Synthesis of ATP when cleaving glucose. Energy isolation from glycogen. Full oxidation of glucose. Glucose oxidation reaction Synthesis of glucose ATF

We can determine total Number of ATP Moleculeswhich is formed when splitting 1 glucose molecules under optimal conditions.
1. During glycolysis 4 ATP molecules are formed: 2 ATP molecules are consumed at the first stage of glucose phosphorylation necessary for the process of glycolysis process, the net yield of ATP during glycolysis is 2 ATP molecules.

2. In the end cycle lemonic acid 1 ATP molecule is formed. However, due to the fact that 1 glucose molecule is split into 2 molecules of peeling acid, each of which passes the turnover in the Krex cycle, the net yield of ATP is obtained on 1 glucose molecule, equal to 2 ATP molecules.

3. With full oxidation of glucose A total of 24 hydrogen atoms are formed in connection with the process of glycolysis and citric acid cycle, 20 of them are oxidized in accordance with the chemo-osmotic mechanism with the release of 3 ATP molecules for every 2 hydrogen atom. As a result, another 30 ATP molecules are obtained.

4. Four remaining atoms Hydrogen is released under the influence of dehydrogenase and are included in the cycle of chemoosmotic oxidation in mitochondria in addition to the first stage. The oxidation of 2 hydrogen atoms is accompanied by obtaining 2 ATP molecules, as a result, another 4 ATP molecules are obtained.

Folding everything obtained molecules, We obtain 38 ATP molecules as the maximum possible amount when oxidizing 1 glucose molecules to carbon dioxide and water. Therefore, 456,000 calories can be maintained as ATP from 686,000 calories obtained with full oxidation of 1 gram glucose molecule. Energy conversion efficiency provided by this mechanism is about 66%. The remaining 34% of energy is transformed into thermal and cannot be used by cells to perform specific functions.

Glycogen energy release

Continuous glucose energy releaseWhen cells do not need energy, it would be too wasteful. Glycoliz and the subsequent oxidation of hydrogen atoms are constantly monitored in accordance with the needs of cells in ATP. This control is carried out by numerous options for controlling feedback mechanisms during chemical reactions. The most important effects of this kind include the concentration of ADP and ATP, which controls the speed of chemical reactions during energy exchange processes.

One of the important waysallowing ATP to control the exchange of energy, is inhibition of phosphoforoducinase enzyme. This enzyme ensures the formation of fructose-1,6-diphosphate - one of the initial stages of glycolysis, so the resulting effect of excess ATP in the cell will brake or even stop glycolysis, which, in turn, will lead to the braking of carbohydrate metabolism. ADP (as well as AMP) has an opposite effect on phosphofructure, significantly increasing its activity. When ATP is used by tissues for the energy supply of most chemical reactions in cells, this reduces the inhibition of phosphoforoducinase enzyme, moreover, its activity increases in parallel increasing the concentration of ADP. As a result, glycolysis processes are launched, leading to the restoration of ATP in cells.

Another way management is mediated by citratesresulting in citric acid cycle. The excess of these ions significantly reduces the activity of phosphofructocinase, which does not allow Glycolize to be ahead of the use of pyrovinoic acid, resulting from glycolysis in citric acid cycle.

Third way, with help which system ATP-ADP-AMF It can control the exchange of carbohydrates and control the release of energy from fats and proteins is as follows. Returning to varying chemical reactions, employee method of excretion of energy, we can see that if all available AMP has already been turned into ATP, the further education of ATP becomes impossible. As a result, all the processes of use of nutrients (glucose, proteins and fats) cease to obtain an energy in the form of ATP. Only after the use of the resulting ATP as a source of energy in cells to ensure a variety of physiological functions, the newly emerging ADP and AMP will launch the processes of energy production during which ADP and AMP are transformed into ATP. This path automatically maintains the preservation of certain ATP reserves, except for cases of extreme cell activity, for example, with severe physical exertion.

Stage 1 - Preparatory

Polymers → Monomers

2 Stage - Glycoliz (oxless)

C 6 H 12 O 6 + 2ADF + 2N 3 PO 4 \u003d 2C 3N 6 O 3 + 2ATF + 2N 2 O

Stage - oxygen

2C 3N 6 O 3 + 6O 2 + 36ADF + 36 H 3 PO 4 \u003d 6SO 2 +42 H 2 O + 36AF

Total equation:

C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2+ 38ADF + 38H 3 PO 4 \u003d 6CO 2 + 44N 2 O + 38Andf

TASKS

1) In the process of hydrolysis, 972 ATP molecules were formed. Determine how much glucose molecules were cleavage and how many ATP molecules were formed as a result of glycolysis and complete oxidation. Reply explain the answer.

Answer: 1) with hydrolysis (oxygen stage) from one glucose molecule, 36 ATP molecules are formed, therefore, hydrolysis was subjected to: 972: 36 \u003d 27 glucose molecules;

2) during glycolize, one glucose molecule is split up to 2 molecules of PVC to form 2 molecules of ATP, so the number of ATP molecules is equal to: 27 x 2 \u003d 54;

3) With full oxidation of one glucose molecule, 38 ATP molecules are formed, therefore, with full oxidation, 27 glucose molecules are formed: 27 x 38 \u003d 1026 ATP molecules (or 972 + 54 \u003d 1026).

2) Which of the two types of fermentation - alcohol or lactic acid is energetically more efficient? Efficiency calculate by the formula:

3) the effectiveness of lactic fermentation:

4) Energetically more effective is alcohol fermentation.

3) Two glucose molecules have undergone glycolize, only one oxidation. Determine the amount of formed ATP molecules and excreted carbon dioxide molecules.

Decision:

To solve, use equations 2 of the stage (glycolysis) and 3 stages (oxygen) energy exchange.

With glycolisis of one glucose molecule, 2 ATP molecules are formed, and when oxidizing 36 ATPs.

By the condition of the Glycolize problem, 2 glucose molecules were subjected: 2 × 2 \u003d 4, and only one oxidation

4 + 36 \u003d 40 ATP.

Carbon dioxide is formed only in the 3rd stage, with full oxidation of one glucose molecule, 6 C 2 is formed.

Answer: 40 ATP; CO 2 .- 6

4) In the process of glycolysis, 68 pirogradic acid molecules were formed (PVC). Determine how much glucose molecules were cleavage and how many ATP molecules were formed with full oxidation. Reply explain the answer.

Answer:

1) during glycolize (oxygen-free stage of catabolism) One glucose molecule is split into the formation of 2 molecules of PVC, therefore, Glycolize was subjected to: 68: 2 \u003d 34 glucose molecules;

2) with the full oxidation of one glucose molecule, 38 ATP molecules (2 molecules with glycolize and 38 molecules during hydrolysis) are formed;

3) With full oxidation of 34-molecules of glucose, it is formed: 34 x 38 \u003d 1292 ATP molecules.

