1 glucose atf complete oxidation. Calculation of atf during glucose oxidation. Stage - oxygen

Should be considered:

• Reactions involving the cost or formation of ATP and GTP;
• Reactions producing and using NADH and FADH 2;
• Since glucose forms two trioses, all compounds formed below the GAF-dehydrogenase reaction are formed in a double (relative to glucose) amount.

Calculation of ATP in anaerobic oxidation

Sites of glycolysis associated with the formation and consumption of energy

At the preparatory stage, 2 ATP molecules are spent on glucose activation, the phosphate of each of which turns out to be on triose - glyceraldehyde phosphate and dioxyacetone phosphate.

The next second stage includes two molecules of glyceraldehyde phosphate, each of which is oxidized to pyruvate with the formation of 2 ATP molecules in the seventh and tenth reactions - reactions of substrate phosphorylation. Thus, summing up, we find that on the way from glucose to pyruvate, 2 ATP molecules are formed in pure form.

However, one should also bear in mind the fifth, glyceraldehyde phosphate-dehydrogenase, reaction from which NADH emerges. If the conditions are anaerobic, then it is used in the lactate dehydrogenase reaction, where it is oxidized to form lactate and does not participate in the production of ATP.

Calculation of the energy effect of anaerobic glucose oxidation

Aerobic oxidation

Sites of glucose oxidation associated with energy production

If there is oxygen in the cell, then NADH from glycolysis is sent to the mitochondria (shuttle systems), to the processes of oxidative phosphorylation, and there its oxidation pays dividends in the form of three ATP molecules.

The pyruvate formed in glycolysis under aerobic conditions is converted into a PVC-dehydrogenase complex in acetyl-S-CoA, with the formation of 1 NADH molecule.

Acetyl-S-CoA is involved in TCA and, being oxidized, gives 3 NADH molecules, 1 FADH 2 molecule, 1 GTP molecule. Molecules NADH and FADH 2 move into the respiratory chain, where, when oxidized, a total of 11 ATP molecules are formed. In general, during the combustion of one aceto group, 12 ATP molecules are formed in the CTX.

Summing up the results of the oxidation of "glycolytic" and "pyruvate dehydrogenase" NADH, "glycolytic" ATP, the energy output of CTX and multiplying everything by 2, we get 38 ATP molecules.

Stage 1 - preparatory

Polymers → monomers

Stage 2 - glycolysis (oxygen-free)

C 6 H 12 O 6 + 2ADP + 2H 3 PO 4 = 2C 3 H 6 O 3 + 2ATP + 2H 2 O

Stage - oxygen

2C 3 H 6 O 3 + 6O 2 + 36ADP + 36 H 3 PO 4 = 6CO 2 +42 H 2 O + 36ATP

Summary equation:

C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2+ 38ADP + 38H 3 PO 4 = 6CO 2 + 44H 2 O + 38ATF

TASKS

1) In the process of hydrolysis, 972 ATP molecules were formed. Determine how many glucose molecules have been degraded and how many ATP molecules have been formed as a result of glycolysis and complete oxidation. Explain the answer.

Answer:1) during hydrolysis (oxygen stage) 36 ATP molecules are formed from one glucose molecule, therefore, hydrolysis has undergone: 972: 36 = 27 glucose molecules;

2) during glycolysis, one glucose molecule is cleaved to 2 PVC molecules with the formation of 2 ATP molecules, therefore the number of ATP molecules is: 27 x 2 = 54;

3) with the complete oxidation of one glucose molecule, 38 ATP molecules are formed, therefore, with the complete oxidation of 27 glucose molecules, 27 x 38 = 1026 ATP molecules (or 972 + 54 = 1026) are formed.

2) Which of the two types of fermentation - alcoholic or lactic acid fermentation is more energy efficient? Calculate the efficiency using the formula:

3) the efficiency of lactic acid fermentation:

4) alcoholic fermentation is more energy efficient.

3) Two glucose molecules underwent glycolysis, only one was oxidized. Determine the quantity formed molecules ATP and released carbon dioxide molecules at the same time.

Solution:

To solve, we use the equations of stage 2 (glycolysis) and stage 3 (oxygen) energy exchange.

During the glycolysis of one glucose molecule, 2 ATP molecules are formed, and during the oxidation of 36 ATP.

According to the condition of the problem, 2 glucose molecules underwent glycolysis: 2 ∙ × 2 = 4, and only one was oxidized

4 + 36 = 40 ATP.

Carbon dioxide is formed only at stage 3, with the complete oxidation of one glucose molecule, 6 CO 2 is formed

Answer: 40 ATP; CO 2 .- 6

4) In the process of glycolysis, 68 molecules of pyruvic acid (PVA) were formed. Determine how many glucose molecules have been degraded and how many ATP molecules have been formed during complete oxidation. Explain the answer.

Answer:

1) during glycolysis (anoxic stage of catabolism), one glucose molecule is cleaved to form 2 PVC molecules, therefore, glycolysis underwent: 68: 2 = 34 glucose molecules;

2) with the complete oxidation of one glucose molecule, 38 ATP molecules are formed (2 molecules during glycolysis and 38 molecules during hydrolysis);

3) with the complete oxidation of 34 glucose molecules, 34 x 38 = 1292 ATP molecules are formed.

5) In the process of glycolysis, 112 molecules of pyruvic acid (PVA) were formed. How many glucose molecules have undergone cleavage and how many ATP molecules are formed during the complete oxidation of glucose in eukaryotic cells? Explain the answer.

Explanation. 1) In the process of glycolysis, with the splitting of 1 glucose molecule, 2 molecules of pyruvic acid are formed and energy is released, which is enough for the synthesis of 2 ATP molecules.

