanov, M.I. Kuznetsova, L.V. Petlenko. M .: Ventana-Graf, 2014.S. 192.

Ivanov, S. V. "Russian language" Grade 2. At 2 o'clock, Part 2 / S.V. Ivanov, M.I. Kuznetsova, L.V. Petlenko. M .: Ventana-Graf, 2014.S. 192.

Ivanov, S. V. "Russian language" Grade 3. At 2 pm Part 1 / S.V. Ivanov, M.I. Kuznetsova, L.V. Petlenko. M .: Ventana-Graf, 2014.S. 192.

Ivanov, S. V. "Russian language" Grade 3. At 2 o'clock, Part 2 / S.V. Ivanov, M.I. Kuznetsova, L.V. Petlenko. M .: Ventana-Graf, 2014.S. 192.

Ivanov, S. V. "Russian language" Grade 4. At 2 pm Part 1 / S.V. Ivanov, M.I. Kuznetsova, L.V. Petlenko. M .: Ventana-Graf, 2014.S. 192.

Ivanov, S. V. "Russian language" Grade 4. At 2 o'clock, Part 2 / S.V. Ivanov, M.I. Kuznetsova, L.V. Petlenko. M .: Ventana-Graf, 2014.S. 192.

Lvov, M.R. Methods of teaching Russian in primary grades/ M.R. Lvov, V.G. Goretsky, O.V. Sosnovskaya. Moscow: Academy, 2007.464 p.

Ozhegov, S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language / S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. Moscow: 2010.506 p.

Tekuchev, A.V. Methodology of the Russian language in secondary school / A.V. Tekucheva. 3rd ed. Moscow: Education, 1980.414 p.

Ushakov, D.N. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language / D.N. Ushakov. M .: Astrel, Ast, 2000.848 p.

Shansky, N.M. Lexicology of the modern Russian language / N.M. Shansky. 2nd ed. Moscow: Education, 1972.328 p.

Fomina, M.I. Modern Russian language: Lexicology / M.I. Fomin. M .: Higher school, 2001.415 p.

Shmelev, D.N. The meaning of the word // Russian language: Encyclopedia / D.N. Shmelev. M .: 1979.S. 89.

APPENDIX A "Test tasks"

1. Add your sentences:

Words that have two or more meanings are called _____________.

Words that answer the same question and have a similar meaning are called _________________.

Words that answer the same question but have the opposite meaning are called _____________________.

Words are the same in sound and spelling, but completely different in meaning are called ___________________________.

2. Read the sentences. Find and underline ambiguous words:

The tongue is not a shoulder blade, knows what is sweet. From bitter torment the onion became bitter.

3. In the list of words provided, find ambiguous words and indicate all possible meanings.

!) janitor - janitor (person), janitor (a device for cleaning the windshield of a car).

a) book - ...

b) bank - ...

into the nose - …

d) pen - ...

4. Make sentences with the wordfresh in different meanings.

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

APPENDIX B.

"Fragment of the lesson on the topic: Composition - description"

Lesson topic: Description essay.

Goals:

I. Educational:

1.Give historical and theoretical knowledge about dandelion.

2. To acquaint with artistic descriptions of nature.

3. Enrich the vocabulary of children.

4. Learn to enter a given image.

II. Developing:

1. Develop the ability to model and the ability to control your imagination.

2. Develop creative imagination, artistic taste for the word.

III. Educational:

3. To cultivate a respect for nature.

Equipment: presentation, drawings with pictures of dandelions, recording of forest noise, children's drawings of dandelions on album sheets ..

I. Organized start of the lesson.

II. Work on figurative means.

– Now take a sheet and write in the middle of the sheet. in block letters the word "dandelion". Starting with the first letter and ending with the last of this word, guess the "spring" words by meaning and write them down vertically.

– To write on behalf of a dandelion, you need to know everything about it. What do you know about him?

– Indeed, everyone knows dandelion. This unpretentious flower is found in forest glades and along roadsides.

III. Lesson topic message.

– Today we have a speech development lesson. We will start it in an unusual way.

Close your eyes, listen to the music and think what time of the year has come to visit us to the sounds of such wonderful music. (PI Tchaikovsky "The Four Seasons" Spring.)

– Have you guessed who is inviting us? Spring invites you to the forest. It is so easy to breathe in spring and it is so interesting to watch the awakening of nature! What can you see, feel?

– And what flowers - guess:

"Golden and young

For a week I became gray-haired,

And in two days

The head has gone bald. "

– What flower are we talking about?

– We destroy it in vegetable beds, considering it a weed, and yet it is a very valuable plant. Flowers, roots, leaves are used in medicine to treat various diseases. Dandelion leaves can be salted for the winter like cabbage, and in spring the leaf salad is very healthy and nutritious. Well, you don't have to talk about jam at all, how delicious it is! How many dandelion species do you think are found in nature?

– In fact, scientists have counted more than two hundred species. Have any of you counted how many fuzzies there are in one basket? Indeed, imagine - up to two hundred seeds with feathers. And they all fly away as soon as the wind blows. But not all seeds germinate, otherwise there would be no room on the earth for other plants, dandelions would grow everywhere. There are many poems and riddles about dandelion. Now I will read some of them, and you, in turn, write down the words for your essay.

a. Wears a dandelion

Yellow sarafan,

Grow up - dress up

In a little white dress

Lush, airy.

Obedient to the breeze.

– What will you choose from this passage?

What are the comparisons, beautiful adjectives for describing a flower?

b. Golden yellow during the day

It is green in the evening.

Wait a week -

Will become white - white.

You will still wait -

You will only find a bald spot.

v. Dandelion by the path

In a fluffy hat

With a long leg.

I found him in the woods

But I won't take it with me:

I'll just take it in a bouquet

The wind blows - no cap!

– You have chosen beautiful words. And now I will introduce you to the story of Sokolov - Mikitov "Dandelions". Do not forget to add new words to your sheets (reading piece by piece, independent work).

– What words did you choose? Read it.

– Look at pictures of dandelions. What comparisons come to your mind? Write them down on a piece of paper (fluffy hat, golden flashlight, little sun, golden watch, earthly cloud, chicken).

IV. Relaxation.

– Now let's try to get into the image - to become a dandelion. And the physical minute will help us with this. You listen to me carefully, and you try to imagine what I am talking about.

* * *

Sit comfortably, straighten your back, keep your head not tense, but straight, legs straight. Take a deep breath, lungs are filled with air, do not raise your shoulders. Now close your eyes. Your whole face is resting. Let the peace flow down the shoulders, flow down the back, relaxing all the muscles of the back. Let peace flow down your hands, relaxing them, relaxing your fingers. Relax your chest, stomach, let the tension leave you. Relax your legs, relax your feet and toes. You feel wonderful peace!

You are a flower. You are a dandelion ...

Your head becomes a yellow dandelion cup, your arms become long leaves, your body turns into a stem. Roots go into the soil under your feet. Feel it ... Do you feel your roots in the ground, the soil around the roots? What is she like?

The sun is shining, everyone is pleased, warm rays penetrate your head, into your dandelion cup ...

You are pleased! Enjoy it!

You dandelion, mentally look around. You see? Do you feel it?

Other flowers? Insects? Butterflies? Birds? People and animals? What are they for you - dandelion? Let the answer come by itself, your inner knowledge will tell you. Use your time to comprehend your feelings ...

We open the eyes. Now your task will be to describe your feelings. After all, we write essays on behalf of the dandelion. Anything that comes or comes to your mind, then write. The words you wrote down earlier will help you.

V. Writing essays.

Vi. Summarizing.

– Let's make a glade of dandelions. Dandelions are yellow. But not everywhere. There are more than two hundred species of dandelions on Earth. Among them are whitish, pinkish, bright red and even purple.

Take paper, pencils and paint your dandelion in the color you like (children do).

– Attach your dandelion to a suitable drawing (on the chalkboard drawings, a dandelion is smiling, a dandelion is not smiling, a dandelion is sad).

– Your dandelions are ripped off. Children, what will happen to a dandelion if it is pulled out by the roots and abandoned? (perish).

– No, the dandelion loves life so much and is so strong that it will continue to live without land and water until its petals turn into white fluffs and scatter in the wind. He will give life to new flowers and only then will he perish.

But, unfortunately, not every flower has such power. Anyone else will die. Let's take care of the plants, otherwise our Earth will turn into a great desert.

Often words in a language can have not one but several meanings. Obviously, descriptions (definitions) for different meanings of the same word will be different. Let's consider this using the example of verbs take off / take off.

By the way, a feature of the Slavic languages ​​is that the verbs different types, united in a species pair, have different grammatical, but ONE lexical meaning. Those. the verb "remove" means the same as "remove". Therefore, speaking about the lexical meaning of one verb, let's say “to remove”, we mean at the same time the meaning of its correlate in appearance (ie, in this case, “to remove”) and vice versa.

However, it happens that a polysemantic verb of an imperfect form in one of its meaning is paired with one verb SV (for example, "to speak" in the meaning to speak, to talk has a correlate SV "to talk"), and in another sense, the same verb NSV correlates with another with the verb SV ("to speak" in the meaning to say, to tell has a correlate SV "to say").

In this case, the verb SV "to talk" will obviously have the same meaning as "to speak" in the first case (i.e. both of them will mean to speak, to talk), and the verb SV "to say", obviously, it will have the same meaning as the verb "to speak" used in the second meaning (ie both verbs will mean to say, to tell). Thus, if you are faced with the task of explaining to students the meanings of the verbs "speak / talk" and "speak / say", there will be 2 explanations: one for the first pair and one for the second, and in no case three (by the number of verbs ).

So, first, the physical meaning of the verbs take off / take off, obviously, there will be 1) “to lower something that is above; move smth at the top down ”(“ take the kitten out of the tree ”). From this comes the second meaning, which means 2) "remove, remove": take a picture off the wall = remove the picture etc. The third meaning is related to clothing: 3) take off your hat, glasses, sweater, shirt and so on, i.e. to take off Obviously, the third value is related to the first, because when the clothes (or accessory) are removed, there is a downward movement. In addition, this verb has a meaning, which is found in phrases 4) take off / take off (on tape), shoot / shoot a film and in phrases like 5) rent / rent an apartment... Where did these values ​​come from? The fourth value (i.e. film) is obviously related to “taking / taking an impression”, i.e. again expresses the idea of ​​'moving' (in this case, the image onto the film). The same idea of ​​'moving' is evidently found in phrases like 'rent / rent a house' (i.e. rent a house), when the 'house' is temporarily at the disposal of the tenant (i.e., again, as it were, 'moves' from owner to tenant).

Thus, any polysemous word must be represented when its different meanings are spoken of separately. At the same time, at the first acquaintance with the word, it is NOT recommended to give ALL of its meanings. In the event that most often a word occurs in any one meaning, only this meaning is given. Let's say the verb “write” in most cases means ‘to fix verbal information using graphic symbols’. Accordingly, in this sense it is represented from the very beginning. The meaning of “create”, which can be seen in the phrases “write music”, “paint a picture,” is presented to students when this word first occurs, for example, in an educational text in this sense. However, in the event that it is difficult to distinguish the main meaning of a word (for example, the verb "borrow", which means both taking money and giving money. Which of these meanings is the main one?), Obviously, both meanings should be presented upon first acquaintance with word. In addition, several meanings can be presented at once, if the main meaning is not a frequent one, but helps to understand the figurative meaning, and, thus, it is better to remember it (as is the case with the verbs "remove / remove"). In other cases, the MULTI-SIGNED word is presented to the student for the first time only in one of its meanings.

Ponachevnaya Anastasia

The allocation of types of speech activities that differ in their specificity suggests another, fifth, conclusion:

When solving the problem of improving the speech activity of younger schoolchildren, one should take into account the existence of four types of speech activity (speaking, listening, reading, writing) and direct efforts to teaching each of them.

The analysis of the concept of "speech activity" made it possible to identify some areas in which today it is possible to improve the formulation of speech work. These directions are reflected in the formulated methodological conclusions. In the subsequent sections of the chapter, the content and methods of work on the development of the speech of primary schoolchildren will be described, taking into account the above recommendations.

Chapter 3. Methods of working on polysemantic words in primary grades

3.1. The main directions and conditions for the successful development of speech in primary schoolchildren

The goal of teaching the development of speech is to improve the basic types of speech activity in children.

To achieve this goal, painstaking work is required.

All speech training can be represented in the form of two interrelated directions: 1) improving the actual speech activity (speaking, writing, listening, reading); 2) the formation of individual speech skills, which create the basis for enriching speech activity.

Formation of each of these skills requires certain exercises, conditions for their implementation, theoretical information, etc. The types of exercises can be different, for example: comparison of tasks, communication situations and texts created by students; coming up with headings for the text; prediction by the title, the beginning of the text of its possible content and nature; drawing up a plan or preparing working materials for a future statement; construction of words, phrases, sentences, text from given elements, taking into account the speech problems to be solved; coming up with or selection of sentences, word combinations, word series; conversion of various language means; restructuring the text in a given direction with appropriate observations; analysis from specific positions and text editing; reproduction of the text after its analysis, etc. These exercises, as we see, do not require the obligatory creation of speech situations with the provision of a partner, tasks and conditions of communication, and therefore are not communicative. Very often, for their implementation, whole statements are not needed at all - a fragment, minimal context, individual sentences, phrases or words are enough. However, this does not mean that these exercises should not be motivated for students. Schoolchildren must necessarily understand the practical significance of the skill they are practicing, the need to master it, but specific speech situations, a special organization of communication for their implementation are not necessary.

The very first of the named directions of speech work - the improvement of speech activity - presupposes, as already mentioned, the formation not of individual skills, but at the same time of their entire complex, and the main, in fact, the only type of exercise that allows you to solve this problem is exercise in the production and perception of utterances. In this case, the most important condition for work should be the creation of special speech situations with a specific addressee, circumstances, etc., situations that give rise to students' desire to enter into verbal communication, stimulating the emergence of a certain communicative intention (to learn about something by - share with someone your thoughts, experiences, explain something to someone, teach something, convince of something). This reveals the specificity of the first of the selected areas of work.

Summarizing the characteristics of the identified areas of speech work: 1) improving the actual speech activity; 2) the formation of individual speech skills, we emphasize once again that these areas differ in learning objectives, content and methods of implementation.

The work that we distinguish in the first direction approaches the development of coherent speech (in the accepted understanding), first of all, by its orientation towards coherent statements, that is, towards the text, and the desire to ensure the formation of specific speech skills. The differences in this work are that, firstly, it involves teaching not only the creation of statements (oral and written), but also their perception; secondly, it provides for the organization of educational speech activity of schoolchildren by performing special communicative (situational) exercises designed to ensure that students do not just prepare messages or retell texts as instructed by the teacher, but do it, being put in specific circumstances - things that would stimulate their speech activity, dictated certain requirements for the utterance.

It would be wrong to think that the proposed approach is completely new. Methodists working in this area have long pointed to appropriate ways to improve teaching. So, some of the named skills, for example, those associated with the awareness of the topic and the main idea, with the collection and systematization of material, with the improvement of what was written, were identified by T.A. Ladyzhenskaya in the late 60s. The skills she formulated actually reflect such stages of speech activity as planning, creating utterances and control. But, firstly, the skills necessary only for creating texts were highlighted, and secondly, among them there is still no ability to navigate in a communication situation.

Another well-known methodologist, N.A. Each author must have a listener (reader) ... It is far from necessary that the addressee should be a teacher ... "

Of course, like any schematization, the proposed division is conditional, but it allows you to reflect the versatility of the work carried out at school. The improvement of speech activity presupposes the sharpening of the whole complex of speech skills as a whole, since for its implementation it is necessary to perform all speech actions. It is clear that this process will not be fruitful if you do not pay due attention to each of the skills. That is why the first direction of teaching speech relies on the second, continues and closes it. The second direction provides for the development of particular actions carried out at different stages of speech activity, i.e., the formation of individual speech skills.

Let's present these skills in the form of a generalized list. But first, let's make two clarifications: 1) since speaking - writing as productive types of speech activity and listening - reading as receptive ones involve performing the same actions, to simplify the presentation, despite the presence of specifics associated with oral or written a form of communication, considered it possible to unite them; 2) when characterizing the skills that provide reading and writing, this list omits, although very important, but auxiliary, including technical, skills - they are considered in the corresponding sections of the manual.

I. Skills required to create expressions (for speaking and writing)

2. Ability to plan the content of the statement: to be aware of its theme and main idea; outline the course of development of thought, possible micro themes, their sequence, the approximate content of each part of the future text.