5) In the process of glycolysis, 112 pirogradic acid molecules were formed (PVC). What amount of glucose molecules was cleavage and how many ATP molecules formed with full oxidation of glucose in eukaryotes? Reply explain the answer.

Explanation.1) In the process of glycolysis, when the glucose molecule, 2 molecules of peyrogradic acid are formed and the energy is released, which is enough for a synthesis of 2 ATP molecules.

2) If 112 peer-gradual acid molecules were formed, then 112: 2 \u003d 56 glucose molecules were subjected to cleavage.

3) with full oxidation per glucose molecule, 38 ATP molecules are formed.

Consequently, with full oxidation of 56 glucose molecules formed 38 x 56 \u003d 2128 ATP molecules

6) in the process oxygen stage Catabolism formed 1368 ATP molecules. Determine how much glucose molecules were cleavage and how many ATP molecules were formed as a result of glycolysis and complete oxidation? Reply explain the answer.

Explanation.

7) In the process of the oxygen stage of catabolism, 1368 ATP molecules were formed. Determine how much glucose molecules were cleavage and how many ATP molecules were formed as a result of glycolysis and complete oxidation? Reply explain the answer.

Explanation.1) In the process of energy exchange from one glucose molecule, 36 ATP molecules are formed, therefore, glycolize, and then the total oxidation was subjected to 1368: 38 \u003d 38 glucose molecules.

2) During Glycolize, one glucose molecule is split up to 2 PVC molecules to form 2 ATP molecules. Therefore, the number of ATP molecules formed during Glycolize is 38 × 2 \u003d 76.

3) With full oxidation of one glucose molecule, 38 ATP molecules are formed, therefore, with full oxidation of 38 glucose molecules, 38 × 38 \u003d 1444 ATP molecules are formed.

8) In the process of dissimulation, a splitting of 7 mol of glucose occurred, of which only 2 moles underwent full (oxygen) splitting. Determine:

a) how many moles of lactic acid and carbon dioxide is formed;

b) how many moles ATP is synthesized;

c) how much energy and in what form are accumulated in these ATP molecules;

d) how many oxygen moles are spent on the oxidation of the resulting lactic acid.

Decision.

1) from 7 mol glucose 2 underwent full cleavage, 5 - not a hollow (7-2 \u003d 5):

2) compile an incomplete splitting equation of 5 mol glucose; 5C 6 H 12 O 6 + 5 2H 3 PO 4 + 5 2ADF \u003d 5 2C 3 H 6 O 3 + 5 2 PF + 5 2H 2 O;

3) is total equation Full splitting 2 mol glucose:

2C 6 H 12 O 6 + 2 6O 2 +2 38H 3 PO 4 + 2 38ADF \u003d 2 6CO 2 +2 38Anatf + 2 6H 2 O + 2 38H 2 O;

4) We summarize the amount of ATP: (2 38) + (5 2) \u003d 86 mol ATP; 5) Determine the amount of energy in ATP molecules: 86 40KJ \u003d 3440 kJ.

Answer:

a) 10 mole of lactic acid, 12 mol CO 2;

b) 86 mol ATP;

c) 3440 kJ, in the form of energy chemical bond macroeergic ties in ATP molecule;

d) 12 moth o 2

9) As a result of dissimulation in cells, 5 mole of lactic acid and 27 mol of carbon dioxide were formed. Determine:

a) how many moles of glucose spent;

b) how many of them were only incomplete and how much complete splitting;

c) how many ATPs are synthesized and how much energy is accumulated;

d) how many oxygen moles are spent on the oxidation of the resulting lactic acid.

Answer:

b) 4.5 mole full + 2.5 mol incomplete;

c) 176 mol ATP, 7040 kJ;

1. Enzymes of glycogenolysis are
+ Phosphorilaza
+ phosphophructocinase
- glucocinate
+ Piruvatakinaza
2. What are the enzyme systems differ glukeegenesis from glycolysis?
+ pyruvatakarboxylase, phosphoenolpywattauxicinase,
+ phosphoenoporevataturboxykinase, fructosecode phosphatase,
- Piruvatakarboxylase, fructose phosphatase, glucose-6 phosphatase, aldolase
+ Pyruvatakarboxylase, phosphoenolpiruvat-carboxyikinase, fruchosodiphosphatase and glucose-6 phosphatase
- hexokinase, glucose-6-phosphatase, glyceratkinase and triosophosphatisomerase
3. What is the participation of what vitamins is the oxidative decarboxylation of peyrogradic acid?
+ B1;
+ B2;
+ B3;
+ B5;
- AT 6.
4. With what kind of enzymes glucose-6-phosphate turns into ribulose-5-phosphate?
- glucosophosphatisomerase
+ Glukonolaktonase
+ glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
+ phosphogluconate dehydrogenase
- Transaldolaza
5. What functions perform glycogen?
+ Energy
+ Regulatory
+ Reserve
- Transport
- structural
6. For optimal phosphophoodocinase activity, it is necessary
- ATP, citrate
- Over (restored), H2O2
+ Over, AMP
- AMP, NADF (restored) and phosphoric acid
+ Over, magnesium ions
7. The study of what indicators of blood and urine should be carried out to evaluate the condition of carbohydrate metabolism?
+ Galactose
- urea
+ pH
+ share of urine
+ Testing Tolerance to Glucose
8. Which compounds are a substrate, reaction product and LDH1,2 inhibitor
+ Milk Acid
- Apple acid
+ Pyerogradic acid
- lemon acid
+ Nadn2.
9. How many molecules of NAP2 and carbon dioxide can form at full oxidation of 1 PVC molecule
- 3 Nadn2.
+ 3 CO2.
+ 4 Nadn2.
- 4 CO2.
- 2 Nadn2.
10. What are the symptoms for the clinical picture of the adenoma of Langerhans Islands?
+ Hypoglycemia.
- hyperglycemia
- Glucosuria
+ loss of consciousness
+ cramps
11. What enzymes participate in Glycolize
+ Aldlaza
- phosphorlase
+ Enolaza
+ Piruvatakinaza
+ phosphophructocinase
- Piruvatakarboxylase
6. Enzymes participate in the lactate transformation reactions in Acetyl-CoA
+ LDH1
- LDH5
- Piruvatakarboxylase
+ Piruvatdehydrogenase
- SuccinateDehydrogenase
7. The biosynthesis of which amount of macroeergic bonds is accompanied by the total oxidation of the glucose molecule by dichotomous path with the participation of the Krebs cycle
– 12
– 30
– 35
+ 36
+ 38
8. Dehydrogenation reactions in the pentose cycle are held with participation
- OVER
- Fad.
+ NADF
- FMN
- Tetrahydrofoliic acid
9. In which organs and tissues is a glycogen reserve for the whole body?
- skeletal muscles
- Myocardia
- Brain
+ liver
- Selezenka.
10. Phosphofrukinase is inhibited
- AMF
+ Nadn2.
+ ATF
- OVER
+ citrate
11. The study of what biochemical indicators of urine should be carried out to identify violations of carbohydrate exchanges?
+ Sugar.
+ ketone bodies
+ share of urine
- Belok.
+ pH
- Indican
12. What is the cause of increased fragility of erythrocytes in hereditary disease hemolytic drug anemia
+ Lack of glucose-6-phosphatehydrogenase in red blood cells
+ vitamin B5 failure
+ insulin deficiency
- Insulin hyperproduction
+ violation of glutathione restoration
13. How many mol ATP is formed with full oxidation of 1 fructo-1,6-diphosphate molecule
– 36
+ 38
+ 40
– 15
– 30
14. What enzymes participate in the transformation of aspartate into phosphoenolpiruvat
+ Aspartataminotransferase
- Piruvatdekarboxylase
- lactate dehydrogenase