2) If 112 molecules of pyruvic acid were formed, then, therefore, 112: 2 = 56 molecules of glucose underwent splitting.

3) With complete oxidation, 38 ATP molecules are formed per glucose molecule.

Therefore, with the complete oxidation of 56 glucose molecules, 38 x 56 = 2128 ATP molecules are formed

6) During the oxygen stage of catabolism, 1368 ATP molecules were formed. Determine how many glucose molecules have been cleaved and how many ATP molecules have been formed as a result of glycolysis and complete oxidation? Explain the answer.

Explanation.

7) During the oxygen stage of catabolism, 1368 ATP molecules were formed. Determine how many glucose molecules have been cleaved and how many ATP molecules have been formed as a result of glycolysis and complete oxidation? Explain the answer.

Explanation. 1) In the process of energy metabolism, 36 ATP molecules are formed from one glucose molecule, therefore, glycolysis, and then 1368: 36 = 38 glucose molecules underwent complete oxidation.

2) During glycolysis, one glucose molecule is split into 2 PVC molecules with the formation of 2 ATP molecules. Therefore, the number of ATP molecules formed during glycolysis is 38 × 2 = 76.

3) With the complete oxidation of one glucose molecule, 38 ATP molecules are formed, therefore, with the complete oxidation of 38 glucose molecules, 38 × 38 = 1444 ATP molecules are formed.

8) In the process of dissimilation, 7 mol of glucose were split, of which only 2 mol underwent complete (oxygen) splitting. Define:

a) how many moles of lactic acid and carbon dioxide are formed in this case;

b) how many moles of ATP were synthesized at the same time;

c) how much energy and in what form is accumulated in these ATP molecules;

d) How many moles of oxygen were spent on the oxidation of the resulting lactic acid.

Solution.

1) Of 7 moles of glucose, 2 underwent complete cleavage, 5 - not completely (7-2 = 5):

2) we compose the equation of incomplete splitting of 5 mol of glucose; 5C 6 H 12 O 6 + 5 2H 3 PO 4 + 5 2ADP = 5 2C 3 H 6 O 3 + 5 2ATP + 5 2H 2 O;

3) is summary equation complete breakdown of 2 mol glucose:

2C 6 H 12 O 6 + 2 6O 2 +2 38H 3 PO 4 + 2 38ADP = 2 6CO 2 +2 38ATP + 2 6H 2 O + 2 38H 2 O;

4) we sum up the amount of ATP: (2 38) + (5 2) = 86 mol of ATP; 5) determine the amount of energy in ATP molecules: 86 40 kJ = 3440 kJ.

Answer:

a) 10 mol of lactic acid, 12 mol of CO 2;

b) 86 mol of ATP;

c) 3440 kJ, in the form of energy chemical bond high-energy bonds in the ATP molecule;

d) 12 mol О 2

9) As a result of dissimilation in the cells, 5 mol of lactic acid and 27 mol of carbon dioxide were formed. Define:

a) how many moles of glucose were consumed;

b) how many of them have undergone only incomplete and how many complete splitting;

c) how much ATP is synthesized at the same time and how much energy is accumulated;

d) how many moles of oxygen were spent on the oxidation of the formed lactic acid.

Answer:

b) 4.5 mol complete + 2.5 mol incomplete;

c) 176 mol ATP, 7040 kJ;

Let us now determine the yield of chemical energy in the form of ATP during glucose oxidation in animal cells to and.

Glycolytic cleavage of one glucose molecule under aerobic conditions gives two pyruvate molecules, two NADH molecules and two ATP molecules (all this propess occurs in the cytosol):

Then, two pairs of electrons from two molecules of cytosolic NADH, formed during glycolysis under the action of glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase (Section 15.7), are transferred to mitochondria using the malate-aspartate shuttle system. Here they enter the electron transport chain and are directed through a series of successive carriers to oxygen. This process gives because the oxidation of two NADH molecules is described by the following equation:

(Of course, if the glycerol phosphate shuttle system acts instead of the malate-aspartate shuttle system, then not three, but only two ATP molecules are formed for each NADH molecule.)

We can now write the complete equation for the oxidation of two pyruvate molecules to form two acetyl-CoA molecules and two molecules in mitochondria. As a result of this oxidation, two NADH molecules are formed. which then transfer their two electrons through the respiratory chain to oxygen, which is accompanied by the synthesis of three ATP molecules for each pair of transferred electrons:

Let us also write an equation for the oxidation of two acetyl-CoA molecules to through the citric acid cycle and for oxidative phosphorylation, coupled with the transfer of electrons to oxygen, which are split off from isocitrate, β-ketoglutarate, and malate: in this case, three ATP molecules are formed for each pair of transferred electrons. Add to this two ATP molecules formed during the oxidation of succinate, and two more that are formed from succinyl-CoA via GTP (Section 16.5, e):

If we now sum up these four equations and cancel the common terms, then we get the total equation for glycolysis and respiration:

So, for each glucose molecule that undergoes complete oxidation to in the liver, kidneys or myocardium, i.e., where the malate-aspartate shuttle system functions, a maximum of 38 ATP molecules are formed. (If the glycerol phosphate system acts instead of the malate-aspartate system, then 36 ATP molecules are formed for each fully oxidized glucose molecule.) The theoretical yield of free energy with complete oxidation of glucose is thus equal to under standard conditions (1.0 M). In intact cells, the efficiency of this transformation is probably higher than 70%, since the intracellular concentrations of glucose and ATP are not the same and are significantly lower than 1.0 M, i.e. the concentration from which it is customary to proceed when calculating the standard free energy (see Appendix 14-2).