3. Ability to implement the intended plan, that is, to reveal the topic and develop the main idea, formulating each thought. At the same time, observe the norms of the literary language; choose the means (words, forms of words, types of structures, intonation, etc.), taking into account the task of speech, the addressee, the conditions of communication, the main idea and the content of this part of the text; to ensure the development of thought from sentence to sentence and the connection of individual sentences and parts of the text with each other; be guided by the norms of speech behavior.

4. Ability to control the correspondence of the statement to the intention, the communication situation, that is, to evaluate the content from the point of view of the topic, the task of speech, the main idea, the sequence of presentation, the means of language used in terms of the task of speech, the main idea, the requirements of the culture of speech, ethical side of speech behavior; if conditions permit, make corrections to your statement.

II. Skills required for the perception of utterances (for listening and reading)

1. Ability to be aware of your communicative task.

2. The ability to assume the general nature of the message, its theme, purpose, and further continuation by the title, at the beginning, as well as by other external signs (for example, by the illustrations in the book, by the gaze, by the speaker's facial expressions).

3. Ability to understand the meaning of words, the semantic load of word forms, constructions, intonation; highlight the elements of the statement:

individual facts, information, micro themes, according to them to determine general theme text; to distinguish between basic information and auxiliary information, known and new for oneself, especially important, etc .; understand the course of development of the author's thought, his main idea, the task of speech; in the course of communication, observe the norms of the command (including the rules for handling the book).

4. Ability to realize the degree of understanding of the text, the depth of penetration into its meaning, understanding of the author's position, attitude towards it; use the techniques of improving the understanding of the message (returning to the read, finding out the meaning of unfamiliar words, asking questions, etc.).

The above list of skills, of course, is rather arbitrary, it only approximately reflects the actions that people perform in the process of speech activity. But this list can serve as an indicative basis for the teacher's actions when organizing educational work on the development of the speech of schoolchildren.

Formation of each of these skills requires certain exercises, conditions for their implementation, theoretical information, etc. The types of exercises can be different, for example: comparison of tasks, communication situations and texts created by students; coming up with headings for the text; prediction by the title, the beginning of the text of its possible content and nature; drawing up a plan or preparing working materials for a future statement; construction of words, phrases, sentences, text from given elements, taking into account the speech problems to be solved; coming up with or selecting sentences, word combinations, word series; conversion of various linguistic means; restructuring the text in a given direction with appropriate observations; analysis from specific positions and text editing; reproduction of the text after its analysis, etc. These exercises, as we see, do not require the obligatory creation of speech situations with the provision of a partner, tasks and conditions of communication, and therefore are not communicative.

Very often, for their implementation, whole statements are not needed at all - a fragment, minimal context, individual sentences, phrases or words are enough. However, this does not mean that these exercises should not be motivated for students. Schoolchildren must necessarily understand the practical significance of the skill they are practicing, the need to master it, but specific speech situations, a special organization of communication for their implementation are not necessary. The very first of the named directions of speech work - the improvement of speech activity - presupposes, as already mentioned, the formation not of individual skills, but at the same time of their entire complex, and the main, in fact, the only type of exercise that allows you to solve this problem is exercise in the production and perception of utterances. In this case, the most important condition of work should be the creation of special speech situations with a specific addressee, circumstances, etc., situations that give rise to students' desire to enter into verbal communication, stimulating the emergence of a certain communicative intention (to learn about something by - share with someone your thoughts, experiences, explain something to someone, teach something, convince of something). This reveals the specificity of the selected areas of work.

3.3 Analysis of programs and textbooks on the Russian language in the aspect of enhancing the speech of students of polysemantic words

Throughout the initial training, vocabulary (lexical) work is systematically carried out to identify the meanings of words. This work not only has a practical focus, but is also supported by theoretical information on vocabulary. Students will learn that a word can have several meanings (polysemy), words can be close (synonyms) or opposite (antonyms) in meaning. At the same time, schoolchildren learn to distinguish between classes (categories) of words according to the meaning of objectivity, a feature or action of an object in connection with the forms of inflection (declension and conjugation) and grammatical features of parts of speech. Lexical work is also used in vocabulary and spelling exercises (mastering words with unverifiable spellings from lists for each class).

In parallel with the study of grammar, the program gives tasks related to lexical work, with the identification of the visual means of the language, with the stylistics of speech, etc. So, in exercise 9 of the textbook for grade 1 edited by A.V. Polyakov, compiled according to the methodology developmental education, the task is to find words used in a figurative meaning (students perform similar tasks from grade 1 in the process of working on the polysemy of the word). Figurative means such as figurative comparison and metaphor are associated with the figurative meaning of the word. Acquaintance with figurative comparisons begins in grade 1 and continues in grades 2 and 3 on more and more complicated material. In grade 3, it is established that figurative comparisons are characterized by special attachment words (like, exactly, as if, as if, as if, etc.), as well as the form of the instrumental case of nouns - a light drift winds along the ground like a snake.

So in the textbook of the same author of the 4th grade, tasks for finding words in a figurative meaning lead to a generalization of the information available to children. In the subsequent exercises of the textbook, it is proposed to find words in a figurative meaning if they are present in didactic material. Of course, due to the complexity of the material, not all exercises give such tasks. The teacher can always organize this work at his own discretion. It is important that students at a practical level get an idea of ​​the metaphor.

In order for students to better understand the difference between figurative comparison and metaphor, after exercise 12 of this textbook, it is necessary to give an explanation: metaphors do not use those connecting words that are included in the structure of figurative comparisons. Great importance when working with a metaphor, it has a clarification of the similarity with an object (sign, action), which is conveyed by this pictorial means: what does “rusty” leaf, “caftan” of summer, etc. mean.

Information about language and speech is systematized through work with a word, sentence, text, through observation and comparison of their features. So first-graders get an initial idea of ​​form and word formation, lexical and grammatical categories of words based on the differences in their nominative function, about the relationship between the meaning of a word and its form. The organization of the practice of oral communication, oral speech exercises, transforming speech activity of students in the form of written speech are aimed at connecting the language and speech content of the course, analyzing linguistic phenomena, sentences, texts, mastering communication skills in various forms and situations.

According to the program, children must first learn to distinguish between real objects and their names, know the nominative and naming, the function of the word, then get acquainted with the words denoting objects, phenomena, events, states, actions, signs, qualities, learn to find and subsequently use linguistic means of expressiveness of speech: use words in a figurative sense; figurative comparisons; words that are close and opposite in meaning; emotional vocabulary expressing various feelings (grandmother is an offensive word, and grandmother, granny are words expressing sympathy; the choice of vocabulary depends on the speaker's attitude: sympathy or neglect); expressive vocabulary, differing in the degree of emotional stress (misfortune, grief, disaster, catastrophe; scream, scream, roar; heat, heat).

OGENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF THE TEXTBOOK OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

By setting grammatical tasks, a textbook of the Russian language for primary grades through specific methods of mental activity in the process of consistent, systematic work with a word, sentence, text, through their versatile analysis contributes to the solution of the problem of the development of speech and thinking of a student, expands the horizons of children in the field of the native language, creates a linguistic environment as a condition for the formation of speech skills. The educational material creates the basis for the development of coherent speech: oral speech exercises, familiarity with the simplest pictorial and expressive means of language (narration, restoration of a deformed sentence and a small text, that is, transforming speech activity of students).

Throughout the school year, it is necessary to constantly conduct vocabulary work, explain to children the words, the meaning of which is not clear to them. It is very important that the students themselves pay attention to unfamiliar words. Finding out the meaning of words is carried out in the form of a conversation, at the end of which the teacher clarifies the children's answers. Assistance in this work can be provided by various dictionaries (explanatory, etymological), to use which it is necessary to gradually accustom children.

The sequence of exercises within the topics is determined by the gradual complication of the material. Speech development exercises are performed in parallel with the study of grammatical information.

The simplest initial scientific and practical information on the stylistics of speech (the use of metaphors,) expands the possibilities of children in mastering normative literary speech. An entertaining means providing this direction of study throughout the entire period of work on the textbook is a special heading "Secrets of speech", for which figurative poetic examples are selected.

In the textbook for grade 1, mentioned above, a significant place is given to lexical work, figurative turns of speech, polysemy of a word, familiarization with rhyme (No. 15, 19, 23, 39, 40, 146-149, 150, 152, 154, etc.). In addition, the textbook includes initial information about phraseological logisms (No. 169-175) and their figurative meaning.

In work in all these areas, children need to be shown that words can be close and opposite in meaning (№ 15, 147, 166).

It is equally important to show the polysemy of the word: direct and figurative meanings (there was an empty barrel in the yard - direct meaning, empty (frivolous) conversation - figurative meaning), No. 19 (sunflower - golden sun), No. 23 (blinking his tail ), No. 26 (hedgehog - a bag of needles), No. 35 (birch - curly), No. 37 (a uniform at the plum, linings; chicken in a fur coat), No. 40 (the bushes are reddened, the bullfinches lit up the flashlights), No. 50 (snowdrop - scout), no. 60 (blizzards danced), no. 70 (bread edge - moon), no. 74 (silver leg near the mushroom), no. 82 (charo-dyka winter. Snowy fringe), no. 83 (golden miracle - chick-lenok), No. 89 (golden patches - leaves), No. 97 (finch has a blue cap), No. 110 (fox - cheat, tail - beauty), No. 136 (trees fell asleep ), No. 148 (the dog plays the accordion, the cats dive, the sparrow moaning), No. 150 (the saucers began to cry, the trough burst into tears), No. 154 (brightly. , 174, 175 (phraseological units).

In grade 2 in exercises number 14-19. The work on the sentence is combined with the observation of the figurative means of the language - figurative turns of speech, synonyms, antonyms. Important place assigned to lexical work, word ambiguity, the use of words in a figurative sense. It should be remembered that there are many words in a language that have two or more meanings, that words are polysemantic. The direct meaning of the word is basic, original (sharp needle). Other meanings are portable (sharp mind, eye, smell). The translational meaning of the word is used as a pictorial means of the language. Numerous examples from exercises on the use of words in a figurative sense can be cited: No. 64 (with a white asterisk on the forehead - at the foal), No. 201 (ko-tik - black stockings), No. 204 (birches crowded , what are you looking at me - about bells), No. 226 (the sleepy rose on tiptoe), No. 231 (anthills will tell the address of strawberries), No. 246 (birches smiled, silk braids, etc.), No. 304 ( silver song), No. 384 (gardens drenched in milk), No. 386 (rain on a wet leg, tu-cha-watering can), No. 399 (rain dancing on a bench), No. 475 (blue glass of ice, a willow hanging like a tent), No. 477 (crystal-steel-tender conversation of a silvery river), etc. We recommend compiling dictionaries of figurative turns of speech with a figurative meaning as you perform the appropriate exercises, including exercises with figurative comparisons: b No. 34 (the pond turns blue with a round cup), No. 64 ( pigtail tail, match legs), No. 351 (with snow, like silver, with a snowy border), No. 399 (splashes like snakes), No. 479 (pillow, like yagushka), No. 480 (from a washcloth, as from a stick), etc.

3.4 The main directions of vocabulary work in primary school

The methodology for the development of speech at the lexical level provides for four main directions:

1. Enrichment of the vocabulary, i.e. assimilation of new, previously unknown words to students, as well as new meanings of those words that were already in the vocabulary. This is achieved by adding 4-6 new vocabulary units to the child's dictionary every day.

2. Clarification of the vocabulary is a vocabulary and stylistic work, the development of the flexibility of the vocabulary, its accuracy and expressiveness, which includes: comparison with other words; - mastering the lexical combinability of words, including in phraseological units;

Assimilation of allegorical meanings of a word, multi-meanings of words;

Assimilation of lexical synonyms and those shades of semantic meanings of words that are characteristic of separate synonyms in a synonymous group.

3. Activation of the dictionary, i.e. transferring as many words as possible from the passive dictionary to the active dictionary. Words are included in sentences and phrases, introduced into the retelling of the read, into a conversation, into a story, presentation and essay.

4. Elimination of non-literary words, their translation from an active dictionary into a passive one. This refers to dialectal, vernacular, slang words that children have learned under the influence of the speech environment.

All the aforementioned areas of work on the dictionary are constantly interacting. The main sources of enrichment and improvement of the vocabulary are works of fiction, texts of educational books, teacher's speech. All of these are pedagogically controlled and organized sources of language enrichment. However, incorrect sources (speech of parents, friends, etc.) also affect the speech of students.

All areas of vocabulary work are possible in primary grades only on a practical basis, mainly based on text, without theoretical information and even, as a rule, without terms. Dictionaries can be a very useful aid for vocabulary work.

Enrichment of the vocabulary. The best interpreter of the meaning of a word is context. It is no coincidence that explanatory dictionaries contain quotations-illustrations, in which both the main and additional meanings of words, their compatibility are highlighted.

In explaining the meanings of words, it is necessary to be guided by the general didactic task of increasing the degree of independence and cognitive activity of the students themselves. There are always at least a few people in the class who correctly understand all words and phrases. Therefore, it is necessary to strive for the schoolchildren themselves to be able to explain the meaning of the word, which ensures their mental development, fosters independence.

In the methodology of the Russian language, many techniques are known for working on the meanings of a new word. The use of all techniques provides a variety of work, and also allows you to enter a new word in the most rational way for a given word. Let's consider the main ones, arranging them according to the degree of their developmental potential:

1. Word-formation analysis, on the basis of which the meaning (or shade of meaning) of the word is determined. In elementary grades, the question is usually asked: "From what word is this word derived?" or: "Why was the boletus, lollipop, fellow villagers named so?" This way of explaining words allows you to link the vocabulary work with spelling, as it identifies the roots of words and helps to check unstressed vowels, voiced, voiceless and unpronounceable consonants.

2. Comparison of words in order to clarify the differences, to differentiate the meanings of paronyms: strawberry and countrywoman, silver and silver

3. Explaining meaning through context. Reading the passage "highlights" the meaning of the words; schoolchildren more easily understand not only their direct meaning, but also the appropriateness of use, and compatibility, and expressiveness.

4. The inclusion of a new word in the context, compiled by the children themselves, is a variant of the previous task. This is a technique for activating students, but in difficult cases, inclusion in the context can be made by the teacher.

5. Finding out the meaning of a new word, but reference materials, i.e. according to dictionaries and footnotes in the book for reading. In some cases, you can use explanatory dictionaries.

6. The display of an object, picture, model, stuffed animal or action as a means of developing the cognitive activity of students depends on the degree of independence of the students involved in the explanation: if the picture explaining the meaning of the word was picked up by the children themselves or painted, then their cognitive activity is quite high ...

7. The method of selecting synonyms is one of the most universal and frequently used techniques: grooming - taking care of, surrounding with care, calling - giving his name, knight - warrior. But when using this technique, an error often arises: when analyzing the meaning of words (good and beautiful), children in both cases replace them with neutral (beautiful), completely erasing the expressiveness of the language. Such a replacement does not enrich, but impoverishes, the speech of students, since takes them away from emotionally colored, expressive words that have shades of meaning, to words that are stylistically neutral, devoid of shades and colors.

8. Reception of the selection of an antonymic pair: start - finish, good - bad.

9. A detailed description, consisting of a group of words or of several sentences, as a technique for clarifying the meanings of words, is valuable in that it allows you to keep the conversation at ease.

10. Method logical definition often helps to reveal the meaning of a word by bringing it to the closest genus and highlighting specific features: a cruiser is a warship.

A variety of techniques and an increase in the activity of students in explaining the meanings of words is the most important task of vocabulary work in primary grades.

Schoolchildren are constantly faced with the polysemy of words (polysemy), but they are not always aware of it. Children come to an understanding of polysemy from an allegory (the sun has gone to sleep). For the first time, children meet with the polysemy of words during the period of learning to read and write, reading the texts of the "ABC" ("Primer"). The basis of work on polysemy at this time is the analysis of words from the read text, the delineation of their meaning. But, in addition, special exercises are carried out:

1. Choose words that would have 2-3 meanings;

make sentences for each meaning. Explain the meanings of words.

2. Compare the meanings of words in combinations:

The clock goes by - the children are walking - the construction is in progress.

3. Choose words that are close in meaning (synonyms) to each meaning of these words: raw potatoes - ... raw earth - ...

4. Choose opposite words (antonyms) for each meaning of these words: raw sand - ... raw potatoes - ...

From the ambiguity of words, children move on to homonyms, which are usually given to them in entertaining, play materials: The fox carries me beyond the dark forests.

Theoretical material on polysemy and homonyms is not given in the primary grades, and the formation of the corresponding concepts passes only the preparatory stage.

3.5 Working on polysemantic words

The creation of a scientific methodology for studying the phenomenon of multivaluedness is dictated by the needs of the school. We have made an attempt to experimentally verify in the process of experiential learning:

1) the ratio of induction and deduction in the study of polysemy;

2) the comparative efficiency of using different methods of work in the research plan;

3) the effectiveness of various exercises.