- Piruvatakarboxylase
15. To convert fructose-6-phosphate into fructose-1,6-diphosphate, except for the corresponding enzyme needed
- ADF.
- NADF
+ Magnesium ions
+ ATF
- fructose-1-phosphate
16. Gloundogenesis in the human body is possible from the following predecessors.
- fatty acids, ketogenic amino acids
+ Piruvata, Glycerin
- acetic acid, ethyl alcohol
+ lactate, puck
+ glycogenic amino acids and dioxiacetone phosphate
17. Which final product is formed during oxidative decarboxylation of peyrogradic acid in aerobic conditions?
- Laktat
+ acetyl-koah
+ carbon dioxide
- Oxaloacetate
+ Nadn2.
18. With what enzyme is made decarboxylation in the pentosular cycle?
- Glukonolaktona
- glucosophosphatisomeraza
+ phosphogluconate dehydrogenase

- Transechetolaza
19. Indicate enzymes involved in mobilizing glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate
- Phosphatase
+ Phosphorilaza
+ amylo-1,6 glycosidase
+ phosphoglucomuutaisa
- Hexokinas
20. What hormones activate glukegenesis?
- glucagon
+ ACTG
+ glucocorticoids
- Insulin
- Adrenaline
21. The hyperglycemia can lead
- big physical activity
+ Stressful situations

+ excessive use of carbohydrates with food
+ Incenko-Cushing disease
+ Hyperthyroidism
22. What enzymes and vitamins take part in the oxidative decarboxylation of alpha-ketoglutarata
+ alpha ketogllutaratedehydrogenase
+ Digidolipatdehydrogenase
- Succinyl-Coa Tiokinase
+ B1 and B2
- B3 and B6
+ B5 and lipoic acid
23. What products are formed with the participation of alcohol dehydrogenase
- carbon dioxide
+ Ethyl alcohol
- acetic acid
+ Nadn2.
+ NAD
+ Acetic Aldehyde
24. Which of the following symptoms are characteristic of the clinical picture of the disease girke
+ hypoglycemia, hyperuricemia
+ hyperlipidemia, ketonemia
+ hyperglycemia, ketonemia
+ hyperlactatem, hyperpirushematamia
- hyperproteinemia, nitrogen
25. Gliecealdehydphocontains in associated with protein state.
+ NAD
- NADF
- ATP.
- Copper ions (P)
+ SN-band
26. Gloundogenesis proceeds intensively
- skeletal muscles
- myocardium and brain
+ In the liver
- Splezenka
+ cortony
27. With the transformation of which substrate in the CTC is the synthesis of GTF?
- alpha ketoglutarata
- Fumarata
- Succinate
+ Succinyl-CoA
- Isocatrate
28. Which of the following enzymes involved in the direct oxidation of glucose?
- Piruvatakarboxylase
+ glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
- lactate dehydrogenase
- Aldlaza
+ 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase
+ Transaldolaza
29. What nucleosidththththosphate is necessary for the synthesis of glycogen from glucose?
+ UTF.
- GTF
+ ATF
- CTF
- TTF.
30. What hormones block glukegenesis?
- glucagon
- Adrenaline
- Cortizol
+ Insulin
- STG
31. Which of the research proposed is needed primarily to confirm the diabetes?
+ determine the level of blood ketone bodies
+ determine the level of blood glucose on an empty stomach
- determine the content of cholesterol and blood lipids
+ determine blood pH and urine
+ determine glucose tolerance
32. Name the oxidation substrates in the CTC
- Schuk.
+ Isocatrate
+ alpha ketaglutarata
- Fumarat
+ Malat.
+ Sukcinate
33. Which of the following symptoms are characteristic of the clinical picture of the disease Tairie
- Hyperlactatemia
- Hypertension
- Hypoglycemia
+ painful muscle cramps with intensive exercise
+ Mioglobinuria
34. What products are formed from PVC under the action of pyruvatdecarboxylase
- acetic acid
+ Acetic Aldehyde
+ carbon dioxide
- Ethanol.
- Laktat
35. The conversion of glucose-6-phosphate in fructose-1,6-diphosphate is carried out in the presence
- phosphoglucomutase
- Aldlase
+ glucosophosphatisomerase
- glucosophosphatisomerase and aldolase
+ phosphofrukinase
36. What enzyme glukegenesis is regulatory?
- Enolaza
- Aldlaza
- glucose-6-phosphatase
+ fructose-1,6-diphosfatase
+ Piruvatakarboxylase
37. What metoboliths TSK are oxidized with the participation of over-dependent dehydrogenases
+ alpha ketogllutarat
- acetic acid
- succinic acid
+ Ismonic acid
+ Apple Acid
38. What enzymes is the thiaminepyrophosphate?