1. Enzymes of glycogenolysis are
+ phosphorylase
+ phosphofructokinase
- glucokinase
+ pyruvate kinase
2. What enzyme systems differ from glycolysis gluconeogenesis?
+ pyruvate carboxylase, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase,
+ phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, fructose diphosphatase,
- pyruvate carboxylase, fructosodi-phosphatase, glucose-6-phosphatase, aldolase
+ pyruvate carboxylase, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, fructose diphosphatase and glucose-6-phosphatase
- hexokinase, glucose-6-phosphatase, glycerate kinase and triose phosphate isomerase
3. What vitamins are involved in the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvic acid?
+ B1;
+ B2;
+ B3;
+ B5;
- AT 6.
4. What enzymes are involved in converting glucose-6-phosphate into ribulose-5-phosphate?
- glucose phosphate isomerase
+ gluconolactonase
+ glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
+ phosphogluconate dehydrogenase
- transaldolase
5. What functions does glycogen perform?
+ energy
+ regulatory
+ reserve
- transport
- structural
6. For optimal activity of phosphofructokinase, the presence of
- ATP, citrate
- OVER (reduced), Н2О2
+ OVER, AMP
- AMP, NADP (reduced) and phosphoric acid
+ NAD, magnesium ions
7. The study of what indicators of blood and urine should be carried out to assess the state of carbohydrate metabolism?
+ galactose
- urea
+ pH
+ specific gravity of urine
+ glucose tolerance test
8. What compounds are a substrate, a reaction product and an inhibitor of LDH1,2
+ lactic acid
- Apple acid
+ pyruvic acid
- lemon acid
+ NADH2
9. How many molecules of NADH2 and carbon dioxide can be formed during the complete oxidation of 1 molecule of PVC
- 3 NADH2
+ 3 CO2
+ 4 NADH2
- 4 CO2
- 2 NADH2
10. What symptoms are typical for the clinical picture of adenoma of the islets of Langerhans?
+ hypoglycemia
- hyperglycemia
- glucosuria
+ loss of consciousness
+ convulsions
11. What enzymes are involved in glycolysis
+ aldolase
- phosphorylase
+ enolase
+ pyruvate kinase
+ phosphofructokinase
- pyruvate carboxylase
6. Enzymes are involved in the conversion of lactate to acetyl-CoA
+ LDH1
- LDG5
- pyruvate carboxylase
+ pyruvate dehydrogenase
- succinate dehydrogenase
7. The biosynthesis of how many high-energy bonds is accompanied by the complete oxidation of the glucose molecule along the dichotomous pathway with the participation of the Krebs cycle
– 12
– 30
– 35
+ 36
+ 38
8. Reactions of dehydrogenation in the pentose cycle involve
- ABOVE
- FAD
+ NADP
- FMN
- tetrahydrofolic acid
9. In what organs and tissues is a glycogen reserve for the whole organism created?
- skeletal muscles
- myocardium
- brain
+ liver
- spleen
10. Phosphofructokinase is inhibited
- AMF
+ NADH2
+ ATP
- ABOVE
+ citrate
11. The study of what biochemical parameters of urine should be carried out to detect disorders of carbohydrate metabolism?
+ sugar
+ ketone bodies
+ specific gravity of urine
- protein
+ pH
- indican
12. What is the cause of increased fragility of erythrocytes in a hereditary disease hemolytic drug anemia?
+ deficiency of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase in erythrocytes
+ vitamin B5 deficiency
+ insulin deficiency
- hyperproduction of insulin
+ impaired recovery of glutathione
13. How many moles of ATP is formed during the complete oxidation of 1 molecule of fructose-1,6-diphosphate
– 36
+ 38
+ 40
– 15
– 30
14. What enzymes are involved in the conversion of aspartate to phosphoenolpyruvate
+ aspartate aminotransferase
- pyruvate decarboxylase
- lactate dehydrogenase

- pyruvate carboxylase
15. For the conversion of fructose-6-phosphate into fructose-1,6-diphosphate, in addition to the corresponding enzyme,
- ADP
- NADP
+ magnesium ions
+ ATP
- fructose-1-phosphate
16. Gluconeogenesis in the human body is possible from the following precursors
- fatty acids, ketogenic amino acids
+ pyruvate, glycerin
- acetic acid, ethyl alcohol
+ lactate, pike
+ glycogenic amino acids and dioxyacetone phosphate
17. What is the final product formed during the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvic acid under aerobic conditions?
- lactate
+ acetyl-CoA
+ carbon dioxide
- oxaloacetate
+ NADH2
18. What enzyme is used for decarboxylation in the pentose cycle?
- gluconolactonase
- glucose phosphate isomerase
+ phosphogluconate dehydrogenase

- transketolaz
19. Indicate the enzymes involved in the mobilization of glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate
- phosphatase
+ phosphorylase
+ amylo-1,6-glycosidase
+ phosphoglucomutase
- hexokinase
20. What hormones activate gluconeogenesis?
- glucagon
+ aktg
+ glucocorticoids
- insulin
- adrenaline
21. Hyperglycemia can be caused by
- great physical activity
+ stressful situations