The main task was to determine the volume of theoretical information and methods of enriching students' speech with words in different meanings.

Experienced training was organized. Three groups of classes (1 class in each group) and three methods were identified, depending on the ways of explaining new material, on the amount of theoretical information about polysemantic words and on the nature of the exercises.

The first group worked on the specified lexical concept in accordance with the textbook: the students went from observations to general conclusions (inductive path), the first method.

In other classes, information about polysemous words was communicated by the teacher (deductive way). The volume of theoretical information increased in comparison with the first group of classes: the students got the concept of the types of transfer of names - the second method.

The rest of the classes used an inductive way of explaining new material. The amount of theoretical information was also expanded, as in the second group of classes: the concept of types of transfer was introduced - the third method. Thus, in the first and third methods, the general method was to explain the new material (inductive), the difference was in the amount of theoretical information. The second and third methods had the same amount of theoretical information, but had a difference in the way of explaining the new material.

The learning objectives in all three groups of classes were the same: to achieve an understanding of the phenomenon of polysemy, to teach how to work with an explanatory dictionary, to show the systemic connections of a polysemous word at different levels of the language, to learn with the functioning of a polysemous word in speech, to teach the use of polysemous words in speech. words in different meanings.

The amount of information about polysemous words was also basically the same, the concept of the polysemy of a word, the direct and figurative meaning of words, the ability of a polysemous word to enter into various synonymous and antonymic relationships, depending on the meaning. But two groups. (II and III), as already noted, in addition to the indicated information, we got acquainted with the types of transfer of names.

Considering that familiarity with the types of transfer of names will contribute to a deeper understanding of the nature of a polysemantic word, we decided to give this information in two groups of classes. At the same time, we proceeded from the position that the inductive way of explaining the new has many advantages: it organizes and directs the analytical-synthetic operations of the students' mental activity, ensuring a solid assimilation of a new lexical concept. The deductive method is inferior to the inductive one in terms of the analytical one, so it was decided to supplement this technique by including a message about the types of transfer of names. We assumed that the most rational would be the inductive way of explaining the new, if the concept of types of transfer of names was introduced into the circle of information about the polysemy of a word.

The didactic material was used in all classes in the same way: it was mainly textbook exercises. But the second and third groups did exercises to determine the types of transference.

In the group working on the first methodology (the inductive "way), the explanation and consolidation of the concept was carried out in accordance with the methodological instructions for the textbook. The difference in the structure of dictionary entries in explanatory dictionaries about unambiguous and polysemous words was shown in the words “iceberg” and “ending.” Acquaintance with polysemantic words makes it possible to refer to the dictionary, expand the students' understanding of the content of the dictionary entry. p. 40). classes working according to the second method (deductive way), the teacher's story about ambiguous and unambiguous words, about words with figurative meaning was used. as in the first group, plus familiarization with the types of transfer of names, as in the second group of classes.

We considered it necessary to acquaint students with the following types of transference: metaphorical, contiguous, and functional. The choice of types was based on such considerations. Students meet with examples of linguistic metaphors every day, widely use derived meanings of words (head of cheese, cockscomb, etc.). Many striking examples are analyzed from the textbook of the Russian language: golden (wheat), - tail (stars), burning (cheeks) and many others. Without familiarity with metaphor, students will not be able to understand the depth of poetic tropes. For example:

I am here again, in my own family.

My land, brooding and tender!

Curly twilight beyond the mountain

Waving a snow-white hand.

(S. Yesenin)

Naturally, only knowing the basis on which the transfer is made, one can understand the full power of the expressiveness of the writer's language with such an economical expenditure of linguistic units.

The metaphorical transference was considered by schoolchildren under the guidance of a teacher using examples: nose (boats) - nose (person); trunk (tree) - trunk (guns); golden (cha-sy) - golden (wheat); swim (ducks) - swim (clouds), etc. Similarities were found in location, shape, color, nature of movement. At the direction of the teacher, the students made oral "drawings" for examples from the textbook: ice block - an icy look; eagle's nest - eagle nose; the child sleeps - the river sleeps.

Metonymy, as you know, is such a transfer of a name, which is performed not on the basis of the similarity of external or internal signs of a former thing and a new one, but on the basis of contiguity, that is, the contact of things in space or in time (2, p. 80), there is only a connection: without a plum! - there can be no plum tree - a fruit, without the action of embroidery there can be no beautiful embroidery.

The principle of adjacency transfer was explained by the teacher. The term itself was explained using the example of adjacent rooms, that is, a phenomenon known to children. The examples of gooseberry blossoming - gooseberry ripening were analyzed; watered plums - ate plums (the tree and the fruit have the same name); beautiful hall "- the whole hall sang (the room and the people in it), etc.

It was shown that the metaphor can be turned into a comparative turn with unions, as, exactly, as if: golden dandelions (or curls) are yellow like gold; sea ​​of ​​tears - there are as many tears as in a sea of ​​water. This cannot be done with adjacency carry. There is no similarity between objects named in one word (plum - fruit is completely different neither in color nor in appearance to plum - wood), there is only a connection.

Acquaintance with transfer by function took place in the form of questions - answers. The teacher found out if the students knew what people wrote before the advent of the steel pen. Further, you listened to the opinion why the steel object was named with the same word - a feather (like a goose). The children did not immediately cope with the task. They offered different options: light in appearance; similar in shape - a pointed end (you cannot blame them for a lack of observation); both objects were dipped in ink. And only after the question, for which it was dipped in ink, the purpose was determined - for writing and it was concluded that the one and the other object performs the same work, the purpose is a function. Examples were analyzed: wing (birds) - wing ("aircraft), lit (candle) - lit (lamp). In the first example, some schoolchildren perfectly correctly determined the transfer by function - to hold the position in flight, - and the similarity in the location.

During the work in the classroom, it was clear that transfer by function is perceived somewhat more difficult than metaphorical, but much easier than transfer by contiguity. Primary school students practically get acquainted with the method of metaphor, when the actions of an animate being are attributed to inanimate, inanimate objects, when reading works of art, especially fairy tales. And the other two are met for the first time. In the lessons, visual aids were used. To illustrate the types of transfers, large-format drawings were used with the image of the wing and tail of a bird and an airplane (the conversation was about the meanings of words and the basics of transferring the name), a tree trunk and a rifle barrel (external similarity was determined), a key as a master key and a wrench (noted that the wrench was named not by its external resemblance to the key - a device for opening the lock, but by the work performed by activating the mechanisms).

As a training exercise, a coherent text was proposed, including polysemantic words with all types of transfer of names known to students.

During the experimental training, the most effective types of exercises were tested.

The students completed the following exercises.

1. According to the context, the meaning in which the polysemantic word was used was determined (the tails of animals, birds, airplanes, seeds, stars were orally "drawn" - exercise 289 in the textbook for grade 4 edited by Polyakova), it was established that the word tail used by the author of the poem in four meanings, that different meanings of the word tail have in common, are related to each other - this is the final part of something. Despite the many meanings, the word is one (it is very important to emphasize, to achieve understanding, otherwise there will be confusion in distinguishing between polysemy and homonymy).

2. Training exercises were performed using the "Dictionary" (textbook, SI Ozhegov, separate from the four volumes of the dictionary of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR). According to dictionaries, students: they found polysemantic words, got acquainted with the interpretations of "different meanings of these words; checked the correctness of the interpretation of the word given by themselves; explained the figurative meaning of the word and checked it against the word-rem; found out whether they met a polysemous word or homonym; After reading a dictionary entry made up a phrase or a sentence with a polysemantic word in the specified meaning.

According to the vocabulary of the textbook, it was proposed to establish whether the words thawed, sensitive, miss are single-valued or ambiguous words. The students read the dictionary entry, collectively made up a phrase or sentence with a word in the specified meaning (for example, with the word thawed patches: "In the place where the snow melted and the earth opened up", the first thawed patches appeared; with the word sensitive "quickly and easily perceiving something by smell, hearing ": A hare's sensitive ear catches forest rustles; the word to miss" do not hold, drop, lose "was introduced into the sentence The boy missed the caught butterfly).

3. It was found out with which words polysemantic words in different meanings can be combined. So, the word thawed patches in the main meaning is combined with the defining word first, the same word in the meaning of "melted place" (in the glossary there is an example "In the thawed patches of windows blindingly sparkling snow was seen") does not enter into a lexical "connection with the word first. The word sensitive "quickly and easily perceives something by smell, hearing" suggests a combination with nouns denoting living beings and their organs; sensitive dog, sensitive deer, sensitive ear of a hunter, etc. And in combination with the word man it is used "as a rule, in the meaning of" receptive to various impressions, responsive "; a person is understood as a person, and not just a biological being. Therefore, it is impossible to make the sentence" A sensitive person was walking along the street. "Or a word miss "do not hold, drop, lose" is combined with the words bird (tit, pigeon, starling), beast (hare, fox, etc.), that is, with animate nouns, and with words, rope, end (threads , rope, etc.), that is, with non-animate mi nouns. The same word in the meaning “not to use something in time” has a more limited compatibility: to miss dry weather (sunny days, occasion), that is, it does not come into connection with animate nouns.

4. In order to prevent speech lexical errors, phrases were compiled, for example: with the word sensitive “easily feeling something. smell, hearing "+ noun with which this word can be used: sensitive (dog, elk, deer, ear, man, leaf); "in the meaning of" responsive, attentive to others ": sensitive (person, boy, comrade, leaf, ear, neighbor). The correctness of the execution was checked by the dictionary.

After studying the entire section "Vocabulary", a test was carried out, the same for all groups of classes, designed to identify the effectiveness of the methods described above. The work included materials to test the ability of students 1) in determining the meaning of a polysemantic word from the context (They built a new house. The whole house ran out into the street. Mom is busy around the house); 2) in the use of a polysemous word in different meanings in speech (to make sentences with the word fresh in different meanings); 3) in drawing up a context with a polysemous word in the specified meaning (with the word needle "hard thorns on the body of some animals"); 4) in determining the figurative meaning of the word and types of transfer of names (ducks float - clouds float, the tongue of a cow is a tongue of flame, "a fast river is a quick mind, a gold coin is a golden wheat, a friendly class is a bright class) ; 5) in the delimitation of a polysemous word from a homonym (word bor); 6) in the selection of synonyms and antonyms for different meanings of a polysemantic word (fresh collar, fresh wind, fresh magazine) As a result of experimental work, we came to the following conclusions In the study of the concept of polysemy and figurative meaning of words, the most effective method should be recognized as inductive with the reporting of information about the types of transfer of names.

Primary school students are able to master the concept of polysemy, the structure of dictionary entries in an explanatory dictionary, the relationship of meanings in a polysemantic word, types of transfer of names, a mechanism for selecting synonyms and antonyms for different meanings of a polysemous word, the difference between a polysemous word and a homonym. Schoolchildren need to be introduced to the types of transfer, this (shape, appearance, color), which is not immediately perceived by the presence of common in the comparison of abstract concepts (a man is running - time is running, a green tomato is a green youth, cold hands are a cold look). The assimilation of this type of transfer is facilitated by a practical technique - a detailed comparison (the clouds float as smoothly as ducks).

The metonymic type of transfer is more difficult for students, although in practice they use examples very often (a bouquet of bird cherry, ripe currants, etc.). In the contiguous transfer, students learn the connections: the subject and what (or who) is in it (a silver dish is a tasty dish, a light class is a strong class); object and what is on it (tall pear - ripe pear). It is difficult to assimilate the general in the examples that call the work "and the result (doing embroidery - beautiful embroidery, teaching at school - teaching came in handy).

There are fewer examples with the functional type of hyphenation in the language than in others, which limits the number of exercises. But students quickly grasp the general function of objects if drawings are used or objects themselves are shown or the question is posed, what are the objects for,

The following exercises turned out to be the most effective: the use of a polysemous word in the context, compiled by the students themselves; definition (naming) of the word for interpretation; "Recognition" of a polysemantic word in context and determination of its meaning; distinguishing between the direct and figurative meanings of words and proof of the reasons for the transfer; the composition of phrases and sentences with a polysemantic word in the specified meaning; selection of synonyms and antonyms for different meanings of a polysemantic word. Exercises in the explanatory dictionary are effective: checking the correctness of interpretation, finding a word and using it in context, etc.

The concept of polysemy of words is assimilated by students more consciously in the conditions of studying the word in its systemic connections. The work on the lexical compatibility of words is interesting, it helps to prevent speech shortcomings; true, it requires a lot of effort from the teacher, work, but feasible and necessary.

The teacher will arouse interest in learning the native language, will give in-depth knowledge if he uses the most optimal methods of working in vocabulary. And this work "... is needed" both for mastering skills, and for mental development, and for understanding many grammatical phenomena "(4, p. 29).

Conclusion

In elementary school, lexicology is studied in the narrow sense of this term, that is, as a vocabulary system of the language. However, the school vocabulary course also includes some information about stable word combinations and dictionaries (an explanatory dictionary, a dictionary of foreign words, a phraseological dictionary).

Vocabulary as a section of the science of language in elementary school is studied both in the educational and cognitive aspect (acquaintance of students with the lexical system of the Russian language) and in the normative-practical aspect (the formation of their ability to apply different lexical layers in various communication situations, as well as enrichment of the vocabulary stock of students with different lexico-semantic word groups).

Despite the fact that vocabulary work and vocabulary study have the same object - a word, in vocabulary lessons the word is studied as a unit of the lexical system and the task of enriching the vocabulary, although it is worth it, is not the leading one, in While for vocabulary work, this is the main task. However, it should be borne in mind that the expansion of the vocabulary of students is much more intensive if this work is based on the knowledge acquired in the process of studying vocabulary.

The role of studying the polysemy of a word in school for increasing the culture of a student's speech, and, consequently, his general culture, it is difficult to overestimate the understanding of several meanings of polysemous words and the ability to correctly use them in different meanings enriches the student's vocabulary (without expanding it quantitatively, increasing the semantic load of the words known to him), warns and corrects shortcomings in the use of polysemantic words, enriches and streamlines the syntax of students' speech. With a correctly set study of a polysemantic word (synonymous series of words expand, the mechanism for selecting antonyms is improved, and, consequently, the expressive possibilities of the students' language are enriched.

As a result of acquaintance with the structure of polysemous words, the types of hyphenation of names, the student gets the opportunity to extend the methods of determining different meanings of a word to words that he does not understand; he will be interested in the patterns of combining words in different meanings with other words, while reading he will establish the types of these connections. He will think over the language. The technique of the expedient selection of linguistic means of a certain style of speech will be improved, since in the study of polysemy it is impossible not to touch upon the issue of different stylistic coloration, the belonging of a word with different meanings to certain styles of speech.

Literature

1. Arbatsky D. I. Errors in the interpretation of the meanings of words and ways to eliminate them D. I. Arbatsky // RYASH-1996- No. 4- P. 32-37

2. Baranov M. T. About working with an explanatory dictionary at the lessons of the Russian language T.М. Baranov // Russian language at school -, 2001 No. 6- C.45

3. Bobrovskaya G.V. Enrichment of the vocabulary of junior schoolchildren / G.V. Bobrovskaya // Primary school - 2002-№: 6.- P.76- 80

4. Bobrovskaya G.V. Activation of the vocabulary of primary schoolchildren / G.V. Bobrovskaya // Primary school - 2003- No. 4- P.47- 52.

5. Vinogradov V. V. Russian language (Grammatical doctrine of the word) .- M, 1972-318s.

6. Vygotsky L.S. Thinking and speech // Vygotsky L.S. Selected Psychological Research. --M., 1956.- 392s.

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8. Lavrova N.M. Development of the ability to use linguistic dictionaries. / N.M. Lavrova. // Primary school plus before and after. - 2005. - No. 5. - P.35-40.

9. Levushkina ON Consolidation of vocabulary. / O.N. Levushkina // Primary school. - 2001 - No. 5 - P.47- 52.

10. Lomakovich S.V., Tilitenko L.I. Russian language: Textbook for grade 2 of a four-year elementary school (System of D.B. Elkonin - V.V. Davydov). In 2 hours - Part 2 - M .: Vita, 2004. -200s.

11. Okon V. Fundamentals of problem learning / V. Okon - M., 1968 - 168p.

12. Assessment of the quality of knowledge of students who graduate from primary school / N.F. Vinogradova et al. - M .: Bustard, 2000-201s ..

13. Prudnikova A.V. Vocabulary in school course Russian language.- M.: Education, 1979.- 144s.

14. Psychology. Textbook for pedagogical institutes. / Ed. A.G. Kovale-va., Stepanova A.A., Shabalina S.N ..- M., 1966- 184s.