- Transaldolaza
+ Tranketolaza
+ PirovateDehydrogenase
+ Piruvatdekarboxylase
39. What enzyme systems are distinguished by glycoliz and glycogenolysis?
+ Phosphorilaza
- glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
+ phosphoglucomuutaisa
- fructose-1,6-bisphosfatase
+ glucocinate
40. Which of the hormones increase blood sugar levels?
- Insulin
+ Adrenaline
+ Tyroxin
- Oxytocin
+ glucagon
41. With what disease there is an increase in liver, lack of growth, severe hypoglycemia, ketosis, hyperlipidemia, hyperuricemia?
- Core disease
- Mac-Ardle's disease
+ Disease Girka
- Andersen's disease
- Wilson's disease
42. What vitamins are part of PFC enzymes
+ B1.
- IN 3
+ B5.
- AT 6
- AT 2
43. Which of the following symptoms are characteristic of the clinical picture of the agricogenosis
+ sharp hypoglycemia on an empty stomach
+ Vomot
+ cramps
+ mental retardation
- hyperglycemia
+ loss of consciousness
44. What enzymes of glycolysis participate in the substrate phosphorylation
- phosphofructocinase
+ Phosphoglycerat sewage
- Hexokinas
- p
+ Piruvatakinaza
45. What enzymes are carried out by converting fructo-1,6-diphosphate in phosphotryosis and fructose-6-phosphate
- Enolaza
+ Aldlaza
- Triosophosphatizomeraza
+ fructose chiposfatase
- glucosophosphatisomeraza
46. \u200b\u200bWhich of the listed compounds are the original gluconeogenesis substrates
+ Apple Acid
- acetic acid
+ Glycerol phosphate
- fatty acid
+ Milk Acid
47. What methabolit is formed when acetyl-koah condensation with a church
+ Citrile-CoA
+ Lemon Acid
- succinic acid
- lactic acid
- alpha-ketoglutaric acid
48. What amount of NAPFN2 is formed with full oxidation of 1 glucose molecule along the direct decay path?
- 6 molecules
- 36 molecules
+ 12 molecules
- 24 molecules
- 26 molecules
49. Where are the enzymes responsible for mobilization and glycogen synthesis?
+ cytoplasm
- core
- Ribosomes
- Mitochondria
- lysosomes
50. Which of the hormones reduce blood sugar levels?
- Tyroxin
- ACTG
+ Insulin
- glucagon
- a growth hormone
51. The surveyed has hypoglycemia, trembling, weakness, fatigue, sweating, constant feeling of hunger, is possible violations of brain activity, which is the cause of these symptoms?
- Hyperfunction of the thyroid gland

+ hyperfunction of beta cells of pancreatic Langerhans islets
+ Hyperfunction of alpha cells of the islands of Langerhans of the pancreas

- Adenoma Islands Langerhans Pancreatic gland
52. What vitamins are part of enzyme systems catalyzing the conversion of succinyl-coh into fumaric acid
- IN 1
+ B2.
+ B3.
- AT 5
- N.
53. The defect of which enzyme is observed in the disease Mac-Ardle
- liver phosphorlase
- Miocardial glycogenxinthasis
+ muscle phosphorlase
- Phosphofrukinase muscles
- Enzyme liver
54. What products are formed during substrate phosphorylation in the CCTC
- Malat.
+ Sukcinate
- Fumarat
+ Gtf
+ NSKOA
- Nadn2.
- Hyperfunction of alpha cells of the islands of Langerhans of the pancreas
- hyperfunction of the cortical layer of adrenal glands
55. What is the active form of glucose in glycogen synthesis
+ glucose-6 phosphate
+ glucose-1-phosphate
- UDF glucuronate
+ UDF glucose
- UDF Galactose
56. Which reaction does not proceed to the CTC
- Limonic acid dehydration with the formation of cis-acronite acid
- oxidative decarboxylation of alpha-ketoglutarata with the formation of succinyl-coa
- hydration of fumaric acid to form an apple
+ Cearboxylation of citric acid with the formation of oxalosuccinate
- Dehydrogenation of succinic acid with the formation of fumaric acid
+ oxidative decarboxylation of lump with the participation of NADF-dependent malate dehydrogenase
57. From which metabolite synthesis glucose along the path of gluconeogenesis comes with a minimal spending ATP
- Piruvata
+ Glycerin
- Malalat
- Laktata
- Isamocitrate
58. How many carbon dioxide molecules is formed when the glucose oxidation is apetomic?
– 2
– 4
+ 6
– 1
– 3
59. What kind of enzyme is involved in the formation of alpha-1,6-glycosida combination of glycogen?
- phosphorlase
- GlycogenCynthasis
+ branching enzyme
- amylo-1,6- glycosidase
+ (4 \u003d 6) - Gliko-Zilktransferase
60. Which of the hormones stimulate the decay of glycogen in the liver?
- glucocortico-id
- Vasopressin
- Insulin
+ Adrenaline
+ glucagon
61. Under what physiological conditions is the accumulation of lactic acid in the blood?
- Transmission of nerve impulses
- Stressful situations
+ reinforced physical exertion
- division of cells
+ Hypoxia
62. What source substrates are necessary for the action of the citrate enzyme
- Succinate
+ acetyl-koah
- Malat.
- Acyl-CoA
+ Schuk
63. What enzyme defect is observed with Andersen's disease?
- glycogenxint-basin liver
+ branching liver enzyme
- Aldlase
+ spleen branching enzyme
- liver phosphorlase
64. The activity of which cytoplasmic dehydrogenase will be raised in the liver in aerobic conditions (Pasteur effect)
+ LDH 1,2
- LDH 4,5
+ glycerol phoshydhydrogenase
- Gliecealde-hydrophatehydrogenase
+ Malategeido-Genase
65. Uninforced glycolysis reactions catalyze enzymes
+ Hexokinas
+ phosphorrute-kinase
+ Piruvatakinaza
- Aldlaza
- TRIOSOPOSFA-TIZOMERAZ
66. How many GTF molecules will be required for the synthesis of 1 glucose molecule from pyruvate?
+ 2
– 4
– 6
– 8
– 1
67. What is the energy effect of oxidative decarboxylation of PVC
+ 3 ATP molecules
- 36 ATP molecules
- 12 ATP molecules
- 10 ATP molecules
- 2 ATP molecules
68. What is the fate of the NAPN2 formed in the pentosular cycle?
+ Reactions detoxification of drugs and poisons
+ Glutation restoration
- Synthesis of glycogen
+ hydroxylation reactions
+ synthesis of bile acids
69. Why can glycogen skeletal muscles be used only locally?
- Lack of lactate dehydrogenase I

- No amylase
- Lack of glucocinate
- Lack of phosphoglucomutase
70. What hormones are liver glucoxinase activators?
- Noraderenalin
- glucagon
+ Insulin
- glucocorticoids
- ACTG
71. Under what pathological conditions is the accumulation of lactic acid in the blood?
+ Hypoxia
- diabetes
+ Disease Girka
- Jade
+ Epilepsy
72. How many ATP molecules is formed with full oxidation of 1 milk acid molecule?
– 15
+ 17
+ 18
– 20
– 21
73. What is the cause of the development of dyspeptic disorders when feeding a child with milk
+ lactase failure
- Insufficiency of phosphofrukinase