+ excess consumption of carbohydrates from food
+ itsenko-cushing's disease
+ hyperthyroidism
22. What enzymes and vitamins are involved in the oxidative decarboxylation of alpha-ketoglutarate
+ alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
+ dihydrolipoate dehydrogenase
- succinyl-CoA-thiokinase
+ B1 and B2
- B3 and B6
+ B5 and lipoic acid
23. What products are formed with the participation of alcohol dehydrogenase
- carbon dioxide
+ ethyl alcohol
- acetic acid
+ NADH2
+ OVER
+ acetaldehyde
24. Which of the following symptoms are characteristic of the clinical picture of Gierke's disease
+ hypoglycemia, hyperuricemia
+ hyperlipidemia, ketonemia
+ hyperglycemia, ketonemia
+ hyperlactatemia, hyperpyruvatemia
- hyperproteinemia, azoturia
25. Glyceroaldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase contains in a protein bound state
+ OVER
- NADP
- ATF
- copper ions (p)
+ Sн-groups
26. Gluconeogenesis is proceeding intensively
- skeletal muscles
- myocardium and brain
+ in the liver
- spleen
+ renal cortex
27. What is the transformation of which substrate into TCA is associated with the synthesis of GTP?
- alpha-ketoglutarate
- fumarate
- succinate
+ succinyl-CoA
- isocitrate
28. Which of the following enzymes are involved in the direct oxidation of glucose?
- pyruvate carboxylase
+ glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
- lactate dehydrogenase
- aldolase
+ 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase
+ transaldolase
29. What nucleoside triphosphate is required for the synthesis of glycogen from glucose?
+ UTP
- GTF
+ ATP
- CTP
- TTF
30. What hormones block gluconeogenesis?
- glucagon
- adrenaline
- cortisol
+ insulin
- STG
31. Which of the proposed studies should be done in the first place to confirm diabetes mellitus?
+ determine the level of ketone bodies in the blood
+ determine the level of fasting blood glucose
- to determine the content of cholesterol and lipids in the blood
+ determine the pH of blood and urine
+ determine glucose tolerance
32. What are the substrates of oxidation in TCA
- pike
+ isocitrate
+ alpha ketaglutarate
- fumarate
+ malate
+ succinate
33. Which of the following symptoms are characteristic of the clinical picture of Thiers disease?
- hyperlactatemia
- hyperpyruvatemia
- hypoglycemia
+ painful muscle cramps with intense exercise
+ myoglobinuria
34. What products are formed from PVC by the action of pyruvate decarboxylase
- acetic acid
+ acetaldehyde
+ carbon dioxide
- ethanol
- lactate
35. The conversion of glucose-6-phosphate into fructose-1,6-diphosphate is carried out in the presence of
- phosphoglucomutase
- aldolases
+ glucose phosphate isomerase
- glucose phosphate isomerase and aldolase
+ phosphofructokinase
36. What enzyme of gluconeogenesis is regulatory?
- enolase
- aldolase
- glucose-6-phosphatase
+ fructose-1,6-diphosphatase
+ pyruvate carboxylase
37. What metabolites of TCA are oxidized with the participation of NAD-dependent dehydrogenases
+ alpha ketoglutarate
- acetic acid
- succinic acid
+ isolic acid
+ malic acid
38. What enzyme is thiamine pyrophosphate coenzyme?

- transaldolase
+ transketolase
+ pyrovate dehydrogenase
+ pyruvate decarboxylase
39. What enzymatic systems distinguish glycolysis and glycogenolysis?
+ phosphorylase
- glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
+ phosphoglucomutase
- fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
+ glucokinase
40. Which hormones raise blood sugar levels?
- insulin
+ adrenaline
+ thyroxine
- oxytocin
+ glucagon
41. In what disease is there an enlarged liver, insufficient growth, severe hypoglycemia, ketosis, hyperlipidemia, hyperuricemia?
- measles disease
- McArdle disease
+ Gierke's disease
- Andersen's disease
- Wilson's disease
42. What vitamins are part of PFC enzymes
+ B1
- AT 3
+ B5
- AT 6
- IN 2
43. Which of the following symptoms are characteristic of the clinical picture of aglycogenoses
+ severe hypoglycemia on an empty stomach
+ vomiting
+ convulsions
+ mental retardation
- hyperglycemia
+ loss of consciousness
44. What enzymes of glycolysis are involved in substrate phosphorylation
- phosphofructokinase
+ phosphoglycerate kinase
- hexokinase
- phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase
+ pyruvate kinase
45. What enzymes carry out the conversion of fructose-1,6-diphosphate into phosphotriose and fructose-6-phosphate
- enolase
+ aldolase
- triose phosphate isomerase
+ fructose diphosphatase
- glucose phosphate isomerase
46. ​​Which of the following compounds are the initial substrates of gluconeogenesis
+ malic acid
- acetic acid
+ glycerol phosphate
- fatty acid
+ lactic acid
47. What metabolite is formed during the condensation of acetyl-CoA with PAA
+ citrile-CoA
+ citric acid
- succinic acid
- lactic acid
- alpha-ketoglutaric acid
48. What amount of NADPH2 is formed during the complete oxidation of 1 glucose molecule along the direct path of decomposition?
- 6 molecules
- 36 molecules
+ 12 molecules
- 24 molecules
- 26 molecules
49. Where are the enzymes responsible for the mobilization and synthesis of glycogen located?
+ cytoplasm
- core
- ribosomes
- mitochondria
- lysosomes
50. Which hormones lower blood sugar?
- thyroxine
- ACTH
+ insulin
- glucagon
- a growth hormone
51. The examinee has hypoglycemia, tremors, weakness, fatigue, sweating, constant hunger, possible brain disorders, what is the cause of these symptoms?
- hyperfunction of the thyroid gland

+ hyperfunction of beta cells of the islets of Langerhans pancreas
+ hyperfunction of alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans pancreas