15. Ways to improve the quality of knowledge assimilation in primary grades / Ed. D.N.Bogoyavlensky, N.A. Menchinskaya.- M., 1962.-213s.

16. Application of knowledge in the educational practice of schoolchildren. / Under the editorship of N.А. Men-chinskaya-. M., 1961 - 202s

17. Russian language in primary grades: Theory and practice of teaching. / MS Soloveichik, PS Zhedek, NN Svetlovskaya .- M .: Education, 1993.- 383p.

18. Salnikova T.P. Methods of teaching grammar, spelling and speech development. / T.P. Salnikova.- Voronezh .: NPO MODEK, 1996.- 320s.

19. Smirnova NS, Kazakevich LA On the study of the topic "The polysemy of a word in the 4th grade", RYASH. 1969, No. 1, p. 67-69;

20. Strekozin V.P. Actual problems of primary education / V.P. Strekozin.- M .: Education, 1976- 192s.

21. Learning to distinguish between words and their meanings: Dictionary of polysemous words, thematic groups of words, homonyms, paronyms, synonyms, antonyms: Textbook. pos. for primary school students. - M .: Bustard, 2003.-152s.

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Linguistic foundations of the study of polysemous words at school. Psycho-pedagogical foundations for the development of speech in primary schoolchildren. Methodology for working on polysemantic words in primary grades. The main directions of vocabulary work.

INTRODUCTION

Chapter 1. Linguistic foundations of learning polysemantic words at school

1.1 The vocabulary of the Russian language as a system

1.2. Combination possibilities of the word. Motivated and unmotivated words

1.3. Technique for working on polysemantic words

Chapter 2. Psycho-pedagogical foundations of the development of speech in primary schoolchildren

2.1 Language (speech) and thinking

2.2. Speech as activity

Chapter 3. Methods of working on polysemantic words in primary grades

3.1. The main directions and conditions for the successful development of speech in primary schoolchildren

3.3 Analysis of programs and textbooks on the Russian language in the aspect of enhancing the speech of students of polysemantic words

3.4 The main directions of vocabulary work in primary school

3.5 Working on polysemantic words

Conclusion

Literature

INTRODUCTION

Schoolchildren constantly encounter polysemy of words (polysemy), but they are far from always aware of it. They come to the understanding of polysemy from allegory, from the figurative meaning of words. At the same time, at first, the presence of several meanings in a word affects the child. You can often hear such a question, for example: "Why do you say: the clock is standing, it does not stand, but hangs on the wall."

The Russian language program pays great attention to the development of students' speech. One of the areas of speech development is vocabulary enrichment. In this regard, the work on the polysemy of the word is of great interest. Usually, in the methodological literature in the practical work of teachers, the enrichment of the vocabulary of students was carried out at the expense of the quantitative accumulation of new words, the meanings of which the students had to learn. Currently, in connection with the increased requirements for the culture of speech of students, it is necessary to work not only on the quantitative, but also on the qualitative enrichment of the vocabulary of schoolchildren. This work should go not along the path of accumulating new lexical units, but in the direction of discovering and assimilating the polysemy of already known words.

The problem of studying the polysemy of a word is considered in the methodological literature in several aspects:

1) materials are developed for lessons in the classroom on the topic "Unambiguous and polysemantic words", specific recommendations are given, exercises for these lessons

2) Attempts are made to classify student errors and connections with the use of polysemous words in speech.

Numerous mistakes of students associated with the use of polysemous words in speech indicate the need for serious and systematic work on polysemy and, more broadly, on the meaning of the word in general. Schoolchildren do not know, and often do not know how to use the various meanings of polysemantic words; mistakes associated with the use of words with a figurative meaning in speech are also very common. Their types are very diverse and are not limited to the use of a word in an unusual sense. Common elements of pupils' semantic errors are highlighted in the article by D.I.Arbatsky. "Errors in the interpretation of the meanings of words and ways to eliminate them" It also contains, in our opinion, a very important idea that must be taken into account when working on the polysemy of a word: the context, specific word usage plays a decisive role in delineating the meanings of a word ...

But semantic definitions are also of considerable importance, therefore, when studying polysemy, exercises are also needed to analyze the definitions of various meanings in an explanatory dictionary, as well as exercises to independently find differences between the meanings of one word. Students 'mistakes often stem from a lack of knowledge of ways to interpret the lexical meaning of a word, a lack of ability to build semantic definitions and apply them, and the development of the ability to build semantic definitions is one of the elements of the development of students' speech.

The purpose of this work is to generalize methodological material and to offer some conclusions from observations on the degree of understanding of the multiple meanings of words by students of primary schoolchildren and to suggest a number of exercises that can be used in Russian language lessons.

The following tasks follow from this goal:

Based on the analysis of linguistic and psychological - pedagogical literature on the problem, determine the degree of study of the selected topic;

Determine the methodological provision of vocabulary work by analyzing Russian language programs and teaching aids for primary school students;

To identify the basic methodological techniques for working with polysemantic words in primary school.

To solve the set tasks, the following research methods were used:

a) linguistic (descriptive, functional)

b) methodological (socially pedagogical - observation of the educational process, study and generalization of work experience, experimental method).

The theoretical basis of the work was the work of scientists on the theory of the personality-activity approach to learning (L.S.Vygotsky, P.Ya. Galperin, I.A.Zimnyaya, S.L. Rubinshtein), on the theory of teaching methods (I. , M.S. Skatkin), works on lexicology (N.M. Shansky, D.N.Shmelev), research on the methodology of teaching the Russian language (N.N. Algazina, V.V. Babaitseva, A.V. Tekuchev, M. R. Lvov).

The work consists of an introduction, three chapters, conclusion, literature.

Chapter 1. Linguistic foundations of learning polysemantic words at school

1. 1Vocabulary of the Russian language as a system

The Russian language, like other languages ​​of the world, is the language of words from which phrases and sentences are built. Words represent minimal independent units that are used separately and have, in contrast to phonemes, their own meaning (objectivity, attribute, action, etc.).

Words are the most important, central category of language. They are constantly used in the process of communication by all people, regardless of professions, social origin, education and beliefs. “The word,” writes the famous Soviet writer MN Alekseev, “can contain two polar opposite charges: it can be a destroyer and a creator. It can cripple a person's soul and elevate him. "

The collection of all words in a language makes up its vocabulary or vocabulary

The branch of language science that studies vocabulary is called lexicology.

Lexicology is subdivided into historical and contemporary. Historical lexicology studies the history of words, the formation and development of vocabulary at different stages of the development of the Russian language. Modern, or synchronic lexicology examines the vocabulary of the modern Russian language in various aspects.

The word is the central structural unit of the language, performing various linguistic functions, among which the main one is the nominative function, or the function of naming.

An important feature of a word is its phonetic and grammatical design, with all this, each word is characterized by the arbitrariness of the connection of its sound complex with a certain lexical and grammatical meaning... Based on this, it is possible to give the following working definition of a word: a word is the smallest semantic unit of a language, characterized by phonetic and grammatical design and free reproducibility in the process of people communicating with each other.

Words of the Russian language are subdivided into significant and service words. The main feature of significant words is that they always have real meaning, they name certain objects, phenomena, signs, actions, states that are observed in objective reality. The most important feature of significant words is their generalizing character. Fulfilling a nominative function, the word names not only a specific object, sign, certain phenomenon, etc., but also a whole class of homogeneous objects, phenomena, signs. So, for example, the word house means not only a specific house, but also any other residential building, regardless of its characteristics (height, quality of the material from which it is built, living space, etc.).

Significant words always name one or another phenomenon of objective reality: objects, signs, actions, states, etc. They are characterized by lexical meaning - the reflection in a word of this or that phenomenon of reality.

Reflecting the general and essential features of objects and phenomena of reality, significant words are correlated with concepts. At the same time, it is impossible to identify the lexical meaning of a word and a concept. The meaning of a word is a linguistic category, and a concept is a logical one. The concepts are of a universal human nature, but they are realized in words that have a national character. The relationship between the meaning of a word and a concept turns out to be complex. On the one hand, the lexical meaning includes only a part of the content of the concept, that is, the totality of certain knowledge about a particular phenomenon of objective reality. On the other hand, the meaning of the word is richer than the concept, since it includes additional shades that are absent in the concept, for example, emotional and stylistic coloring. Wed: city and town; voice and little voice; old man, old man and old man; young and young.

The same concept can be expressed in different words. For example, the concept of "the science of language" is expressed by the words linguistics, linguistics, linguistics; the concept of "little child" - in the words of a child and a child; Wed also eyes and eyes, polysemy and "polysemy, the alphabet and the alphabet, anemia and anemia, etc. Often a word can be associated with several concepts. So, the word table expresses the concepts of" a certain piece of furniture "and" food, food ", hare - "Wild animal" and "stowaway passenger", satellite - "a person who is with someone on the way" and "bodies moving around planets and stars."

In the process of the historical development of the Russian language, words acquired new lexical meanings or lost some of them. For example, the word scorer has a new meaning - "an athlete who often scores goals" (in football, hockey, etc.); the word automatic, which meant "an apparatus that performs a certain work independently, by the action of an internal mechanism," developed the meaning of "pay phone"; the words gold, silver, bronz - “medals received by athletes in the course of sports competitions”. The word art at the beginning of the 18th century. meant "experience", then it began to express the concepts of "skill", "artistic mastery", "a certain area of ​​creative artistic activity of a person."

In some cases, the content of the concept may change, but the word remains unchanged. So, the word atom in the past meant "the smallest, further indivisible particle of matter." Thanks to scientific progress, it was established that an atom is a divisible particle of matter, but it is still called an atom.

So, the lexical meaning is determined primarily by the correlation of the word with the corresponding objects and concepts. The lexical meaning of a word is individual, although common semantic elements can be found in the meanings of individual words. So, in adjectives, a magical, witchcraft, bewitching, wizardly common semantic element is "possessing extraordinary charm, charm."

At the same time, the lexical meaning of a word is determined not only by its connection with an object and concept, but also by its relationship with other words, a place in the vocabulary system of the Russian language. For example, the word to drown out has the meaning: "to make it less audible" - Or-kestr drowned out the singer's voice; "Suppress with their growth, displace other plants" - Weed grasses drowned out flowers; "Make it go out" - Muffle the samovar. For the concept of "muffling", that is, to contain, it is not essential what is muffled, restrained: a voice, flowers, a samovar. This does not change the qualitative certainty. For the lexical meaning, the functioning of this word in interaction with other linguistic elements turns out to be very significant.

Significant words of the Russian language may differ from each other in the type of lexical meaning. By the way objects or phenomena of objective reality are reflected, direct and figurative lexical meanings are distinguished.

Direct, or nominative, meaning is called such a lexical meaning of the word, which is directly related to the reflection of the phenomena that take place in life. It is the main type of lexical meaning. As a rule, only direct meanings have unambiguous words: cooper, widow, rifle, wax, gar-nir, poet, dew, verse, etc. The word used in its direct meaning performs a purely nominative function, that is, it serves the purpose of naming certain phenomena. Nominative meanings are possessed by nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs. The nature of the lexical meaning is peculiar for pronouns that do not name objects, signs, phenomena, but only indicate them.

Portable values ​​are secondary values; arising from primary values. For words with figurative meanings, the connection with the objects they designate, signs, etc., is not direct, but mediated (through direct meaning). So, for example, in the word chest, the direct meaning is "the upper part of the front side of the body, below the neck, to the abdomen", and the figurative meaning is "the surface, the outer layers of the earth": And an iron shovel into a stone chest, mining copper and gold, will embed a terrible path (Lerm.).

By the nature of the compatibility of some words with others, lexical meanings are free and not free. Free is a lexical meaning in which a word has wide and varied connections with other words. These connections are due to the relationships that exist between concepts.

Words: coat, shawl, oak, blue, steel, one hundred, yours, draw, sing, clean, little and others have free meanings. So, the word coat enters into the following logical connections with other words: a woolen coat (the material from which it is made), a thin coat (a coat with defects), a coat in a closet (location), a brother's coat (accessory), a coat is sewn (makes -sya), a coat for work (purpose), etc. If there are no logical connections between concepts, then there are no linguistic connections. Therefore, the word coat is not combined with the words sick, stupid, lively, knocking, rude, etc.

Words with free lexical meaning can be characterized by both direct and indirect connection with the designated. In other words, words with free lexical meaning have both direct and figurative meanings.

Words with non-free, or related, lexical meanings are combined with a narrow range of other words. There are the following types of such meanings: 1) phraseologically related; 2) syntactically conditioned 3) constructively conditioned.

The lexical meanings of the words of the Russian language, which are realized only in a certain phraseological combination of words, are phraseologically related. Here, word connections are conditioned by the regularities of the lexical system of the modern Russian literary language, and not by logical relations reflecting real connections between objects and phenomena.

A syntactically determined meaning is a figurative, predominantly evaluative meaning of a word, which is realized in a predicative or semi-predicative position, that is, when the word is used in the function of a predicate, an appeal, a separate application. Words that have a syntactically determined meaning are expressive-emotional characteristics of the phenomena of objective reality. So, in the proposal What are the nurses now? Tfu, puppy (Bond.) The word puppy is characterized by the meaning of "young inexperienced person", and this meaning is syntactically determined. The syntactically determined meaning is also represented by the word hat in the following context: Hey you, hat! Come tomorrow at six o'clock for your shift (N. Ostr.).

The words of the Russian language are unambiguous and ambiguous. Unambiguous words have the same meaning. This includes, as a rule, terms, for example, socio-political (socialism, village council, president, communist, party, party committee), philosophical (matter, agnosticism, revisionism), linguistic (accommodation, affricate, substantiation, phrase , predicative, affix, postfix, agglutination), physical (atom, proton, electron, rheostat), literary (novel, poem, story, plot), etc. Many everyday words are unambiguous: sash, coat , couch, sofa, apple tree, pine ^ tie, borscht, ear, finch, etc.

Polysemous or polysemantic words are also widely represented in the Russian language. The development of polysemy of words is one of the active processes due to which the vocabulary of the Russian literary language is replenished.

In polysemantic words, one of the meanings is the main, primary, original, the other (or others) - secondary, derivative, with all this, all meanings are united with each other by a certain connection. So, the word bronze in Russian is used in three meanings: 1) "an alloy of copper with tin, sometimes with an admixture of other metals"; 2) "art product made of bronze"; 3) "bronze medal for the third place in a sports competition." Of these values, the first is the main, the second and third are secondary, associated with the main value.

The connections between primary and secondary meanings may not be clearly understood. So, for the adjective light, the authors of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by DN Ushakov, note the following meanings: “insignificant in weight” (light burden); “Easy to learn, to solve” (easy lesson, easy task); "Small, insignificant" (light frost, breeze, bow); "Superficial, not-serious" (easy morals, easy flirting); "Soft, livable" (easy character, person); "Relaxed, graceful" (light syllable, light, wit); "Smooth, smooth, sliding" (light step, gait, easy turn); "Without heavy weapons, mobile" (light artillery, aviation, cavalry). The first meaning - "insignificant in weight" - is historically original, all the others are secondary. But in modern Russian, the second meaning is already basic, direct. In the adjective red, the primary meaning was "beautiful, good", the secondary meaning was the designation of color. In modern language, the meaning of color is primary, and the meaning of "beautiful, good" has become secondary, traced in few contexts (red corner; not red hut with corners, but red with pies).

The polysemy of a word in Russian is characterized by the presence of direct and figurative meanings. The direct meaning is usually the primary meaning. In its direct meaning, the word appears out of context. So, in the polysemantic word go, the meaning “to move, making steps” is straightforward: The grain growers are walking, they hardly know where the gloomy huts are. lived out their days (Pinch.). The meaning of "continues" in this gla-gol can be revealed only in the context: Already after midnight, and far away, and the meeting is still going on (Sim.). Here the meaning is not direct, but figurative. The meanings “to fall” (about precipitation) are also figurative: It rains all day, they go like a sprawling army (Sim.); “To run, to stretch”: From the threshold the road goes east, another goes to the north (Sim.); "Moving": And here it is, the cloud Goes and hurries. Nipples pouring rain and milk (Side).

All figurative meanings are semantically related to the main meaning. They arise on the basis of transferring the name of an object (phenomenon), sign, action or process to other objects (phenomena), signs, actions. The main ways of transferring names are metaphorical, metonymic and functional.

Metaphorical transfers of names are due to the similarity, coincidence of objects, phenomena in any way: in color, form, function, internal content. On the basis of the metaphor, figurative meanings appeared for such, for example, words: ba-gazh - "stock of knowledge" (mental baggage); mad - "unbridled" (frenzied character); top - "superiority" (to gain the upper hand in the struggle); eye - "supervision" (master's eye); alive - "active, full of energy" (living child); green - "inexperienced in youth" (green youth); treasure - "something valuable" (it is not a worker, but a treasure).