+ Lack of galactose-1-phosphanturidiltransferase
- deficiency of fructinase
74. What enzymes are involved in the transformation of pyruvate in FEPEP
- Piruvatakinaza
+ Piruvatakarboxylase
- Phosphoglyceratosteknaza
+ phosphoenolpiruvatkarboxykinase
- Piruvatdehydrogenase
75. The reaction of the formation of glucose-6-phosphate from glycogen accelerate enzymes
+ glucocinate
+ phosphoglucomuutaisa
+ Phosphorilaza
- Phosphatase
- glucosophosphatisomeraza
+ amylo-1,6- glycosidase
76. How many ATP molecules will need for synthesis 1 glucose molecule from Malata?
– 2
+ 4
– 6
– 8
– 3
77. What is the energy effect of oxidation of the PVC to the final products of carbon dioxide and water exchange?
- 38 ATP molecules
+ 15 ATP molecules
- 3 ATP molecules
- 10 ATP molecules
- 2 ATP molecules
78. What is the fate of the ribulose-5-phosphate formed in the pentosular cycle?
+ Proline synthesis
+ nucleic acid synthesis
+ Synthesis Ts3,5amf
+ Synthesis ATP
- Synthesis Carnitine
79. Why is the liver glycogen is a glucose reserve for the whole organism?
- The presence of glucocinate
+ Availability of glucose-6-phosphatase
- the presence of fructose-1,6-bisphosfatase
- The presence of aldolase
- The presence of phosphoglucomutase
80. The liver glycogen synthesis activators are
+ glucocorticoids
- glucagon
+ Insulin
- thyroxin and norepinephrine
- Adrenaline
81. The surveyed is observed by an increase in liver, inadequate incision, severe hypoglycemia, ketosis, hyperlipidemia, which is the cause of the indicated symptoms?
+ No glucose-6 phosphatase
- Lack of glucocinate
- Lack of galactose-1-phosphanturidiltransferase
- Lack of aldolase
- Lack of glycogenphosphorylase
82. With the participation of what enzymes is the consumption of ATP in the process of glucongenesis from pyruvate?
+ Piruvatakarboxylase
- p
+ Phosphoglycerat sewage
- fructose-1,6-bisphosfatase
- glucose-6-phosphatase
83. How many ATP molecules is formed when the lactate is oxidized to acetyl-koa
– 2
– 3
+ 5
+ 6
– 7
– 8
84. What is the cause of diabetes
+ Insulin deficiency
- Excess insulin
+ Insulin activation violation
+ High Insulinase Activity
+ Violation of the synthesis of receptor receptors to insulin in target cells
85. What enzymes are involved in the conversion of 3-phosphoglycerolic acid into 2- phosphoenolpirogradic acid
- trioseophosph-tisomerase
+ Elanze
- Aldlaza
- Piruvatakinase
+ Phosphoglyceratmutasa
86. Gloundogenesis is inhibited by the following ligands.
+ AMF
- ATP.
+ ADF
- Magnesium ions
- GTF
87. The formation of what finite products ends oxidative decarboxylation of alpha ketoglutarata
- Acetyl-CoA
- lemon acid
+ Succinyl-CoA
+ carbon dioxide
- Fumarat
88. Through what intermediate metabolites, the pentosny cycle is associated with Glycolizis
+ 3- Phosphoglycerin Aldehyde
- xylulose-5-phosphate
+ fructose-6-phosphate
- 6- phosphogluconate
- Ribose 5-phosphate
89. Which ligands are glycogen decay activators?
+ TsAMF
+ ADF
- Citrate
- CGMF
- Ions of iron
90. What compounds are the activators of pyruvate carboxylase?
+ acetyl-koah
- AMF
+ ATF
- Citrate
+ Biotin.
+ carbon dioxide
91. With what disease in the patient, the following symptoms of hypoglycemia are observed, trembling, weakness, fatigue, sweating, constant feeling of hunger, is possible violations of brain activity?
- Wilson's disease
- Mac-Ardle's disease
- diabetes
+ adenoma beta cells of the islands of Langerhans pancreatic gland
+ Hyperinsulinism
92. What enzymes take part in the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate in UDF glucose?
- Hexokinas
+ phosphoglucomuutaisa
- phosphoglyceluetasa
+ glucose-1-phosphanturidyltransferase
- branching enzyme
93. What is the reason for the reduction of lipogenesis in patients with diabetes?
+ Low glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity
- Glycogen synthesis violation
+ Reducing the activity of glycolithic enzymes
+ Low glucocinate activity
- improving the activity of glycolytic enzymes
94. How many ATP molecules formed with full oxidation of 1 3-phosphoglycerolic acid molecule
– 12
– 15
+ 16
– 17
– 20
95. Transfer of phosphate group from phosphoenolpiruvat to ADF catalyzed enzymes and at the same time formed
- Kinase phosphorylase
- Carbamatkinase
+ Piruvat
+ Piruvatakinase
+ ATF
96. The gluconeogenesis activator is
+ acetyl-koah
- ADF.
+ ATF
- AMF
+ acyl-koah
97. The oxidative decarboxylation of the alpha-ketoglutarata is carried out with the participation
+ Tiamin
+ Pantothenic acid
- Pyridoxina
+ Lipoic acid
+ Riboflavina
+ Niacin
98. In which cells of the cell is intensively proceeded by a pentose cycle?
- Mitochondria
+ cytoplasm
- Ribosomes
- core
- lysosomes
99. Which of the following enzymes is altogether in Glycogen synthesis
+ GlycogenCynthesis
- phosphorlase
- branching enzyme 4-glucose-1-phosphanturidylitransferase
- amylo-1,6 glycosidase
100. What kind of glycolysis enzyme is inhibited by glucagon?
- Enolaza
+ Piruvatakinaza
- Hexokinas
- lactate dehydrogenase
101. With which disease, a child has an increased blood sugar, an increase in the content of galactose, is the presence of galactose in the urine?
- fructozemia
+ Galaktosemia
- Girka disease
- Hyperinsulinism
- diabetes
102. What metabolites are accumulated in the blood and the activity of which blood enzymes increases with hypoxia (myocardial infarction)?
- acetoxus acid
+ Milk Acid
+ LDH 1,2
- LDH 4,5
+ Asat
103. How many FadN2 molecules is formed with the full oxidation of the DAF molecule?
+ 1
– 2
– 3
– 4
– 5
104. What kind of enzymatic carbohydrate exchange systems includes vitamin B2
- Digidolipathatyltransferaza
+ Digidolipohyldehydrogenase
+ alpha-ketogllutrathatoxidase
- Succinyl-Coa Tiokinase
+ Sukcinatdeehydrogenase
105. What enzymes are transformation of fructose-6-phosphate in phosphotryosis
- Hexokinaz
- Enaolase
- phosphoglucomutazua
+ Aldlaza
- phosphorilase
+ phosphophructocinase
106. What amount of glycerin molecules will be required for the synthesis of 2 molecules of glucose along the path of gluconeogenesis
– 2
+ 4
– 6
– 8
– 3
107. With the participation of which enzyme systems the transformation of lactic acid in the pike
- alpha ketoglutahedheldehydrogenase
- Piruvatdeehydrogenase
+ lactate dehydrogenase
- Piruvatdeehydrogenase
+ Piruvatakarboxylase
108. In which organodes and tissues show the greatest activity of the enzymes of the pentosny cycle
+ adrenal glands
+ liver
+ Fat fabric
- Light
- Brain
109. Which of enzymes is altogether in the decay of glycogen?
+ Phosphorilaza
- Phosphatase
- amylo-1,6- glycosidase
- Triosophosphatizomeraza
- Aldlaza
110. Which of the Krebs cycle enzymes is inhibited by malonic acid?
+ Sukcinatdeehydrogenase
- Isamocitrate dehydrogenase
- Cisaconitase
- Citrantsintyaza
- alpha-ketoglutaratedehydrogenase
111. The child has an increase in the general blood sugar, an increase in the content of galactose in the blood, the appearance of it in the urine, which is the cause of these violations?