- adenoma of the islets of Langerhans pancreas
52. What vitamins are included in the enzyme systems that catalyze the conversion of succinyl-CoA into fumaric acid
- IN 1
+ B2
+ B3
- AT 5
- H
53. Which enzyme defect is observed in McArdle's disease
- liver phosphorylases
- myocardial glycogen synthetase
+ phosphorylases of muscle tissue
- muscle phosphofructokinase
- liver enzyme
54. What products are formed during substrate phosphorylation in cCTC
- malate
+ succinate
- fumarate
+ GTP
+ НSКоА
- NADH2
- hyperfunction of alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas
- hyperfunction of the adrenal cortex
55. What is the active form of glucose in the synthesis of glycogen
+ glucose-6-phosphate
+ glucose-1-phosphate
- UDP-glucuronate
+ UDP-glucose
- UDP-galactose
56. Which of the reactions does not take place in the CTK
- dehydration of citric acid with the formation of cis-aconitic acid
- oxidative decarboxylation of alpha-ketoglutarate with the formation of succinyl-CoA
- hydration of fumaric acid with the formation of malic acid
+ decarboxylation of citric acid to form oxalosuccinate
- dehydrogenation of succinic acid with the formation of fumaric acid
+ oxidative decarboxylation of ANA with the participation of NADP-dependent malate dehydrogenase
57. From which metabolite does glucose synthesis along the gluconeogenesis pathway take place with minimal consumption of ATP?
- pyruvate
+ glycerin
- malate
- lactate
- isocitrate
58. How many molecules of carbon dioxide are formed during the oxidation of glucose apotomically?
– 2
– 4
+ 6
– 1
– 3
59. What enzyme is involved in the formation of alpha-1,6-glycosidic bonds of glycogen?
- phosphorylase
- glycogen synthetase
+ branching enzyme
- amylo-1,6-glycosidase
+ (4 = 6) - glycosyltransferase
60. Which hormones stimulate the breakdown of glycogen in the liver?
- glucocorticoids
- vasopressin
- insulin
+ adrenaline
+ glucagon
61. Under what physiological conditions does the accumulation of lactic acid in the blood occur?
- transmission of nerve impulses
- stressful situations
+ increased physical activity
- cell division
+ hypoxia
62. What initial substrates are required for the action of the enzyme citrate synthase
- succinate
+ acetyl-CoA
- malate
- acyl-CoA
+ PIKE
63. What enzyme defect is observed in Andersen's disease?
- liver glycogen syntheses
+ liver branching enzyme
- aldolases
+ spleen branching enzyme
- liver phosphorylases
64. The activity of which cytoplasmic dehydrogenases will be increased in the liver under aerobic conditions (Pasteur effect)
+ LDH 1.2
- LDH 4.5
+ glycerol phosphate dehydrogenase
- glyceroalde-hydrogen phosphate dehydrogenase
+ malate dehydrogenase
65. Irreversible glycolysis reactions are catalyzed by enzymes
+ hexokinase
+ phosphofructo kinase
+ pyruvate kinase
- aldolase
- triosephospha-tisomerase
66. How many GTP molecules are required to synthesize 1 glucose molecule from pyruvate?
+ 2
– 4
– 6
– 8
– 1
67. What is the energetic effect of oxidative decarboxylation of PVC
+ 3 ATP molecules
- 36 ATP molecules
- 12 ATP molecules
- 10 ATP molecules
- 2 ATP molecules
68. What is the fate of NADPH2 formed in the pentose cycle?
+ detoxification reactions of drugs and poisons
+ restoration of glutathione
- glycogen synthesis
+ hydroxylation reactions
+ synthesis of bile acids
69. Why can skeletal muscle glycogen be used only locally?
- lack of lactate dehydrogenase I

- lack of amylase
- lack of glucokinase
- lack of phosphoglucomutase
70. What hormones are liver glucokinase activators?
- norepinephrine
- glucagon
+ insulin
- glucocorticoids
- ACTH
71. Under what pathological conditions does the accumulation of lactic acid occur in the blood?
+ hypoxia
- diabetes
+ Gierke's disease
- jades
+ epilepsy
72. How many ATP molecules are formed during the complete oxidation of 1 molecule of lactic acid?
– 15
+ 17
+ 18
– 20
– 21
73. What is the reason for the development of dyspeptic disorders when feeding a child with milk
+ lactase deficiency
- phosphofructokinase deficiency