Metaphors are divided into general linguistic and individual-stylistic. General linguistic metaphors are the property of a particular language and are understandable to all speakers. They are figurative and have lost their imagery. Among the first are those whose figurative meaning is used as one of the means of expression. In explanatory dictionaries, these meanings are marked with "trans." (portable). Here are some examples: Peaceful waves are running towards the shore. The ocean breathes calmly and evenly, licks the pebbles on the shore, touches children's ankles (Pinch.).

Metonymic transfers of names appear as a result of the spatial, temporal or logical contiguity of objects and phenomena. Especially often, such transfers are based on spatial contiguity, when certain names denoting premises, settlements, institutions, enterprises are transferred to the people in them: wheels (Bond.); For four days the Republic fought for the girl in suffocation and heat (Berg.); All sleepless night shift, the first shift gets up at night (Berg.); And the depot was in full swing. There, in the locomotive hall, guns were handed out to the disturbed shops (Ush.); And when Russia stood up against the Germans at the terrible hour, "Everyone to the front!" - Moscow said, "We will give everything," said Kuzbass. "Never, - said the mountains, - the Urals have never been in debt!" ... "Enough oil for the engines, I will help!" - said Baku (Mikh.).

Sometimes in works of art, direct and figurative, metonymic meanings of words deliberately clash: Niki-ta was used to seeing her in the courtyard, she was lively and aggressive, loud, ruled by her husband, and he - a huge, awkward wearable - always obeyed her, and the court made fun of him (Fed.).

Metonymic transfers determine the names of things according to the material from which they are made, according to their part: lamb collar (from the skin of a young ram); table silver rib (silver spoons, forks, etc.); interested person (person). The words bass, baritone, tenor, treble call not only the voice, but also the person with such a voice: the bass got sick, the whole audience applauded the baritone. Such a transfer, when the whole names by part, is called synecdoche. Here are examples of such transfer from works of art: Rabochaya Presnya in a ring of barricades. The uncleaned snow was kneaded by horseshoes (Shchip.); Nikita saw how the chu yka, jackets, and girls scattered thieves around Smursky and Nizhnyaya and in a minute there was no one left at the corner (Fed.); In the morning, they went to the quiet Don with shaggy hats (Ush.), Sometimes in Russian, a part is named for the whole: Difficult words(Barto). Here the word people means "learners."

Functional transfers of names are characterized by the fact that the name of one object or phenomenon is transferred to another object or phenomenon due to the commonality of their functions. The primary meaning of the verb to shoot is "shoot arrows, hit the enemy." When firearms were invented, the action performed by this type of weapon, by the generality of its function, also began to be called the verb shoot.

In some cases, both metaphorical and functional transferences take place: a bird's wing and an airplane wing, animal legs and table legs, an excavator bucket and a drinking bucket.

1. 2 ... Combination possibilities of the word. Motivated and unmotivated words

The vocabulary of the Russian language is a certain system, since the words in it are in various connections. Being designations of objects and phenomena of objective reality, vocabulary units first of all reflect the connections that exist between objects and phenomena of reality itself. So, for example, the word read is in connection with the words book, magazine, letter, textbook, manuscript, encyclopedia, diploma, etc. But the same word is not combined with leksemes earth, water, sun, fire, millet and so on, because in life there are no connections between the concepts denoted by these words.

Since words represent units of a language, there are actually linguistic connections between them, on the basis of which they are united into lexical-semantic groups: names of persons by kinship (father, mother, brother, sister, son, daughter, grandson, father-in-law, mother-in-law, etc.), the names of the intellectual qualities of people (smart, savvy, capable, outstanding, intelligent, shrewd, perspicacious, etc.), the names of movement in space (walk, wander, crawl, move, go, swim, fly, walk, etc.).

Words are related both by similarity and by the opposite of meanings. So, for words to walk and walk, the common semantic feature, on the basis of which they are included in one synonymic row, is "movement on land", and the distinguishing feature is the way of movement. The words good and evil denote the qualities of people: good represents a positive quality, and evil represents a negative quality. Thus, in this pair of words, the positive quality is the opposite of the negative one.

In the process of the historical development of the language, the connections of some words with others may change, that is, with some they may be lost, and with others they may appear. So, the word to honor originally meant "to show honor" and was antonymic to the words to scold, to blaspheme. At the present time, it is synonymous with words to scold, call names, and antonymic - to praise, encourage.In contrast to the phonological system, where there is a strictly defined, limited number of phonemes, the lexical system includes in its composition an innumerable number of elements (words, meanings ). Its peculiarity is that it, to a greater extent than other language systems, is connected with the life and activities of the collective speaking in a given language, is more open to extra-linguistic, i.e. external, factors, since the vocabulary immediately reacts to changes occurring in all spheres of human activity.

The question of the main types of lexical meanings of layers cannot be disassembled without first understanding the problems of the name. Objects and phenomena are named according to the feature that turns out to be sufficiently characteristic to distinguish them from other objects and phenomena. Such a conspicuous sign by which an object or phenomenon gets its name may be form, color, function, size, similarity to something, and other external and internal properties. The ring got its name, for example, by its shape (colo - circle), the cuckoo - by its characteristic cry, currant - by its characteristic smell (stench, Old Russian currant - strong smell), grip , awl - according to function (compare the verbs to grasp, sew), spring - according to the sowing time (Old Russian, hot - spring), rose hips - according to the presence of thorns in the bush, mushroom, white - by the color characteristic of these mushrooms, by the bones of this berry, by the bones, which are characteristic of these mushrooms, by their “favorite habitat” around the stumps, etc.

However, the sign underlying the name and the service morphemes that form it into a word are not equal, however, to the meaning characteristic of a particular word. Firstly, they form only the basis of the meaning that it receives later. word as a result of consumption. The sign underlying the name of a given object can characterize not only it, but also other phenomena of the objective world. Moreover, it is always insufficiently certain. The real meaning of the word, on the contrary, is concrete. Therefore, very often a clear idea of ​​the real meaning of the word is not given by the sign underlying the name. For example, knowledge of the trait underlying the Bulgarian words blueberry, sailor, birdie, scribe, blight, grave (compare black, wind, bird, write, death, grave) does not give us knowledge of their actual meaning (blueberry - a whiskey tree, the berry of this tree, a sail - a fan, a kite, a bird - a sparrow, a scribe - a feather, destruction - loss, loss, grave - a mound; in Russian, blueberry - in dialects " blueberry ", sail - sail, bird - petting diminutive to a bird, scribe - scribe, blight - death, grave - petting diminutive to the grave). A clear representation of the image in Russian dialect words golyanka and zelenets (naked, green) still does not make it possible to say firmly, without knowing the corresponding dialect, what they call (go-lanka is a special type of mitten, zelenets - in different dialects - a fresh broom, an unripe berry, an islet overgrown with reeds or willows, etc.) Secondly, a word, having this or that lexical meaning, can be an absolutely conventional name for the corresponding phenomena of objective activity. The sign, which is the basis of many words, is no longer felt in them today, but because of this they do not cease to be significant units of the language. For example, now it is already unclear why such a room as a room is called a room, an insect like a beetle is called a beetle, an instrument such as a chisel is called a chisel, but every Russian speaker clearly understands the lexical meanings of the words room, beetle, chisel. Thus, in Russian there are two kinds of full-valued words: 1) unmotivated names such as chisel, beetle (by sound), room (originally - a room with a stone); 2) motivated names such as icebreaker, cherry, blue. Moreover, both of them necessarily have some lexical meaning. This lexical meaning can be the only one in the word (words with such semantics are called unambiguous or monosemic: windowsill, lanits, rant, willow, rook, neck, blush, typical, fraught, etc.). etc.). But it can be in a word along with another or with other lexical meanings. In this case, one lexical meaning appears as the main, initial meaning, and the other or others as secondary, derivatives.

1.3. Technique for working on polysemantic words

Word -- the most important unit of the language, the carrier of meanings. Words and their combinations designate specific objects and abstract concepts, while words express emotions. The richer a person's vocabulary, the wider he has the possibility of choosing a more precise and expressive form of thought.

The modern Russian language has a huge vocabulary. In the "Dictionary of the Russian language" S.I. Ozhegov contains 57 thousand words; in the seventeenth "Dictionary of the modern Russian literary language" - about 130 thousand words. This is common vocabulary; the named dictionaries did not include hundreds of thousands of professional words and scientific terms, names geographic sites, historical facts, many hundreds of thousands of names, surnames, nicknames, nicknames.

We must not forget that most of the words have polysemy. For example, in the "Dictionary of the Russian language" S.I. Ozhegova, five basic meanings of the word hand are indicated ”and 62 phraseological units are given in which this word is used in phraseologically coherent meanings.

The assimilation of a huge vocabulary cannot be spontaneous. One of the most important tasks in the development of speech in school is the ordering of vocabulary work, the identification of its main directions and their justification, management of the processes of enrichment of the vocabulary of schoolchildren.

Speech development technique at the lexical level foresees four main lines:

Enrichment of the vocabulary, those. assimilation of new, previously unknown words to students, as well as new meanings of those words that were already in the vocabulary. This is achieved by adding to the child's dictionary 4-6 new vocabulary units every day.

NSvocabulary clearing -- this is a vocabulary and stylistic work, the development of the flexibility of the vocabulary, its accuracy and expressiveness, which includes: - filling with the content of those words that are not learned quite accurately, which is ensured by their inclusion in the context, comparison and comparison with other words; - the assimilation of the lexical collocation of words, including in phraseological units; assimilation of allegorical meanings of a word, multiple meanings of words;

Dictionary activation, those. transferring as many words as possible from the passive dictionary to the active dictionary. Words are included in sentences and phrases, introduced into the retelling of the read, into a conversation, into a story, presentation and essay.

The main sources of enrichment and improvement of the vocabulary are works of fiction, texts of educational books, teacher's speech. All of these are pedagogically controlled and organized sources of language enrichment. However, incorrect sources (speech of parents, friends, etc.) also affect the speech of students.

All areas of vocabulary work are possible in primary grades only on a practical basis, mainly based on text, without theoretical information and even, as a rule, without terms. A very useful guide for vocabulary work can be dictionaries.

The best interpreter of the meaning of a word is context. It is no coincidence that explanatory dictionaries contain quotations-illustrations, in which both the main and additional meanings of words, their compatibility are highlighted.

In explaining the meanings of words, it is necessary to be guided by the general didactic task of increasing the degree of independence and cognitive activity of the students themselves. There are always at least a few people in the class who correctly understand all words and phrases. Therefore, it is necessary to strive for the schoolchildren themselves to be able to explain the meaning of the word, which ensures their mental development, fosters independence.

In the methodology of the Russian language, it is known manyNSnotmOvwork on the meanings of the new word. The use of all techniques provides a variety of work, and also allows you to enter a new word in the most rational way for a given word. Let's consider the main ones, arranging them according to the degree of their developmental potential:

Word-formation analysis, on the basis of which the meaning (or shade of meaning) of the word is determined. In elementary grades, the question is usually asked: "From what word is this word derived?" or: “Why was it called thatboletus, ice, fellow villagers? " This way of explaining words allows you to link the vocabulary work with spelling, as it identifies the roots of words and helps to check unstressed vowels, voiced, voiceless and unpronounceable consonants.

2. Matching words in order to clarify the differences, to differentiate the meanings of paronyms: strawberry and dugout, silver and silver

3. Explanation of the meaning through context. Reading the passage "highlights" the meaning of the words; schoolchildren more easily understand not only their direct meaning, but also the appropriateness of use, and compatibility, and expressiveness.

Turning on new word into context, compiled by the children themselves, is a variant of the previous assignment. This is a technique for activating students, but in difficult cases, inclusion in the context can be made by the teacher.

Figuring out the meaning new word n about reference materials, those. according to dictionaries and footnotes in the book for reading. In some cases, you can use explanatory dictionaries.

NSturn out an object, picture, model, stuffed animal or action as a means of developing the cognitive activity of students depends on the degree of independence of the students involved in the explanation: if the picture explaining the meaning of the word was chosen by the children themselves or painted, then their cognitive activity is quite high expressiveness of the language. Such a replacement does not enrich, but impoverishes the speech of students, because it leads them away from emotionally colored, expressive words with shades of meaning to words that are stylistically neutral, devoid of shades and colors.

Detailed description, consisting of a group of words or of several sentences, as a technique for explaining the meanings of words, is valuable in that it allows you to keep the conversation at ease.

Logical waydefinitions often helps to reveal the meaning of a word by bringing it under the closest genus and highlighting specific features: cruiser - warship.

Chapter 2. Psycho-pedagogical foundations of the development of speech in primary schoolchildren

2.1. Language (speech) and thinking

One of the functions of speech is to form a thought, in its expression. "External speech," wrote LS Vygotsky as a means, "is the process of transformation of thought into words, its materialization." Consequently, the psychological basis of speech is thought and the condition for its development is the enrichment of thought. Only on the basis of a developed system of concepts, on the basis of mastering the system of mental actions, is the successful development of speech possible. Therefore, in the methodology for the development of students' speech, so much attention is paid to the preparation of the material, its processing, selection, location, logical operations.

At the same time, conceptual thinking cannot develop successfully without linguistic material, without speech design and expression. In abstract thinking, the most important role belongs to concepts in which the essential features, properties of the phenomena of the real world are generalized. Concepts are designated by words (or phrases), therefore, in a word, the concept acquires the material shell necessary for communication.

An accurate understanding of the meaning of a word (phrase) denoting a concept, the ability to quickly, in hundredths of a second, choose the right word, combine it not only in meaning, but also grammatically with other words, allows a person to operate with this concept, i.e. to think, to carry out conceptual (speech) thinking.

“In speech, we formulate a thought, but by formulating it, we often form it ...”. In other words, the opposite effect of speech on thought is observed. Speech design of thought contributes to greater clarity, clarity, harmony, consistency of the thought itself. Many eminent scientists noted that, giving lectures to students on the materials of their own research, they themselves understood some of their conclusions more deeply, and sometimes found errors in them. The speech design of those ideas that seemed quite clear and convincing led to the detection of ambiguities and even to the elimination of these ambiguities. Mastering the language - the vocabulary of words and the grammatical system that allows you to build these words into clear sentence structures and larger components of the text - creates the preconditions for the improvement of thought, for the development of thinking. Psychologist NI Zhinkin wrote: "Speech is a channel for the development of the intellect ... The earlier a language is mastered, the easier and more fully knowledge will be assimilated." Knowledge, facts, that is, various kinds of information, are the material of both thinking and speech.

It would be inappropriate to identify the development of speech with the development of thinking. On the one hand, thinking is broader than speech; it is based not only on language. Psychologists distinguish, in addition to logical, abstract, conceptual (speech) thinking, also visual-figurative and concrete-effective thinking. More often than not, the last two types of thinking do without speech; all these types of thinking are usually combined, that is, the process of logical thinking includes, for example, elements of figurative thinking.

2.2. Speech as activity

Thus, reformulating the above definition, we can say that speech activity is an active, goal-directed process of creating and perceiving utterances, carried out using linguistic means during the interaction of people in various communication situations.

Traditionally, the concept of "development of speech", in particular the development of coherent speech, has always presupposed mainly learning to create utterances, but speech activity is a two-sided process (see Fig.). Consequently, it is also necessary to purposefully teach children and perceive statements, that is, act as not only the sender of the message, but also the address, teach them to change roles.

In addition, when teaching the creation of utterances (oral or written), a number of circumstances are usually not taken into account in practice. So, as a rule, the teacher does not care about the need for the child to enter into communication. The student creates a statement because such is the task of the teacher; he has no proper communicative motive. The teacher most often does not provide the student with a specific communication situation (awareness of who, why, under what circumstances he speaks) - usually he “just” writes an essay or “simply” answers questions about the material covered. In real speech practice, “simple” statements are not created. Psychologist NI Zhinkin is right when, characterizing the widespread types of school exercises in coherent speech, he wrote: “Repetition of a segment of speech in order to exercise for the formation of a skill or assimilation of knowledge removes the communicative function of speech. Speech becomes artificial and meaningless ... ”These are the first methodological assessments that arise in the most superficial comparison of the organization of work on children's utterances, adopted at school, with the natural speech activity of people. In order to outline the ways of improving the work on the development of the speech of schoolchildren, it is necessary to give a more thorough description of speech activity.