+ Lack of galactose-1-phosphanturidtransferase
+ Lack of galactokinase

- Lack of glucocinate
112. How many molecules of NAP2 is formed with full oxidation of 1 glucose molecule to carbon dioxide and water?
– 5
+ 10
– 12
– 15
– 36
113. The defect of which enzymes can lead to the development of agricogenosis
- glycogenphosphorylase
+ GlycogenCynthase
+ branching enzyme
+ phosphoglucuctase
- glucose-6-phosphatase
114. Which compounds may be pucks needed to stimulate the CTC and the gluconeogenesis process
- Acetyl-CoA
+ Piruvat
+ carbon dioxide
+ Aspartate
+ pyridoxalphosphate
- ethanol
115. To convert dioxiacetone phosphate in 1,3-difosphoglycerolic acid, it is necessary to effect enzymes
- Aldlase
- Hexokinase
- glucosophosphatisomerase
+ Triosophosphatisomerase
- Glyceratkinase
+ glycedehydrogenase
116. What amount of Nadn2 moles will be required for the synthesis of the 1st glucose molecule from the Malata?
– 8
– 6
– 4
– 2
+ 0
117. What substrates of the CTC enter the hydration reaction?
+ Isamocitrilla-CoA
+ Fumarat
+ Aconitat
- Oxaloacetate
- Succinate
118. How many water molecules are necessary for direct glucose oxidation?
– 3
– 2
+ 7
– 4
– 6
119. What finite products are formed in the process of glycogenolysis?
+ Piruvat
- fructose-6-phosphate
- glucose-6-phosphate
+ Laktat
+ Glucose
120. From what factors depends the speed of oxidation of acetyl-koa in the CTC?
- Laktat
+ Malonic Acid
+ Shange Auxusus acid
+ Piruvat
+ Cell Energy Charge
+ aerobic conditions
121. What biochemical studies need to be carried out for differential
Diagnostics of sugar and unacceptable diabetes?
- Determine SEE
+ determine the proportion of urine
- Determine the protein in the urine
- identify protein blood fractions
+ Determine urine and blood sugar
+ identify pH urine
122. The concentration of which metabolites of carbohydrate metabolism will increase in blood during stress?
+ Laktat
- Glycogen
+ Glucose
- Glycerin
- Alanine
123. How many UTF molecules will be required to activate 100 glycosyl residues in the process of glycogenesis
– 50
+ 100
– 150
– 200
– 300
124. What enzymes take part in the transformation of DAF in fruit-6-phosphate
+ Aldlaza
+ Triosophosphatisomeraza
- phosphofructocinase
+ fructose-1,6-diphosphatase
- Phosphogluco Mutaz
125. The following enzymes participate in the reactions of transformation of pyruvate to carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol
+ Piruvatdekarboxylase
- lactate dehydrogenase
+ ethanoldehydrogenase
+ AlcoholDehydrogenase
- Phosphoglyceratosteknaza
126. How many water molecules will need for a synthesis of 10 glucose molecules from pyruvate?
+ 6
– 2
– 8
– 7
– 10
127. What substrates TSK are oxidized with the participation of FAD-dependent dehydrogenase
+ alpha ketoglutarat
- Malat.
- Isamocitrate
+ Sukcinate
- oxalosuccinate
128. Which of the metals listed below are the activators of the pentose cycle
- Cobalt
+ Magnesium
+ Manganese
- iron
- Copper
129. What enzymes of glycogenolysis require the presence of inorganic phosphate
- Piruvatakinaza
+ Glycogenenfosphorilaza
- phosphoglucomuutasa
+ Glyceral'egidhegerenaza
- Phosphoglyceratosteknaza
130. Which of the enzymes of glycolysis is stimulated by AMP?
- Enolaza
+ Piruvatakinaza
+ phosphorrute-kinase
- fructose-1,6-bisphosfatase
131. What is the main cause of juvenile shape of diabetes
- hyperfunction of the cortical layer of adrenal glands
+ absolute insulin deficiency
- relative insulin deficiency
- Hyperfunction of the brain layer of the adrenal glands
- Lack of glucagon
132. In which active form, Vitamin B1 participates in the oxidative decarboxylation of alpha ketok acid
+ Cocarboxylase
- thiamine chloride
- thiaminemonophosphate
+ Tiaminepirophosphate
- thiaminetrifosphate
133. How many phosphoglycerol aldehyde molecules is formed when oxidizing 3 glucose molecules in the pentosular cycle?
+ 1
– 2
– 3
– 4
– 5
134. What enzymes deficiency leads to a violation of fructose exchange
- Hexokinas
+ frosterinase
+ ketosis-1-phosphaliadlaza
- phosphorrute-kinase
- TRIOSOPOSFA-TIZOMERAZ
135. Piruvat turns into lactic acid under the action of the enzyme
+ LDH 4,5
- phosphorylase
- ethanoldehyde-rogenase
- LDH 1,2
- Gliperoalde hydrophatehydrogenase
136. In which organs and tissues the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase is actively working
+ liver
+ mucous renal tubules
+ intestinal mucosa
- Myocardium
- Splezenka
137. What substrates are subject to decarboxylation in the CTC
+ oxalosuccinate
- Cisaconitate
- Succinate
+ alpha ketoglutarat
- Oxaloacetate
138. What is the biological role of the pentosny cycle?
+ Catabolic
+ Energy
- Transport
+ Anabolic
+ Protective
139. What products are formed under the action on the glycogen phosphorylase and amylo-1,6-
Glycosidase
- glucose-6-phosphate
+ Glucose
- Malto
+ glucose-1-phosphate
+ Dextry
- Amyloza
140. Which enzymes is activated by citrate
- lactate dehydrogenase
- phosphofructocinase
- glucocinate
- phosphorlase
+ fructose-1,6-diphosfatase
141. At the dispensary examination, hyperglycemia (8 mmol / l) was found in the patient,
After receiving 100 g of glucose, its concentration in the blood increased to 16 mmol / l and
held for 4 hours, with what diseases are possible
Changes?
- cirrhosis of the liver
+ Sugar diabetes
- Nephritis
- pituitary diabetes
- Steroid diabetes
142. What enzymes take part in the conversion of fructose in 3FGA in muscle
and adipose tissues and kidneys?
+ Hexokinas
- glucocinate
- frucinase
+ phosphophructocinase
+ Aldlaza
143. How many oxygen molecules is used when oxidizing 1 3fga molecule?
– 1
– 2
+ 3
– 5
– 6
– 8
144. The following statements are correct