+ galactose-1-phosphaturidyl transferase deficiency
- lack of fructokinase
74. What enzymes are involved in the conversion of pyruvate into PEPVA
- pyruvate kinase
+ pyruvate carboxylase
- phosphoglycerate kinase
+ phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase
- pyruvate dehydrogenase
75. The reaction to the formation of glucose-6-phosphate from glycogen is accelerated by enzymes
+ glucokinase
+ phosphoglucomutase
+ phosphorylase
- phosphatase
- glucose phosphate isomerase
+ amylo-1,6- glycosidase
76. How many ATP molecules are required to synthesize 1 glucose molecule from malate?
– 2
+ 4
– 6
– 8
– 3
77. What is the energetic effect of PVC oxidation to the end products of the exchange of carbon dioxide and water?
- 38 ATP molecules
+ 15 ATP molecules
- 3 ATP molecules
- 10 ATP molecules
- 2 ATP molecules
78. What is the fate of ribulose-5-phosphate formed in the pentose cycle?
+ proline synthesis
+ synthesis of nucleic acids
+ synthesis of c3.5AMP
+ ATP synthesis
- synthesis of carnitine
79. Why is liver glycogen a reserve of glucose for the whole organism?
- presence of glucokinase
+ presence of glucose-6-phosphatase
- presence of fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
- presence of aldolase
- the presence of phosphoglucomutase
80. Activators of liver glycogen synthesis are
+ glucocorticoids
- glucagon
+ insulin
- thyroxine and norepinephrine
- adrenaline
81. The examinee has an enlarged liver, insufficient growth, severe hypoglycemia, ketosis, hyperlipidemia, what is the cause of these symptoms?
+ lack of glucose-6-phosphatase
- lack of glucokinase
- lack of galactose-1-phosphaturidyltransferase
- lack of aldolase
- lack of glycogen phosphorylase
82. What enzymes are involved in the consumption of ATP in the process of gluconeogenesis from pyruvate?
+ pyruvate carboxylase
- phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase
+ phosphoglycerate kinase
- fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
- glucose-6-phosphatase
83. How many ATP molecules are formed during the oxidation of lactate to acetyl-CoA
– 2
– 3
+ 5
+ 6
– 7
– 8
84. What is the cause of diabetes
+ insulin deficiency
- excess insulin
+ impaired insulin activation
+ high insulinase activity
+ impaired synthesis of insulin receptors in target cells
85. What enzymes are involved in the conversion of 3-phosphoglyceric acid into 2-phosphoenolpyruvic acid
- triosephospha-tisomerase
+ enolase
- aldolase
- pyruvate kinase
+ phosphoglycerate mutase
86. Gluconeogenesis is inhibited by the following ligands
+ AMP
- ATF
+ ADP
- magnesium ions
- GTF
87. What end products are formed by oxidative decarboxylation of alpha-ketoglutarate
- acetyl-CoA
- lemon acid
+ succinyl-CoA
+ carbon dioxide
- fumarate
88. Through what intermediate metabolites is the pentose cycle associated with glycolysis?
+ 3- phosphoglycerol aldehyde
- xylulose-5-phosphate
+ fructose-6-phosphate
- 6- phosphogluconate
- ribose 5-phosphate
89. What ligands are glycogen breakdown activators?
+ cAMP
+ ADP
- citrate
- cGMP
- iron ions
90. What compounds are pyruvate carboxylase activators?
+ acetyl-CoA
- AMF
+ ATP
- citrate
+ biotin
+ carbon dioxide
91. In what disease does a patient have the following symptoms of hypoglycemia, tremors, weakness, fatigue, sweating, constant hunger, possible brain disorders?
- Wilson's disease
- McArdle disease
- diabetes
+ adenoma of beta cells of the islets of Langerhans pancreas
+ hyperinsulinism
92. What enzymes are involved in the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to UDP-glucose?
- hexokinase
+ phosphoglucomutase
- phosphoglyceromutase
+ glucose-1-phosphaturidilyltransferase
- branching enzyme
93. What is the reason for the decrease in lipogenesis in patients with diabetes mellitus?
+ low activity of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
- violation of glycogen synthesis
+ decreased activity of glycolytic enzymes
+ low glucokinase activity
- increased activity of glycolytic enzymes
94. How many ATP molecules are formed during the complete oxidation of 1 molecule of 3-phosphoglyceric acid
– 12
– 15
+ 16
– 17
– 20
95. Transfer of the phosphate group from phosphoenolpyruvate to ADP is catalyzed by enzymes and thus formed
- phosphorylase kinase
- carbamate kinase
+ pyruvate
+ pyruvate kinase
+ ATP
96. The activator of gluconeogenesis is
+ acetyl-CoA
- ADP
+ ATP
- AMF
+ acyl-CoA
97. Oxidative decarboxylation of alpha-ketoglutarate is carried out with the participation of
+ thiamine
+ pantothenic acid
- pyridoxine
+ lipoic acid
+ riboflavin
+ niacin
98. In which organelles of the cell is the pentose cycle intensively proceeding?
- mitochondria
+ cytoplasm
- ribosomes
- core
- lysosomes
99. Which of the following enzymes is allosteric in the synthesis of glycogen
+ glycogen synthetase
- phosphorylase
- branching enzyme 4-glucose-1-phosphaturidilyltransferase
- amylo-1,6-glycosidase
100. What enzyme of glycolysis is inhibited by glucagon?
- enolase
+ pyruvate kinase
- hexokinase
- lactate dehydrogenase
101. In what disease does a child have an increased blood sugar content, an increase in the galactose content, is there a presence of galactose in the urine?
- fructosemia
+ galactosemia
- Gierke's disease
- hyperinsulinism
- diabetes
102. What metabolites accumulate in the blood and the activity of which blood enzymes increases during hypoxia (myocardial infarction)?
- acetoacetic acid
+ lactic acid
+ LDH 1.2
- LDH 4.5
+ ASAT
103. How many FADH2 molecules are formed during the complete oxidation of the DOAP molecule?
+ 1
– 2
– 3
– 4
– 5
104. Which enzymatic systems of carbohydrate metabolism include vitamin B2
- dihydrolipoate acetyltransferase
+ dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase
+ alpha-ketoglutarate oxidase
- succinyl-CoA-thiokinase
+ succinate dehydrogenase
105. What enzymes carry out the conversion of fructose-6-phosphate into phosphotriose
- hexokinase
- enolase
- phosphoglucomutase
+ aldolase
- phosphorylase
+ phosphofructokinase
106. How many glycerol molecules are required for the synthesis of 2 glucose molecules along the gluconeogenesis pathway
– 2
+ 4
– 6
– 8
– 3
107. With the participation of which enzyme systems is the transformation of lactic acid into PAK carried out
- alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
- pyruvate dehydrogenase
+ lactate dehydrogenase
- pyruvate dehydrogenase
+ pyruvate carboxylase
108. In which organelles and tissues the enzymes of the pentose cycle are most active
+ adrenal glands
+ liver
+ adipose tissue
- lungs
- brain
109. Which of the enzymes is allosteric in the breakdown of glycogen?
+ phosphorylase
- phosphatase
- amylo-1,6-glycosidase
- triose phosphate isomerase
- aldolase
110. Which of the enzymes of the Krebs cycle is inhibited by malonic acid?
+ succinate dehydrogenase
- isocitrate dehydrogenase
- cisaconitase
- citrate synthetase
- alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
111. The child has an increase in total blood sugar, an increase in the content of galactose in the blood, its appearance in the urine, what is the cause of these disorders?