As already mentioned, "a prerequisite for any activity is this or that need" (A. N. Leont'ev). As a source, a triggering mechanism for speech activity, most often there is a communicative or communicative-cognitive need - a desire, having entered into communication with another person (with an interlocutor who is nearby or at a distance - then using a letter or telephone ; with the author of a newspaper publication or reference book through his material; with a writer through his book; with a poet through his poems, etc.), to know or communicate something, ask for help or influence, express your feelings, emotions, share them with the interlocutor. It is the emergence of such a need that prompts a person to start telling or asking something, explaining or proving, taking up a pen or making a phone call, opening a book or newspaper. There is no verbal communication without need, without motive.

The complexity of organizing work on the development of the speech of schoolchildren lies in the fact that, acting in the conditions of a lesson, organizing educational work, we want to improve the natural speech activity of children. It is clear that “the situation of the lesson removes the natural communicativeness of speech. ... There is only one way to get rid of this deficiency. It is necessary that the students have a need for communication ... "

Thus, the first methodological conclusion that follows from the psychological characteristics of speech activity is as follows: Before giving a task to students to create or perceive an utterance, it is necessary to try to ensure that they have a corresponding need, desire to enter into speech communication.

From the above characteristics of speech activity, one can immediately draw a second methodological conclusion:

In real life, a person creates a statement under specific circumstances, in certain conditions, always addresses it to someone. It is necessary to strive to observe these natural rules when organizing the educational speech practice of schoolchildren: when inviting children to create a text, it is important to provide them with an understanding of who, why and under what circumstances they are turning.

Looking ahead, we will say that the implementation of both the first and second statements expressed can be facilitated by the method of creating speech situations.

Language should be studied as a means through which thoughts are expressed, and at the same time, teaching the use of this means, to improve those ways of expressing thoughts that the student already owns. Thus, the work on language and speech, which was mentioned earlier, is included in the general content of training aimed at enriching the speech activity of students.

In addition, we must teach schoolchildren to take care of the final product and the result of speech activity, that is, teach, firstly, the creation of a text, its improvement from the point of view of the logic of the development of thought, better conveying it to the address, and secondly, the understanding of the statements.

Thus, the identification of the psychological characteristics of speech activity allows us to draw a third methodological conclusion, which is important for organizing the speech training of students:

In order for the improvement of the actual speech activity of primary schoolchildren to be successful, a parallel purposeful work is needed in a number of areas:

a) on expanding the horizons of students, on their ability to observe, emotionally perceive, compare, evaluate, generalize, etc.: thoughts and feelings that arise in children are potential objects of their speech activity; b) over the students' awareness of the language system, the purpose of various linguistic units, the rules of their functioning, over the enrichment of the ar-senal of the means used by children; c) over the ability to choose the means of language, taking into account the situation of communication and competently formulate thoughts; d) over the ability to select content for expression and organize it in accordance with the concept; e) over understanding the significance of all elements of the "alien" text (selection of information, their sequence, grouping, used linguistic means), as well as over the ability to extract the appropriate meaning from each element.

The aforementioned areas of educational work are not yet the teaching of speech activity itself, but only a necessary basis for the true improvement of the speech activity of schoolchildren to become possible. (Recall: speech activity is the process ... of receiving or issuing a speech message ... in the course of communication between people.)

Since speech activity is a process of creation and perception of an utterance, it can also be characterized from the point of view of the stages along which this process unfolds.

“In any activity,” writes A. A. Leont'ev, “one can distinguish the same structural components... It has four stages: a) the stage of orientation in the conditions of activity; b) the stage of developing a plan in accordance with the results of orientation; c) the stage of implementation (implementation) of this plan; d) the stage of control ", that is, checking the conformity of the product to the concept, the achieved result to the planned one.

Thus, the analysis of the stages of the deployment of any activity, including speech, allows us to formulate the fourth methodological conclusion:

The improvement of the speech activity of schoolchildren presupposes the formation of four generalized skills: a) to orient themselves in a communication situation, including being aware of their communicative task; b) plan the content of the message;

c) formulate their own thoughts and understand others'; d) exercise self-control over speech, its perception by the interlocutor, as well as the understanding of the partner's speech.

And the last thing to dwell on when characterizing speech activity is its types. Generally they have already been named. It was constantly emphasized that when communicating, its participants seem to move towards each other: one gives a message, that is, builds a statement, and the other receives it.

In this case, the task of the first is to decide what you want to say, find the appropriate words and formulate a thought, and if necessary, then develop it in the text; the second task is the opposite: to perceive words (and in oral speech also intonation, voice color, facial expressions), extract meaning from them and understand what the interlocutor wanted to express.

The named feature - the nature of the direction of speech action "from thought to word" or a cell of words to thought "- this is the first basis for identifying the types of speech activity.

The second basis is the form of speech: oral or written (and the form, in turn, depends on whether communication is direct, contact, or mediated, distant, when partners are separated from each other by space or time).

According to the indicated signs, four types of activity are distinguished: speaking, listening, writing, reading. Their relationship is shown in the diagram.

It seems that the idea that all four types of speech activity are relevant for a person does not require proof, he must master all of them well, therefore, all of them should be the subject of attention when teaching at school, including in primary school.

Unfortunately, this position has not yet been achieved: the methodology of teaching Russian as a native language did not give the teacher a sufficiently clear description of the content and methods of teaching each of the named types. In the question posed, the clause "to one degree or another" was not made by chance. Teaching speaking, writing, reading, which is certainly present in the elementary grades, cannot yet be regarded as teaching certain types of speech activity. Let us recall: the actual speech activity is driven by a communicative or communicative-cognitive need, a person's desire to say, induce, learn, etc. what and how a person will say or write, whether he will be understood. When our students retell or reread a text, write an essay or presentation, copy something, answer questions about what they have read or learned, they perform the necessary educational and speech actions, but they, as a rule, do not perform speech activity.

The fulfillment of these and many other exercises is extremely important for the formation of the ability to perform speech actions in junior schoolchildren. But the teaching of speech should not be reduced to them, if we want to direct it to the improvement of speech activity.

The allocation of types of speech activities that differ in their specificity suggests another, fifth, conclusion:

When solving the problem of improving the speech activity of younger schoolchildren, one should take into account the existence of four types of speech activity (speaking, listening, reading, writing) and direct efforts to teaching each of them.

The analysis of the concept of "speech activity" made it possible to identify some areas in which today it is possible to improve the formulation of speech work. These directions are reflected in the formulated methodological conclusions. In the subsequent sections of the chapter, the content and methods of work on the development of the speech of primary schoolchildren will be described, taking into account the above recommendations.

Chapter 3. Methods of working on polysemantic words in primary grades

3.1. The main directions and conditions for the successful development of speech in primary schoolchildren

The goal of teaching the development of speech is to improve the basic types of speech activity in children.

To achieve this goal, painstaking work is required.

All speech training can be represented in the form of two interrelated directions: 1) improving the actual speech activity (speaking, writing, listening, reading); 2) the formation of individual speech skills, which create the basis for enriching speech activity.

Formation of each of these skills requires certain exercises, conditions for their implementation, theoretical information, etc. The types of exercises can be different, for example: comparison of tasks, communication situations and texts created by students; coming up with headings for the text; prediction by the title, the beginning of the text of its possible content and nature; drawing up a plan or preparing working materials for a future statement; construction of words, phrases, sentences, text from given elements, taking into account the speech problems to be solved; coming up with or selecting sentences, word combinations, word series; conversion of various linguistic means; restructuring the text in a given direction with appropriate observations; analysis from specific positions and text editing; reproduction of the text after its analysis, etc. These exercises, as we see, do not require the obligatory creation of speech situations with the provision of a partner, tasks and conditions of communication, and therefore are not communicative. Very often, for their implementation, whole statements are not needed at all - a fragment, minimal context, individual sentences, phrases or words are enough. At the same time, what has been said does not mean that these exercises should not be motivated for students. Schoolchildren must necessarily understand the practical significance of the skill they are practicing, the need to master it, but specific speech situations, a special organization of communication for their implementation are not necessary.

The very first of the named directions of speech work - the improvement of speech activity - presupposes, as already mentioned, the formation not of individual skills, but at the same time of their entire complex, and the main, in fact, the only type of exercise that allows you to solve this problem is exercise in the production and perception of utterances. In this case, the most important condition for work should be the creation of special speech situations with a specific addressee, circumstances, etc., situations that give rise to students' desire to enter into verbal communication, stimulating the emergence of a certain communicative intention (to learn about something by - share with someone your thoughts, experiences, explain something to someone, teach something, convince of something). This reveals the specificity of the first of the selected areas of work.

Summarizing the characteristics of the identified areas of speech work: 1) improving the actual speech activity; 2) the formation of individual speech skills, we emphasize once again that these areas differ in learning objectives, content and methods of implementation.

The work that we distinguish in the first direction approaches the development of coherent speech (in the accepted understanding), first of all, by its orientation towards coherent statements, that is, towards the text, and the desire to ensure the formation of specific speech skills. The differences in this work are that, firstly, it involves teaching not only the creation of statements (oral and written), but also their perception; secondly, it provides for the organization of educational speech activity of schoolchildren by performing special communicative (situational) exercises designed to ensure that students do not just prepare messages or retell texts as instructed by the teacher, but do it, being put in specific circumstances - things that would stimulate their speech activity, dictated certain requirements for the utterance.

It would be wrong to think that the proposed approach is completely new. Methodists working in this area have long pointed to appropriate ways to improve teaching. So, some of the named skills, for example, those associated with the awareness of the topic and the main idea, with the collection and systematization of material, with the improvement of what was written, were identified by T.A. Ladyzhenskaya in the late 60s. The skills she formulated actually reflect such stages of speech activity as planning, creating utterances and control. But, firstly, the skills necessary only for creating texts were highlighted, and secondly, among them there is still no ability to navigate in a communication situation.

Another well-known methodologist, N.A. Each author must have a listener (reader) ... It is far from necessary that the addressee should be a teacher ... "

Of course, like any schematization, the proposed division is conditional, but it allows you to reflect the versatility of the work carried out at school. The improvement of speech activity presupposes the sharpening of the whole complex of speech skills as a whole, since for its implementation it is necessary to perform all speech actions. It is clear that this process will not be fruitful if you do not pay due attention to each of the skills. That is why the first direction of teaching speech relies on the second, continues and closes it. The second direction provides for the development of particular actions carried out at different stages of speech activity, i.e., the formation of individual speech skills.

Let's present these skills in the form of a generalized list. But first, let's make two clarifications: 1) since speaking - writing as productive types of speech activity and listening - reading as receptive ones involve performing the same actions, to simplify the presentation, despite the presence of specifics associated with oral or written a form of communication, considered it possible to unite them; 2) when characterizing the skills that provide reading and writing, this list omits, although very important, but auxiliary, including technical, skills - they are considered in the corresponding sections of the manual.

I. Skills required to create expressions (for speaking and writing)

2. Ability to plan the content of the statement: to be aware of its theme and main idea; outline the course of development of thought, possible micro themes, their sequence, the approximate content of each part of the future text.

3. Ability to implement the intended plan, that is, to reveal the topic and develop the main idea, formulating each thought. At the same time, observe the norms of the literary language; choose the means (words, forms of words, types of structures, intonation, etc.), taking into account the task of speech, the addressee, the conditions of communication, the main idea and the content of this part of the text; to ensure the development of thought from sentence to sentence and the connection of individual sentences and parts of the text with each other; be guided by the norms of speech behavior.

4. Ability to control the correspondence of the statement to the intention, the communication situation, that is, to evaluate the content from the point of view of the topic, the task of speech, the main idea, the sequence of presentation, the means of language used in terms of the task of speech, the main idea, the requirements of the culture of speech, ethical side of speech behavior; if conditions permit, make corrections to your statement.

II. Skills required for the perception of utterances (for listening and reading)

1. Ability to be aware of your communicative task.

2. The ability to assume the general nature of the message, its theme, purpose, and further continuation by the title, at the beginning, as well as by other external signs (for example, by the illustrations in the book, by the gaze, by the speaker's facial expressions).

3. Ability to understand the meaning of words, the semantic load of word forms, constructions, intonation; highlight the elements of the statement:

individual facts, information, micro themes, based on them, determine the general theme of the text; to distinguish between basic information and auxiliary information, known and new for oneself, especially important, etc .; understand the course of development of the author's thought, his main idea, the task of speech; in the course of communication, observe the norms of the command (including the rules for handling the book).

4. Ability to realize the degree of understanding of the text, the depth of penetration into its meaning, understanding of the author's position, attitude towards it; use the techniques of improving the understanding of the message (returning to the read, finding out the meaning of unfamiliar words, asking questions, etc.).

The above list of skills, of course, is rather arbitrary, it only approximately reflects the actions that people perform in the process of speech activity. But this list can serve as an indicative basis for the teacher's actions when organizing educational work on the development of the speech of schoolchildren.

Formation of each of these skills requires certain exercises, conditions for their implementation, theoretical information, etc. The types of exercises can be different, for example: comparison of tasks, communication situations and texts created by students; coming up with headings for the text; prediction by the title, the beginning of the text of its possible content and nature; drawing up a plan or preparing working materials for a future statement; construction of words, phrases, sentences, text from given elements, taking into account the speech problems to be solved; coming up with or selecting sentences, word combinations, word series; conversion of various linguistic means; restructuring the text in a given direction with appropriate observations; analysis from specific positions and text editing; reproduction of the text after its analysis, etc. These exercises, as we see, do not require the obligatory creation of speech situations with the provision of a partner, tasks and conditions of communication, and therefore are not communicative.

Very often, for their implementation, whole statements are not needed at all - a fragment, minimal context, individual sentences, phrases or words are enough. At the same time, what has been said does not mean that these exercises should not be motivated for students. Schoolchildren must necessarily understand the practical significance of the skill they are practicing, the need to master it, but specific speech situations, a special organization of communication for their implementation are not necessary. The very first of the named directions of speech work - the improvement of speech activity - presupposes, as already mentioned, the formation not of individual skills, but at the same time of their entire complex, and the main, in fact, the only type of exercise that allows you to solve this problem is exercise in the production and perception of utterances. In this case, the most important condition of work should be the creation of special speech situations with a specific addressee, circumstances, etc., situations that give rise to students' desire to enter into verbal communication, stimulating the emergence of a certain communicative intention (to learn about something by - share with someone your thoughts, experiences, explain something to someone, teach something, convince of something). This reveals the specificity of the selected areas of work.

3.3 Analysis of programs and textbooks on the Russian language in the aspect of enhancing the speech of students of polysemantic words

Throughout the initial training, vocabulary (lexical) work is systematically carried out to identify the meanings of words. This work not only has a practical focus, but is also supported by theoretical information on vocabulary. Students will learn that a word can have several meanings (polysemy), words can be close (synonyms) or opposite (antonyms) in meaning. At the same time, schoolchildren learn to distinguish between classes (categories) of words according to the meaning of objectivity, a feature or action of an object in connection with the forms of inflection (declension and conjugation) and grammatical features of parts of speech. Lexical work is also used in vocabulary and spelling exercises (mastering words with unverifiable spellings from lists for each class).

In parallel with the study of grammar, the program gives tasks related to lexical work, with the identification of the visual means of the language, with the stylistics of speech, etc. So, in exercise 9 of the textbook for grade 1 edited by A.V. Polyakov, compiled according to the methodology developmental education, the task is to find words used in a figurative meaning (students perform similar tasks from grade 1 in the process of working on the polysemy of the word). Figurative means such as figurative comparison and metaphor are associated with the figurative meaning of the word. Acquaintance with figurative comparisons begins in grade 1 and continues in grades 2 and 3 on more and more complicated material. In grade 3, it is established that figurative comparisons are characterized by special attachment words (like, exactly, as if, as if, as if, etc.), as well as the form of the instrumental case of nouns - a light drift winds along the ground like a snake.

So in the textbook of the same author of the 4th grade, tasks for finding words in a figurative meaning lead to a generalization of the information available to children. In the subsequent exercises of the textbook, it is proposed to find words in a figurative meaning if they are present in didactic material. Of course, due to the complexity of the material, not all exercises give such tasks. The teacher can always organize this work at his own discretion. It is important that students at a practical level get an idea of ​​the metaphor.

In order for students to better understand the difference between figurative comparison and metaphor, after exercise 12 of this textbook, it is necessary to give an explanation: metaphors do not use those connecting words that are included in the structure of figurative comparisons. When working with a metaphor, it is of great importance to clarify the similarity with an object (sign, action), which is conveyed by this pictorial means: what does “rusty” leaf, “caftan” of summer, etc. mean?

Information about language and speech is systematized through work with a word, sentence, text, through observation and comparison of their features. So first-graders get an initial idea of ​​form and word formation, lexical and grammatical categories of words based on the differences in their nominative function, about the relationship between the meaning of a word and its form. The organization of the practice of oral communication, oral speech exercises, transforming speech activity of students in the form of written speech are aimed at connecting the language and speech content of the course, analyzing linguistic phenomena, sentences, texts, mastering communication skills in various forms and situations.