+ Glikoliz in red blood cells is the main energy supplier needed
For their functioning
- Oxidative phosphorylation - the main path of ATP synthesis in red blood cells
+ Enhance the concentration of 2,3fdg and lactate in red blood cells reduces the affinity
Hemoglobin A1 to oxygen
+ Enhance the concentration of 2,3fdg and lactate in red blood cells increases return
Hemoglobin oxygen
+ Substrate phosphorylation - the main path of ATP synthesis in red blood cells
145. What is the energy efficiency of glycogenolysis in anaerobic conditions?
- 2 ATP molecules
+ 3 ATP molecules
- 15 ATP molecules
- 4 ATP molecules
- 1 ATP molecule
146. What number of carbon dioxide molecules is necessary to activate glucose synthesis from pyruvate?
+ 2
– 4
– 6
– 8
– 3
147. What compound is the final product of aerobic glycolysis?
+ Piruvat
- Laktat
- phosphoenolpyruvat
- SHAVELOVOUSUSUSIC ACITO
+ Nadn2.
148. Which of the compounds listed below are the intermediate metabolites of the pentosny cycle?
+ glucose-6-phosphate
- 1,3-dyphosphoglycerin acid
+ 6- Phosphogluconat
+ xylulose-5-phosphate
+ erythro- 4 phosphate
149. What amount of ATP is necessary to activate phosphorylase B
– 2
– 6
+ 4
– 8
– 3
150. What metabolite regulates the transfer of regenerating equivalents from cytosol through the internal membranes of mitochondria and back
+ glycerol 3-phosphate
+ Malat.
- Glutamat.
+ Oxaloacetate
+ Dioxiacetone phosphate
151. What is the cause of hypoglycemia and lack of glycogen in the liver
- Lack of glucose-6-phosphatase
+ Lack of branching enzyme
- Insufficiency of glycogenphosphorylase
+ Failure of phosphoglucomutase
+ Insufficiency of glycogenxintytase
152. How many oxygen molecules is required for complete oxidation of 1 acetyl-coa molecule?
– 1
+ 2
– 1/2
– 3
– 5
153. What enzymes participate in the conversion of fructose in 3FGA in hepatocytes
+ frosterinase
- glucocinate
- phosphorrute-kinase
+ ketosis 1-phosphaliadlaza
- Aldlaza
- fructose-1,6-bisphosfatase
154. What diseases are accompanied by glucosuria?
+ Sugar diabetes
- Pancreas adenoma
+ Incenko-Cushing disease
+ Jade
+ Hippofizer diabetes
- Nonachar diabetes
155. What amount of ATP can be synthesized when glucose oxidation to pyruvate in aerobic conditions
– 2
– 4
+ 6
+ 8
– 10
156. In which liver orientations found an enzyme of pyruvate carboxylase
+ cytoplasm
+ Mitochondria
- Summer
- Ribosomes
- Nadryshko
157. What metabolite CTK is dehydrated with the participation of oxidase
dependent dehydrogenases?
- Alpha Ketoglutarat
- Citrate
- Fumarat
+ Sukcinate
- Malat.
158. Which one listed below the substrates of the pentosny cycle can meet the energy needs of the body
- 6- phosphogluconate
- Ribulose- 5-phosphate
- Riboso 5-phosphate
+ 3- Phosphoglycerin Aldehyde
+ fructose-6-phosphate
159. Where is the most intensive glycogen biosynthesis?
- Brain
+ liver
- pancreas
- Myocardia
+ Skeletal muscles
160. Insufficiency of which vitamins leads to a violation of the functioning of shuttle mechanisms
- IN 1
+ B2.
- IN 3
+ B5.
+ B6.
- FROM
161. Under what pathological conditions there is an increase in the level of PVC in the blood of over 0.5 mmol / l?
- diabetes
+ Polyneurrit
- nephrosis
- Galaktosemia
+ Take-take
162. What enzymes take part in the transformation of galactose in glucose in the liver
+ Galactokinasa
+ Galactose-1-phosphanturidylitransferase
+ Epimatza
+ glucose-6-phosphatase
+ phosphoglucomuutaisa
- fructose-1-phosphaliadlaza
163. How many ATP molecules are formed with full oxidation of 3 riboso-5-phosphate molecules
– 30
– 52
+ 93
+ 98
– 102
164. Under what diseases the following symptoms are observed: severe hypoglycemia
on an empty stomach, nausea, vomiting, convulsions, loss of consciousness, mental retardation?
+ Disease Girka
+ Herse's disease
+ Aggogenesis
+ Hyperinsulinism
- Hyperthyroidism
165. How many ATP molecules is formed with full oxidation of 1 DAF molecule
– 5
– 6
+ 19
+ 20
– 36
– 38
166. How many ATP molecules will need for glucose synthesis from glycerin?
– 1
+ 2
– 4
– 6
– 8
167. What enzymes and vitamins are involved in the transformation of lactate in acetyl-cola
+ LDH 1,2
- LDH 4,5
+ Piruvatoksidaza
+ B2 and B5
+ B3 and B1
- B6 and lipoic acid
168. Which of the listed ligands increase the speed of direct glucose oxidation rate
- AMF
- inorganic phosphate
+ ATF
+ NADF
- TsAMF
169. With which enzymes, glucose-1-phosphate from glucose occurs
+ glucocinate
+ phosphoglucomuutaisa
- Glycogenenfosphorilaza
+ Hexokinas
- phosphoglyceluetasa
170. What enzyme carbohydrate exchange in hepatocytes is stimulated by insulin?
- Enolaza
- Hexokinas
+ glucocinate
+ GlycogenCynthesis
- phosphorlase
171. Under what pathological states there is an increase in activity
Alpha-amylase in blood and urine?
+ acute pancreatitis
- viral hepatitis
+ Pyelonephritis
- Myocardial infarction
- Wilson's disease
172. For what disease is characterized by the following clinical picture: limited
The ability to perform intensive exercises due to muscle cramps?
- Herse's disease
- Girka disease
+ There's disease
+ Mac-Ardla's disease
- Andersen's disease

Should be considered:

• Reactions going with the cost or formation of ATP and GTF;
• Reactions producing NADP and FADN 2 and using them;
• Since glucose forms two triosis, all compounds formed below the Gaf-dehydrogenase reaction are formed in double (relative to glucose) quantity.

Calculation of ATP with anaerobic oxidation

Plots of glycolysis associated with the formation and consideration of energy

At the preparatory stage, 2 ATP molecules are expended on the activation of glucose, phosphate each of which is in triosis - glyceraldehydphosphate and dioxiacetone phosphate.