+ galactose-1-phosphaturidyltransferase deficiency
+ galactokinase deficiency

- glucokinase deficiency
112. How many NADH2 molecules are formed during the complete oxidation of 1 glucose molecule to carbon dioxide and water?
– 5
+ 10
– 12
– 15
– 36
113. Defect of which enzymes can lead to the development of aglycogenoses
- glycogen phosphorylase
+ glycogen synthetase
+ branching enzyme
+ phosphoglucomutase
- glucose-6-phosphatase
114. What compounds can be precursors of the PAC, which is necessary for the stimulation of TCA and the process of gluconeogenesis
- acetyl-CoA
+ pyruvate
+ carbon dioxide
+ aspartate
+ pyridoxal phosphate
- ethanol
115. For the conversion of dioxyacetone phosphate into 1,3-diphosphoglyceric acid, the action of enzymes is necessary
- aldolases
- hexokinase
- glucose phosphate isomerase
+ triose phosphate isomerase
- glycerate kinase
+ glyceroaldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase
116. How many moles of NADH2 is required for the synthesis of the 1st glucose molecule from malate?
– 8
– 6
– 4
– 2
+ 0
117. What substrates of TCA enter into hydration reactions?
+ isocytrile-CoA
+ fumarate
+ aconitate
- oxaloacetate
- succinate
118. How many water molecules are needed for the direct oxidation of glucose?
– 3
– 2
+ 7
– 4
– 6
119. What end products are formed in the process of glycogenolysis?
+ pyruvate
- fructose-6-phosphate
- glucose-6-phosphate
+ lactate
+ glucose
120. What factors determine the rate of acetyl-CoA oxidation in TCA?
- lactate
+ malonic acid
+ oxaloacetic acid
+ pyruvate
+ energy charge of the cell
+ aerobic conditions
121. What biochemical studies need to be carried out for differential
diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus?
- determine ESR
+ determine the specific gravity of urine
- determine the protein in the urine
- to determine protein fractions of blood
+ determine the sugar of urine and blood
+ determine urine pH
122. The concentration of which metabolites of carbohydrate metabolism will increase in the blood during stress?
+ lactate
- glycogen
+ glucose
- glycerin
- alanine
123. How many UTP molecules are required to activate 100 glycosyl residues in the process of glycogenesis
– 50
+ 100
– 150
– 200
– 300
124. What enzymes are involved in the conversion of DOAP into fructose-6-phosphate
+ aldolase
+ triose phosphate isomerase
- phosphofructokinase
+ fructose-1,6-diphosphatase
- phosphogluco-mutase
125. The following enzymes are involved in the reactions of conversion of pyruvate to carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol
+ pyruvate decarboxylase
- lactate dehydrogenase
+ ethanol dehydrogenase
+ alcohol dehydrogenase
- phosphoglycerate kinase
126. How many water molecules are required to synthesize 10 glucose molecules from pyruvate?
+ 6
– 2
– 8
– 7
– 10
127. What substrates of TCA are oxidized with the participation of FAD-dependent dehydrogenases
+ alpha ketoglutarate
- malate
- isocitrate
+ succinate
- oxalosuccinate
128. Which of the following metals are activators of the pentose cycle
- cobalt
+ magnesium
+ manganese
- iron
- copper
129. What enzymes of glycogenolysis require the presence of inorganic phosphate
- pyruvate kinase
+ glycogen phosphorylase
- phosphoglucomutase
+ glyceroaldehyde dehydrogenase
- phosphoglycerate kinase
130. Which of the enzymes of glycolysis is stimulated by AMP?
- enolase
+ pyruvate kinase
+ phosphofructo kinase
- fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
131. What is the main cause of juvenile diabetes mellitus
- hyperfunction of the adrenal cortex
+ absolute insulin deficiency
- relative insulin deficiency
- hyperfunction of the adrenal medulla
- glucagon deficiency
132. In what active form does vitamin B1 participate in the oxidative decarboxylation of alpha-keto acids?
+ cocarboxylase
- thiamine chloride
- thiamine monophosphate
+ thiamine pyrophosphate
- thiamine triphosphate
133. How many molecules of phosphoglycerol aldehyde are formed during the oxidation of 3 glucose molecules in the pentose cycle?
+ 1
– 2
– 3
– 4
– 5
134. What enzyme deficiency leads to impaired fructose metabolism
- hexokinase
+ fructokinase
+ ketose-1-phosphataldolase
- phosphofructo kinase
- triosephospha-tisomerase
135. Pyruvate is converted into lactic acid by the action of an enzyme
+ LDH 4.5
- phosphorylases
- ethanol dehydrogenase
- LDH 1.2
- glyceroalde hydrogen phosphate dehydrogenase
136. In what organs and tissues does the glucose-6-phosphatase enzyme actively work?
+ liver
+ mucous renal tubules
+ intestinal mucosa
- myocardium
- spleen
137. What substrates are decarboxylated in TCA
+ oxalosuccinate
- cisaconitate
- succinate
+ alpha ketoglutarate
- oxaloacetate
138. What is the biological role of the pentose cycle?
+ catabolic
+ energy
- transport
+ anabolic
+ protective
139. What products are formed when phosphorylase and amylo-1,6-