According to the program, children must first learn to distinguish between real objects and their names, know the nominative and naming, the function of the word, then get acquainted with the words denoting objects, phenomena, events, states, actions, signs, qualities, learn to find and subsequently use linguistic means of expressiveness of speech: use words in a figurative sense; figurative comparisons; words that are close and opposite in meaning; emotional vocabulary expressing various feelings (grandmother is an offensive word, and grandmother, granny are words expressing sympathy; the choice of vocabulary depends on the speaker's attitude: sympathy or neglect); expressive vocabulary, differing in the degree of emotional stress (misfortune, grief, disaster, catastrophe; scream, scream, roar; heat, heat).

OGENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF THE TEXTBOOK OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

By setting grammatical tasks, a textbook of the Russian language for primary grades through specific methods of mental activity in the process of consistent, systematic work with a word, sentence, text, through their versatile analysis contributes to the solution of the problem of the development of speech and thinking of a student, expands the horizons of children in the field of the native language, creates a linguistic environment as a condition for the formation of speech skills. The educational material creates the basis for the development of coherent speech: oral speech exercises, familiarity with the simplest pictorial and expressive means of language (narration, restoration of a deformed sentence and a small text, that is, transforming speech activity of students).

Throughout the school year, it is necessary to constantly conduct vocabulary work, explain to children words, the meaning of which is not entirely clear to them. It is very important that the students themselves pay attention to unfamiliar words. Finding out the meaning of words is carried out in the form of a conversation, at the end of which the teacher clarifies the children's answers. Assistance in this work can be provided by various dictionaries (explanatory, etymological), to use which it is necessary to gradually accustom children.

The sequence of exercises within the topics is determined by the gradual complication of the material. Speech development exercises are performed in parallel with the study of grammatical information.

The simplest initial scientific and practical information on the stylistics of speech (the use of metaphors,) expands the possibilities of children in mastering normative literary speech. An entertaining means providing this direction of study throughout the entire period of work on the textbook is a special heading "Secrets of speech", for which figurative poetic examples are selected.

In the textbook for grade 1, mentioned above, a significant place is given to lexical work, figurative turns of speech, polysemy of a word, familiarization with rhyme (No. 15, 19, 23, 39, 40, 146-149, 150, 152, 154, etc.). In addition, the textbook includes initial information about phraseological logisms (No. 169-175) and their figurative meaning.

In work in all these areas, children need to be shown that words can be close and opposite in meaning (№ 15, 147, 166).

It is equally important to show the polysemy of the word: direct and figurative meanings (there was an empty barrel in the yard - direct meaning, empty (frivolous) conversation - figurative meaning), No. 19 (sunflower - golden sun), No. 23 (blinking his tail ), No. 26 (hedgehog - a bag of needles), No. 35 (birch - curly), No. 37 (a uniform at the plum, linings; chicken in a fur coat), No. 40 (the bushes are reddened, the bullfinches lit up the flashlights), No. 50 (snowdrop - scout), no. 60 (blizzards danced), no. 70 (bread edge - moon), no. 74 (silver leg near the mushroom), no. 82 (charo-dyka winter. Snowy fringe), no. 83 (golden miracle - chick-lenok), No. 89 (golden patches - leaves), No. 97 (finch has a blue cap), No. 110 (fox - cheat, tail - beauty), No. 136 (trees fell asleep ), No. 148 (the dog plays the accordion, the cats dive, the sparrow moaning), No. 150 (the saucers began to cry, the trough burst into tears), No. 154 (brightly. , 174, 175 (phraseological units).

In grade 2 in exercises number 14-19. The work on the sentence is combined with the observation of the figurative means of the language - figurative turns of speech, synonyms, antonyms. An important place is given to lexical work, the polysemy of a word, the use of words in a figurative sense. It should be remembered that there are many words in a language that have two or more meanings, that words are polysemantic. The direct meaning of the word is basic, original (sharp needle). Other meanings are portable (sharp mind, eye, smell). The translational meaning of the word is used as a pictorial means of the language. Numerous examples from exercises on the use of words in a figurative sense can be cited: No. 64 (with a white asterisk on the forehead - at the foal), No. 201 (ko-tik - black stockings), No. 204 (birches crowded , what are you looking at me - about bells), No. 226 (the sleepy rose on tiptoe), No. 231 (anthills will tell the address of strawberries), No. 246 (birches smiled, silk braids, etc.), No. 304 ( silver song), No. 384 (gardens drenched in milk), No. 386 (rain on a wet leg, tu-cha-watering can), No. 399 (rain dancing on a bench), No. 475 (blue glass of ice, a willow hanging like a tent), No. 477 (crystal-steel-tender conversation of a silvery river), etc. We recommend compiling dictionaries of figurative turns of speech with a figurative meaning as you perform the appropriate exercises, including exercises with figurative comparisons: b No. 34 (the pond turns blue with a round cup), No. 64 ( pigtail tail, match legs), No. 351 (with snow, like silver, with a snowy border), No. 399 (splashes like snakes), No. 479 (pillow, like yagushka), No. 480 (from a washcloth, as from a stick), etc.

3.4 The main directions of vocabulary work in primary school

The methodology for the development of speech at the lexical level provides for four main directions:

1. Enrichment of the vocabulary, i.e. assimilation of new, previously unknown words to students, as well as new meanings of those words that were already in the vocabulary. This is achieved by adding 4-6 new vocabulary units to the child's dictionary every day.

2. Clarification of the vocabulary is a vocabulary and stylistic work, the development of the flexibility of the vocabulary, its accuracy and expressiveness, which includes: comparison with other words; - mastering the lexical combinability of words, including in phraseological units;

Assimilation of allegorical meanings of a word, multi-meanings of words;

Assimilation of lexical synonyms and those shades of semantic meanings of words that are characteristic of separate synonyms in a synonymous group.

3. Activation of the dictionary, i.e. transferring as many words as possible from the passive dictionary to the active dictionary. Words are included in sentences and phrases, introduced into the retelling of the read, into a conversation, into a story, presentation and essay.

4. Elimination of non-literary words, their translation from an active dictionary into a passive one. This refers to dialectal, vernacular, slang words that children have learned under the influence of the speech environment.

All the aforementioned areas of work on the dictionary are constantly interacting. The main sources of enrichment and improvement of the vocabulary are works of fiction, texts of educational books, teacher's speech. All of these are pedagogically controlled and organized sources of language enrichment. However, incorrect sources (speech of parents, friends, etc.) also affect the speech of students.

All areas of vocabulary work are possible in primary grades only on a practical basis, mainly based on text, without theoretical information and even, as a rule, without terms. Dictionaries can be a very useful aid for vocabulary work.

Enrichment of the vocabulary. The best interpreter of the meaning of a word is context. It is no coincidence that explanatory dictionaries contain quotations-illustrations, in which both the main and additional meanings of words, their compatibility are highlighted.

In explaining the meanings of words, it is necessary to be guided by the general didactic task of increasing the degree of independence and cognitive activity of the students themselves. There are always at least a few people in the class who correctly understand all words and phrases. Therefore, it is necessary to strive for the schoolchildren themselves to be able to explain the meaning of the word, which ensures their mental development, fosters independence.

In the methodology of the Russian language, many techniques are known for working on the meanings of a new word. The use of all techniques provides a variety of work, and also allows you to enter a new word in the most rational way for a given word. Let's consider the main ones, arranging them according to the degree of their developmental potential:

1. Word-formation analysis, on the basis of which the meaning (or shade of meaning) of the word is determined. In elementary grades, the question is usually asked: "From what word is this word derived?" or: "Why was the boletus, lollipop, fellow villagers named so?" This way of explaining words allows you to link the vocabulary work with spelling, as it identifies the roots of words and helps to check unstressed vowels, voiced, voiceless and unpronounceable consonants.

2. Comparison of words in order to clarify the differences, to differentiate the meanings of paronyms: strawberry and countrywoman, silver and silver

3. Explaining meaning through context. Reading the passage "highlights" the meaning of the words; schoolchildren more easily understand not only their direct meaning, but also the appropriateness of use, and compatibility, and expressiveness.

4. The inclusion of a new word in the context, compiled by the children themselves, is a variant of the previous task. This is a technique for activating students, but in difficult cases, inclusion in the context can be made by the teacher.

5. Clarification of the meaning of a new word, but reference materials, ie. according to dictionaries and footnotes in the book for reading. In some cases, you can use explanatory dictionaries.

6. The display of an object, picture, model, stuffed animal or action as a means of developing the cognitive activity of students depends on the degree of independence of the students involved in the explanation: if the picture explaining the meaning of the word was picked up by the children themselves or painted, then their cognitive activity is quite high ...

7. The method of selecting synonyms is one of the most universal and frequently used techniques: grooming - taking care of, surrounding with care, calling - giving his name, knight - warrior. But when using this technique, an error often arises: when analyzing the meaning of words (good and beautiful), children in both cases replace them with neutral (beautiful), completely erasing the expressiveness of the language. Such a replacement does not enrich, but impoverishes, the speech of students, since takes them away from emotionally colored, expressive words that have shades of meaning, to words that are stylistically neutral, devoid of shades and colors.

8. Reception of the selection of an antonymic pair: start - finish, good - bad.

9. A detailed description, consisting of a group of words or of several sentences, as a technique for clarifying the meanings of words, is valuable in that it allows you to keep the conversation at ease.

10. The method of logical definition often helps to reveal the meaning of a word by bringing it to the closest genus and highlighting specific features: cruiser - warship.

A variety of techniques and an increase in the activity of students in explaining the meanings of words is the most important task of vocabulary work in primary grades.

Schoolchildren are constantly faced with the polysemy of words (polysemy), but they are not always aware of it. Children come to an understanding of polysemy from an allegory (the sun has gone to sleep). For the first time, children meet with the polysemy of words during the period of learning to read and write, reading the texts of the "ABC" ("Primer"). The basis of work on polysemy at this time is the analysis of words from the read text, the delineation of their meaning. But, in addition, special exercises are carried out:

1. Choose words that would have 2-3 meanings;

make sentences for each meaning. Explain the meanings of words.

2. Compare the meanings of words in combinations:

The clock goes by - the children are walking - the construction is in progress.

3. Choose words that are close in meaning (synonyms) to each meaning of these words: raw potatoes - ... raw earth - ...

4. Choose opposite words (antonyms) for each meaning of these words: raw sand - ... raw potatoes - ...

From the ambiguity of words, children move on to homonyms, which are usually given to them in entertaining, play materials: The fox carries me beyond the dark forests.

Theoretical material on polysemy and homonyms is not given in the primary grades, and the formation of the corresponding concepts passes only the preparatory stage.

3.5 Working on polysemantic words

The creation of a scientific methodology for studying the phenomenon of multivaluedness is dictated by the needs of the school. We have made an attempt to experimentally verify in the process of experiential learning:

1) the ratio of induction and deduction in the study of polysemy;

2) the comparative efficiency of using different methods of work in the research plan;

3) the effectiveness of various exercises.

The main task was to determine the volume of theoretical information and methods of enriching students' speech with words in different meanings.

Experienced training was organized. Three groups of classes (1 class in each group) and three methods were identified, depending on the ways of explaining new material, on the amount of theoretical information about polysemantic words and on the nature of the exercises.

The first group worked on the specified lexical concept in accordance with the textbook: the students went from observations to general conclusions (inductive path), the first method.

In other classes, information about polysemous words was communicated by the teacher (deductive way). The volume of theoretical information increased in comparison with the first group of classes: the students got the concept of the types of transfer of names - the second method.

The rest of the classes used an inductive way of explaining new material. The amount of theoretical information was also expanded, as in the second group of classes: the concept of types of transfer was introduced - the third method. Thus, in the first and third methods, the general method was to explain the new material (inductive), the difference was in the amount of theoretical information. The second and third methods had the same amount of theoretical information, but had a difference in the way of explaining the new material.

The learning objectives in all three groups of classes were the same: to achieve an understanding of the phenomenon of polysemy, to teach how to work with an explanatory dictionary, to show the systemic connections of a polysemous word at different levels of the language, to learn with the functioning of a polysemous word in speech, to teach the use of polysemous words in speech. words in different meanings.

The amount of information about polysemous words was also basically the same, the concept of the polysemy of a word, the direct and figurative meaning of words, the ability of a polysemous word to enter into various synonymous and antonymic relationships, depending on the meaning. But two groups. (II and III), as already noted, in addition to the indicated information, we got acquainted with the types of transfer of names.

Considering that familiarity with the types of transfer of names will contribute to a deeper understanding of the nature of a polysemantic word, we decided to give this information in two groups of classes. At the same time, we proceeded from the position that the inductive way of explaining the new has many advantages: it organizes and directs the analytical-synthetic operations of the students' mental activity, ensuring a solid assimilation of a new lexical concept. The deductive method is inferior to the inductive one in terms of the analytical one, so it was decided to supplement this technique by including a message about the types of transfer of names. We assumed that the most rational would be the inductive way of explaining the new, if the concept of types of transfer of names was introduced into the circle of information about the polysemy of a word.

The didactic material was used in all classes in the same way: it was mainly textbook exercises. But the second and third groups did exercises to determine the types of transference.

In the group working on the first methodology (the inductive "way), the explanation and consolidation of the concept was carried out in accordance with the methodological instructions for the textbook. The difference in the structure of dictionary entries in explanatory dictionaries about unambiguous and polysemous words was shown in the words “iceberg” and “ending.” Acquaintance with polysemantic words makes it possible to refer to the dictionary, expand the students' understanding of the content of the dictionary entry. p. 40). classes working according to the second method (deductive way), the teacher's story about ambiguous and unambiguous words, about words with figurative meaning was used. as in the first group, plus familiarization with the types of transfer of names, as in the second group of classes.

We considered it necessary to acquaint students with the following types of transference: metaphorical, contiguous, and functional. The choice of types was based on such considerations. Students meet with examples of linguistic metaphors every day, widely use derived meanings of words (head of cheese, cockscomb, etc.). Many striking examples are analyzed from the textbook of the Russian language: golden (wheat), - tail (stars), burning (cheeks) and many others. Without familiarity with metaphor, students will not be able to understand the depth of poetic tropes. For example:

I am here again, in my own family.

My land, brooding and tender!

Curly twilight beyond the mountain

Waving a snow-white hand.

(S. Yesenin)

Naturally, only knowing the basis on which the transfer is made, one can understand the full power of the expressiveness of the writer's language with such an economical expenditure of linguistic units.

The metaphorical transference was considered by schoolchildren under the guidance of a teacher using examples: nose (boats) - nose (person); trunk (tree) - trunk (guns); golden (cha-sy) - golden (wheat); swim (ducks) - swim (clouds), etc. Similarities were found in location, shape, color, nature of movement. At the direction of the teacher, the students made oral "drawings" for examples from the textbook: ice block - an icy look; eagle's nest - eagle nose; the child sleeps - the river sleeps.

Metonymy, as you know, is such a transfer of a name, which is performed not on the basis of the similarity of external or internal signs of a former thing and a new one, but on the basis of contiguity, that is, the contact of things in space or in time (2, p. 80), there is only a connection: without a plum! - there can be no plum tree - a fruit, without the action of embroidery there can be no beautiful embroidery.

The principle of adjacency transfer was explained by the teacher. The term itself was explained using the example of adjacent rooms, that is, a phenomenon known to children. The examples of gooseberry blossoming - gooseberry ripening were analyzed; watered plums - ate plums (the tree and the fruit have the same name); beautiful hall "- the whole hall sang (the room and the people in it), etc.

It was shown that the metaphor can be turned into a comparative turn with unions, as, exactly, as if: golden dandelions (or curls) are yellow like gold; sea ​​of ​​tears - there are as many tears as in a sea of ​​water. This cannot be done with adjacency carry. There is no similarity between objects named in one word (plum - fruit is completely different neither in color nor in appearance to plum - wood), there is only a connection.

Acquaintance with transfer by function took place in the form of questions - answers. The teacher found out if the students knew what people wrote before the advent of the steel pen. Further, you listened to the opinion why the steel object was named with the same word - a feather (like a goose). The children did not immediately cope with the task. They offered different options: light in appearance; similar in shape - a pointed end (you cannot blame them for a lack of observation); both objects were dipped in ink. And only after the question, for which it was dipped in ink, the purpose was determined - for writing and it was concluded that the one and the other object performs the same work, the purpose is a function. Examples were analyzed: wing (birds) - wing ("aircraft), lit (candle) - lit (lamp). In the first example, some schoolchildren perfectly correctly determined the transfer by function - to hold the position in flight, - and the similarity in the location.