The next second stage includes two molecules of glyceraldehydphosphate, each of which is oxidized to the pyruvate to form 2 molecules of ATP in the seventh and tenth reactions - reactions of substrate phosphorylation. Thus, by summing, we obtain that on the way from glucose to pyruvate in pure form, 2 ATP molecules are formed.

However, it is necessary to bear in mind the fifth, glyceraldehydphosphate dehydrogenase, the reaction from which Nadn is coming. If the conditions are anaerobic, then it is used in a lactate dehydrogenase reaction, where it is oxidized to form a lactate and in obtaining ATP does not participate.

Calculation of the energy effect of the anaerobic oxidation of glucose

Aerobic oxidation

Glucose oxidation areas associated with energy formation

If there is oxygen in the cell, then the glycolysis is sent to mitochondria (shuttle systems), on the processes of oxidative phosphorylation, and there its oxidation brings dividends in the form of three ATP molecules.

The pyruvate formed in Glycolizis in aerobic conditions turns into a PVK-dehydrogenase complex in acetyl-S-coa, while 1 molecule is formed.

Acetyl-S-CoA is involved in the CTC and, oxidizing, gives 3 molecules NADN, 1 Molecule of FADN 2, 1 molecule of GTF. The molecules of NAPN and FADN 2 move into the breathing chain, where 11 ATP molecules are formed in sum in the amount. In general, during the combustion of one acetogroup, 12 ATP molecules are formed into the CTC.

Summing up the results of the oxidation of "glycolithic" and "piruvatdehydrogenase" NADP, "glycolithic" ATP, the energy output of the CTC and multiplying all by 2, we get 38 ATP molecules.

In this article, we consider how glucose oxidation occurs. Carbohydrates are compounds of polyhydroxycarbonyl type, as well as their derivatives. Characteristic features are the presence of aldehyde or ketone groups and at least two groups of hydroxyl.

By its structure, carbohydrates are divided into monosaccharides, polysaccharides, oligosaccharides.

Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides are the most simple carbohydrates that cannot be subjected to hydrolysis. Depending on which group is present in the composition - aldehyde or ketone, aldose is distinguished (they include galactose, glucose, ribosis) and ketosis (ribulose, fructose).

Oligosaccharida

Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates that have in their composition from two to ten residues of monosaccharide origin, connected by glycosidic ties. Depending on the number of remnants of monosaccharides, disaccharides are distinguished, trisaccharides and so on. What is the oxidation of glucose formed? This will be told later.

Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are carbohydrates that contain more than ten monosaccharide residues interconnected by glycosidic bonds. If the composition of the polysaccharide contains the same monosaccharide residues, then it is called homopolysaccharide (for example, starch). If such residues are different, then heteropolisaccharide (for example, heparin).

What value is glucose oxidation?

Functions of carbohydrates in the human body

Carbohydrates perform the following main functions:

1. Energy. The main function of carbohydrates, as they serve as the main source of energy in the body. As a result of their oxidation, more than half of the energy needs of a person are satisfied. As a result of the oxidation of one gram of carbohydrates, 16.9 kJ is released.
2. Reserve. Glycogen and starch are the form of accumulation of nutrients.
3. Structural. Cellulose and some other polysaccharide compounds form durable cores in plants. They are also in a complex with lipids and proteins, are component of all cellular biomembranes.
4. Protective. For acidic heteropolisaccharides, the role of biological lubricant is assigned. They linse the surfaces of the joints that come into contact and rub together, mucous nose, digestive tract.
5. Antigoagulant. Such a carbohydrate as heparin has an important biological property, namely, prevents blood coagulation.
6. Carbohydrates are a source of carbon necessary for the synthesis of proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.

In the process of counting the glycolithic reaction, it is necessary to take into account that each stage of the second stage is repeated twice. From this we can conclude that two ATP-molecules are spent in the first stage, and with the flow of the second stage, 4 ATP molecules are formed by phosphorylation of the substrate type. This means that as a result of the oxidation of each glucose molecule, the cell accumulates two ATP-molecules.

We reviewed oxidation of glucose oxygen.

Anaerobic glucose oxidation

Aerobic oxidation is called the oxidation process at which the energy is released and which flows in the presence of oxygen, protruding the ultimate hydrogen acceptor in the breath chain. The donor is the restored form of coenzymes (FADN2, NADP, NAPFN), which are formed at an intermediate reaction of substrate oxidation.

The process of oxidation of glucose aerobic dichotomic type is the main path of the catabolism of glucose in the human body. This type of glycolysis can be carried out in all tissues and organs. human organism. The result of this reaction is the splitting of glucose molecule to water and carbon dioxide. The highlighted energy will be accumulated in ATP. This process can be divided into three stages:

1. The process of converting glucose molecule into a pair of pyro-acid molecules. The reaction occurs in the cell cytoplasm and is a specific path of glucose decay.
2. The process of formation of acetyl-economy as a result of oxidative decarboxylation of peeling acid. This reaction proceeds into cell mitochondria.
3. The process of oxidation of acetyl-koa in the Crex cycle. The reaction proceeds to cell mitochondria.

At each stage this process Restored forms of coefficients oxidizing by enzyme complexes of the respiratory chain are formed. As a result, ATP is formed when glucose oxidation.

Education of coenzymes

The coenses that are formed in the second and third stage of aerobic glycolysis will be oxidized directly in cell mitochondria. In parallel with this, Nadn, which was formed in the cell cytoplasm in the flow of the reaction of the first stage of aerobic glycolysis, does not have the ability to penetrate through the mitochondrial membrane. Hydrogen is transferred from cytoplasmic NADP to cellular mitochondria through shuttle cycles. Among such cycles, you can select the main - aspartial malate.

Then, with the help of cytoplasmic Nadn, the restoration of oxaloacetate into the walker, which, in turn, penetrates the cell mitochondria and then oxidizes with the restoration of mitochondrial over. Oxaloacetate is returned to the cytoplasm of the cell in the form of aspartate.

Modified form of glycolysis

The flow of glycolysis can additionally be accompanied by the release of 1.3 and 2,3-bifosphoglycerats. At the same time, the 2,3-bifosphoglycerate under the influence of biological catalysts can be returned to the glycolysis process, and then change its shape to 3-phosphoglycerat. These enzymes play a variety of roles. For example, the 2,3-bifosphoglycerat, which is in hemoglobin, contributes to the transition of oxygen into tissue, while contributing to the dissociation and decrease in oxygen affinity and red blood cells.

Conclusion

Many bacteria can change the molds of glycolysis on its different stages. It is possible to reduce their total quantity or modification of these stages as a result of the impact of various enzyme compounds. Some of the anaerobes have the ability to other ways to decompose carbohydrates. Most of the thermophilos have only two glycolic enzymes, in particular enhase and piruvatakenase.

We looked at how glucose oxidation in the body occurs.