During the work in the classroom, it was clear that transfer by function is perceived somewhat more difficult than metaphorical, but much easier than transfer by contiguity. Primary school students practically get acquainted with the method of metaphor, when the actions of an animate being are attributed to inanimate, inanimate objects, when reading works of art, especially fairy tales. And the other two are met for the first time. In the lessons, visual aids were used. To illustrate the types of transfers, large-format drawings were used with the image of the wing and tail of a bird and an airplane (the conversation was about the meanings of words and the basics of transferring the name), a tree trunk and a rifle barrel (external similarity was determined), a key as a master key and a wrench (noted that the wrench was named not by its external resemblance to the key - a device for opening the lock, but by the work performed by activating the mechanisms).

As a training exercise, a coherent text was proposed, including polysemantic words with all types of transfer of names known to students.

During the experimental training, the most effective types of exercises were tested.

The students completed the following exercises.

1. According to the context, the meaning in which the polysemantic word was used was determined (the tails of animals, birds, airplanes, seeds, stars were orally "drawn" - exercise 289 in the textbook for grade 4 edited by Polyakova), it was established that the word tail used by the author of the poem in four meanings, that different meanings of the word tail have in common, are related to each other - this is the final part of something. Despite the many meanings, the word is one (it is very important to emphasize, to achieve understanding, otherwise there will be confusion in distinguishing between polysemy and homonymy).

2. Training exercises were performed using the "Dictionary" (textbook, SI Ozhegov, separate from the four volumes of the dictionary of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR). According to dictionaries, students: they found polysemantic words, got acquainted with the interpretations of "different meanings of these words; checked the correctness of the interpretation of the word given by themselves; explained the figurative meaning of the word and checked it against the word-rem; found out whether they met a polysemous word or homonym; After reading a dictionary entry made up a phrase or a sentence with a polysemantic word in the specified meaning.

According to the vocabulary of the textbook, it was proposed to establish whether the words thawed, sensitive, miss are single-valued or ambiguous words. The students read the dictionary entry, collectively made up a phrase or sentence with a word in the specified meaning (for example, with the word thawed patches: "In the place where the snow melted and the earth opened up", the first thawed patches appeared; with the word sensitive "quickly and easily perceiving something by smell, hearing ": A hare's sensitive ear catches forest rustles; the word to miss" do not hold, drop, lose "was introduced into the sentence The boy missed the caught butterfly).

3. It was found out with which words polysemantic words in different meanings can be combined. So, the word thawed patches in the main meaning is combined with the defining word first, the same word in the meaning of "melted place" (in the glossary there is an example "In the thawed patches of windows blindingly sparkling snow was seen") does not enter into a lexical "connection with the word first. The word sensitive "quickly and easily perceives something by smell, hearing" suggests a combination with nouns denoting living beings and their organs; sensitive dog, sensitive deer, sensitive ear of a hunter, etc. And in combination with the word man it is used "as a rule, in the meaning of" receptive to various impressions, responsive "; a person is understood as a person, and not just a biological being. Therefore, it is impossible to make the sentence" A sensitive person was walking along the street. "Or a word miss "do not hold, drop, lose" is combined with the words bird (tit, pigeon, starling), beast (hare, fox, etc.), that is, with animate nouns, and with words, rope, end (threads , rope, etc.), that is, with non-animate mi nouns. The same word in the meaning “not to use something in time” has a more limited compatibility: to miss dry weather (sunny days, occasion), that is, it does not come into connection with animate nouns.

4. In order to prevent speech lexical errors, phrases were compiled, for example: with the word sensitive “easily feeling something. smell, hearing "+ noun with which this word can be used: sensitive (dog, elk, deer, ear, man, leaf); "in the meaning of" responsive, attentive to others ": sensitive (person, boy, comrade, leaf, ear, neighbor). The correctness of the execution was checked by the dictionary.

After studying the entire section "Vocabulary", a test was carried out, the same for all groups of classes, designed to identify the effectiveness of the methods described above. The work included materials to test the ability of students 1) in determining the meaning of a polysemantic word from the context (They built a new house. The whole house ran out into the street. Mom is busy around the house); 2) in the use of a polysemous word in different meanings in speech (to make sentences with the word fresh in different meanings); 3) in drawing up a context with a polysemous word in the specified meaning (with the word needle "hard thorns on the body of some animals"); 4) in determining the figurative meaning of the word and the types of transfer of names (ducks float - clouds float, the tongue of a cow is a tongue of flame, "a fast river is a quick mind, a gold coin is a golden wheat, a friendly class is a bright class) ; 5) in the delimitation of a polysemous word from a homonym (word bor); 6) in the selection of synonyms and antonyms for different meanings of a polysemous word (fresh collar, fresh wind, fresh magazine) As a result of experimental work, we came to the following conclusions In the study of the concept of polysemy and figurative meaning of words, the most effective way should be recognized as inductive with the reporting of information about the types of transfer of names.

Primary school students are able to master the concept of polysemy, the structure of dictionary entries in an explanatory dictionary, the relationship of meanings in a polysemantic word, types of transfer of names, a mechanism for selecting synonyms and antonyms for different meanings of a polysemous word, the difference between a polysemous word and a homonym. Schoolchildren need to be introduced to the types of transfer, this (shape, appearance, color), which is not immediately perceived by the presence of common in the comparison of abstract concepts (a man is running - time is running, a green tomato is a green youth, cold hands are a cold look). The assimilation of this type of transfer is facilitated by a practical technique - a detailed comparison (the clouds float as smoothly as ducks).

The metonymic type of transfer is more difficult for students, although in practice they use examples very often (a bouquet of bird cherry, ripe currants, etc.). In the contiguous transfer, students learn the connections: the subject and what (or who) is in it (a silver dish is a tasty dish, a light class is a strong class); object and what is on it (tall pear - ripe pear). It is difficult to assimilate the general in the examples that call the work "and the result (doing embroidery - beautiful embroidery, teaching at school - teaching came in handy).

There are fewer examples with the functional type of hyphenation in the language than in others, which limits the number of exercises. But students quickly grasp the general function of objects if drawings are used or objects themselves are shown or the question is posed, what are the objects for,

The following exercises turned out to be the most effective: the use of a polysemous word in the context, compiled by the students themselves; definition (naming) of the word for interpretation; "Recognition" of a polysemantic word in context and determination of its meaning; distinguishing between the direct and figurative meanings of words and proof of the reasons for the transfer; the composition of phrases and sentences with a polysemantic word in the specified meaning; selection of synonyms and antonyms for different meanings of a polysemantic word. Exercises in the explanatory dictionary are effective: checking the correctness of interpretation, finding a word and using it in context, etc.

The concept of polysemy of words is assimilated by students more consciously in the conditions of studying the word in its systemic connections. The work on the lexical compatibility of words is interesting, it helps to prevent speech shortcomings; true, it requires a lot of effort from the teacher, work, but feasible and necessary.

The teacher will arouse interest in learning the native language, will give deep knowledge if he uses the most optimal methods of working in vocabulary. And this work "... is needed" both for mastering skills, and for mental development, and for understanding many grammatical phenomena "(4, p. 29).

Conclusion

In elementary school, lexicology is studied in the narrow sense of this term, that is, as a vocabulary system of the language. However, the school vocabulary course also includes some information about stable word combinations and dictionaries (an explanatory dictionary, a dictionary of foreign words, a phraseological dictionary).

Vocabulary as a section of the science of language in elementary school is studied both in the educational and cognitive aspect (acquaintance of students with the lexical system of the Russian language) and in the normative-practical aspect (the formation of their ability to apply different lexical layers in various communication situations, as well as enrichment of the vocabulary stock of students with different lexico-semantic word groups).

Despite the fact that vocabulary work and vocabulary study have the same object - a word, in vocabulary lessons the word is studied as a unit of the lexical system and the task of enriching the vocabulary, although it is worth it, is not the leading one, in While for vocabulary work, this is the main task. It should be borne in mind that the expansion of the vocabulary of students is much more intensive if this work is based on the knowledge acquired in the process of studying vocabulary.

The role of studying the polysemy of a word in school for increasing the culture of a student's speech, and, consequently, his general culture, it is difficult to overestimate the understanding of several meanings of polysemous words and the ability to correctly use them in different meanings enriches the student's vocabulary (without expanding it quantitatively, increasing the semantic load of the words known to him), warns and corrects shortcomings in the use of polysemantic words, enriches and streamlines the syntax of students' speech. With a correctly set study of a polysemantic word (synonymous series of words expand, the mechanism for selecting antonyms is improved, and, consequently, the expressive possibilities of the students' language are enriched.

As a result of acquaintance with the structure of polysemous words, the types of hyphenation of names, the student gets the opportunity to extend the methods of determining different meanings of a word to words that he does not understand; he will be interested in the patterns of combining words in different meanings with other words, while reading he will establish the types of these connections. He will think over the language. The technique of the expedient selection of linguistic means of a certain style of speech will be improved, since in the study of polysemy it is impossible not to touch upon the issue of different stylistic coloration, the belonging of a word with different meanings to certain styles of speech.

Literature

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4. Choose opposite words (antonyms) for each meaning of these words: raw sand - ... raw potatoes - ...

From the ambiguity of words, children move on to homonyms, which are usually given to them in entertaining, playful materials: The fox carries me beyond the dark forests.

Theoretical material on polysemy and homonyms is not given in the elementary grades, and the formation of the corresponding concepts passes only the preparatory stage.

3.5 Working on polysemantic words

The creation of a scientific methodology for studying the phenomenon of polysemy is dictated by the needs of the school. We have made an attempt to experimentally verify in the process of experiential learning:

1) the ratio of induction and deduction in the study of polysemy;

2) the comparative efficiency of using different methods of work in the research plan;

3) the effectiveness of various exercises.

The main task was to determine the amount of theoretical information and methods of enriching students' speech with words in different meanings.

Experienced training was organized. Three groups of classes (1 class in each group) and three methods were identified, depending on the methods of explaining new material, on the amount of theoretical information about polysemantic words and on the nature of the exercises.

The first group worked on the specified lexical concept in accordance with the textbook: the students went from observations to general conclusions (inductive path), the first method.

In other classes, information about polysemous words was communicated by the teacher (deductive way). The volume of theoretical information has increased in comparison with the first group of classes: the students got an idea of ​​the types of transfer of names - the second method.

The rest of the classes used an inductive way of explaining new material. The amount of theoretical information was also expanded, as in the second group of classes: the concept of types of transfer was introduced - the third technique. Thus, in the first and third methods, the general method was to explain the new material (inductive), the difference was in the amount of theoretical information. The second and third methods had the same amount of theoretical information, but had a difference in the way they explained the new material.

The learning objectives in all three groups of classes were the same: to achieve an understanding of the phenomenon of polysemy, to teach how to work with an explanatory dictionary, to show the systemic connections of a polysemous word at different levels of the language, to acquaint with the functioning of a polysemous word in speech, to teach the use of polysemous words in different meanings in speech.

The amount of information about polysemous words was also basically the same, the concept of the polysemy of a word, the direct and figurative meaning of words, the ability of a polysemous word to enter into various synonymous and antonymic relationships, depending on the meaning. But two groups. (II and III), as already noted, in addition to the indicated information, we got acquainted with the types of transfer of names.

Considering that familiarity with the types of transfer of names will contribute to a deeper understanding of the nature of a polysemantic word, we decided to give this information in two groups of classes. At the same time, we proceeded from the position that the inductive way of explaining the new has many advantages: it organizes and directs the analytical-synthetic operations of the students' mental activity, ensuring a solid assimilation of a new lexical concept. The deductive method is inferior to the inductive one in terms of the analytical one, so it was decided to supplement this technique by including a message about the types of transfer of names. We assumed that the inductive way of explaining the new would be the most rational if the concept of types of transfer of names was introduced into the circle of information about the polysemy of a word.

The didactic material was used in all classes in the same way: it was mainly textbook exercises. But the second and third groups did exercises to determine the types of transference.

In the group working on the first methodology (inductive "way), the explanation and consolidation of the concept was carried out in accordance with the methodological instructions for the textbook. The difference in the structure of dictionary entries in explanatory dictionaries about single-valued and polysemous words was shown in the words" iceberg "and" ending " Acquaintance with polysemantic words makes it possible to refer to the dictionary, expand the students' understanding of the content of the dictionary entry, and at the same time, work with the dictionary will help to consolidate this complex material (1, p. 40). Classes working according to the second methodology (deductive way ), the teacher's story about ambiguous and unambiguous words, about words with a figurative meaning was used.In the third group of classes (inductive path), the study of the concept went the same way as in the first group, plus familiarization with the types of transfer of names, as in the second group classes.

We considered it necessary to acquaint students with the following types of transference: metaphorical, contiguous, and functional. The choice of types was based on such considerations. Students meet with examples of linguistic metaphors every day, widely use derived meanings of words (head of cheese, cockscomb, etc.). Many striking examples are analyzed from the textbook of the Russian language: golden (wheat), - tail (stars), burning (cheeks) and many others. Without familiarity with metaphor, students will not be able to understand the depth of the poetic tropes. For example:

I am here again, in my own family.

My land, brooding and tender!

Curly twilight beyond the mountain

Waving a snow-white hand.

(S. Yesenin)

Naturally, only knowing the basis on which the transfer is made, one can understand the full power of the expressiveness of the writer's language with such an economical expenditure of linguistic units.

The metaphorical transference was considered by schoolchildren under the guidance of a teacher using examples: nose (boats) - nose (person); trunk (tree) - trunk (guns); gold (watch) -gold (wheat); swim (ducks) - swim (clouds), etc. Similarities were found in location, shape, color, nature of movement. At the direction of the teacher, the students made oral "drawings" for examples from the textbook: ice block - ice glance; eagle's nest - eagle nose; the child sleeps - the river sleeps.

Metonymy, as you know, is such a transfer of a name, which is not carried out on the basis of the similarity of external or internal signs of a former thing and a new one, but on the basis of contiguity, that is, the contact of things in space or in time (2, p. 80), there is only connection: without a plum! - there cannot be a plum-fruit tree, without the action of embroidery there can be no beautiful embroidery.

The principle of adjacency transfer was explained by the teacher. The term itself was explained using the example of adjacent rooms, that is, a phenomenon known to children. The examples of gooseberry blossomed-gooseberry ripe were analyzed; watered the plums - ate the plums (the tree and the fruit have the same name); beautiful hall "- the whole hall sang (the room and the people in it), etc.

It was shown that the metaphor can be turned into a comparative turnover with alliances, as, exactly, as if: golden dandelions (or curls) are yellow, like gold; a sea of ​​tears - there are as many tears as in a sea of ​​water. This cannot be done with adjacency carry. There is no similarity between objects named in one word (plum - the fruit is completely different neither in color nor in appearance to the plum - tree), there is only a connection.

The introduction to the transfer by function took place in the form of questions and answers. The teacher found out if the students knew what people wrote before the advent of the steel pen. Further, the opinion was heard why the steel object was named with the same word-feather (like a goose). The children did not immediately cope with the task. They offered different options: light in appearance; similar in shape - a pointed end (you cannot blame them for lack of observation); both objects were dipped in ink. And only after the question, why was it dipped in ink, they determined the purpose - for writing and concluded that the one and the other object does the same job, the purpose is a function. Examples were analyzed: wing (birds) - wing ("aircraft), lit (candle) - lit (lamp). In the first example, some schoolchildren quite correctly identified the transfer by function - to hold position in flight, - and similarity in location.

In the course of work in the classroom, it was clear that transfer by function is perceived somewhat more difficult than metaphorical, but much easier than transfer by contiguity. Primary school students practically get acquainted with the method of metaphor, when the actions of an animate being are attributed to inanimate, inanimate objects, when reading works of art, especially fairy tales. And the other two are met for the first time. In the lessons, visual aids were used. To illustrate the types of hyphenation, large-format drawings were used with the image of the wing and tail of a bird and an airplane (the conversation was about the meanings of words and the basics of transferring the name), a tree trunk and a rifle barrel (external similarity was determined), a key as a master key and a wrench (it was noted that the wrench got its name not by its external resemblance to the key - a device for opening the lock, but by the work performed by activating the mechanisms).

As a training exercise, a coherent text was proposed, including polysemantic words with all types of transfer of names known to students.

During the pilot training, the most effective types of exercises were tested.

The students completed the following exercises.

1. According to the context, the meaning was determined in which the polysemous word was used (orally "drew" the tails of animals, birds, airplanes, seeds, stars - exercise 289 in the textbook for grade 4 edited by Polyakova), it was established that the word tail was used by the author of the poem in four meanings that different meanings of the word tail have in common, are related to each other - this is the final part of something. Despite the many meanings, the word is one (it is very important to emphasize, to achieve understanding, otherwise there will be confusion in distinguishing between polysemy and homonymy).