glycosidases
- glucose-6-phosphate
+ glucose
- maltose
+ glucose-1-phosphate
+ dextrins
- amylose
140. Which of the enzymes is activated by citrate
- lactate dehydrogenase
- phosphofructokinase
- glucokinase
- phosphorylase
+ fructose-1,6-diphosphatase
141. During the dispensary examination, the patient was found to have hyperglycemia (8 mmol / l),
after taking 100 g of glucose, its concentration in the blood increased to 16 mmol / l and
was held for 4 hours, with which disease the indicated
changes?
- cirrhosis of the liver
+ diabetes mellitus
- jade
- pituitary diabetes
- steroid diabetes
142. What enzymes are involved in the conversion of fructose into 3PHA in muscle
and adipose tissue and kidneys?
+ hexokinase
- glucokinase
- fructokinase
+ phosphofructokinase
+ aldolase
143. How many oxygen molecules are used in the oxidation of 1 3PHA molecule?
– 1
– 2
+ 3
– 5
– 6
– 8
144. The following statements are correct
+ glycolysis in erythrocytes is the main supplier of energy needed
for their functioning
- oxidative phosphorylation - the main pathway ATP synthesis in erythrocytes
+ an increase in the concentration of 2,3FDG and lactate in erythrocytes reduces the affinity
hemoglobin A1 to oxygen
+ an increase in the concentration of 2,3FDG and lactate in erythrocytes increases the return
hemoglobin oxygen
+ substrate phosphorylation - the main pathway for the synthesis of ATP in erythrocytes
145. What is the energy efficiency of glycogenolysis under anaerobic conditions?
- 2 ATP molecules
+ 3 ATP molecules
- 15 ATP molecules
- 4 ATP molecules
- 1 ATP molecule
146. How many carbon dioxide molecules are needed to activate the synthesis of glucose from pyruvate?
+ 2
– 4
– 6
– 8
– 3
147. What compound is the end product of aerobic glycolysis?
+ pyruvate
- lactate
- phosphoenolpyruvate
- oxaloacetic acid
+ NADH2
148. Which of the following compounds are intermediate metabolites of the pentose cycle?
+ glucose-6-phosphate
- 1,3-diphosphoglyceric acid
+ 6- phosphogluconate
+ xylulose-5-phosphate
+ erythroso-4-phosphate
149. How much ATP is needed to activate phosphorylase B
– 2
– 6
+ 4
– 8
– 3
150. What metabolite regulates the transfer of reducing equivalents from the cytosol through the inner mitochondrial membranes and back?
+ glycerol-3-phosphate
+ malate
- glutamate
+ oxaloacetate
+ dioxyacetone phosphate
151. What is the cause of hypoglycemia and lack of glycogen in the liver
- deficiency of glucose-6-phosphatase
+ insufficient branching enzyme
- deficiency of glycogen phosphorylase
+ phosphoglucomutase deficiency
+ glycogen synthetase deficiency
152. How many oxygen molecules are required for complete oxidation of 1 acetyl-CoA molecule?
– 1
+ 2
– 1/2
– 3
– 5
153. What enzymes are involved in the conversion of fructose into 3fga in hepatocytes
+ fructokinase
- glucokinase
- phosphofructo kinase
+ ketose-1-phosphataldolase
- aldolase
- fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
154. What diseases are accompanied by glucosuria?
+ diabetes mellitus
- pancreatic adenoma
+ Itsenko-Cushing's disease
+ jade
+ pituitary diabetes
- diabetes insipidus
155. What amount of ATP can be synthesized during the oxidation of glucose to pyruvate under aerobic conditions
– 2
– 4
+ 6
+ 8
– 10
156. In what organelles of the liver is the enzyme pyruvate carboxylase found?
+ cytoplasm
+ mitochondria
- core
- ribosomes
- nucleolus
157. What metabolite of TCA undergoes dehydrogenation with the participation of oxidase
dependent dehydrogenases?
- alpha ketoglutarate
- citrate
- fumarate
+ succinate
- malate
158. Which of the following substrates of the pentose cycle can be used to meet the energy needs of the body?
- 6- phosphogluconate
- ribulose-5-phosphate
- ribose-5-phosphate
+ 3- phosphoglycerol aldehyde
+ fructose-6-phosphate
159. Where is the biosynthesis of glycogen the most intensive?
- brain
+ liver
- pancreas
- myocardium
+ skeletal muscle
160. Insufficiency of which vitamins leads to dysfunction of shuttle mechanisms
- IN 1
+ B2
- AT 3
+ B5
+ B6
- WITH
161. Under what pathological conditions is there an increase in the level of PVC in the blood above 0.5 mmol / l?
- diabetes
+ polyneuritis
- nephrosis
- galactosemia
+ Take it
162. What enzymes are involved in the conversion of galactose into glucose in the liver
+ galactokinase
+ galactose-1-phosphaturidilyltransferase
+ epimerase
+ glucose-6-phosphatase
+ phosphoglucomutase
- fructose-1-phosphataldolase
163. How many ATP molecules are formed during the complete oxidation of 3 molecules of ribose-5-phosphate
– 30
– 52
+ 93
+ 98
– 102
164. In what diseases are the following symptoms observed: severe hypoglycemia
on an empty stomach, nausea, vomiting, convulsions, loss of consciousness, mental retardation?
+ Gierke's disease
+ Hers disease
+ aglycogenoses
+ hyperinsulinism
- hyperthyroidism
165. How many ATP molecules are formed during the complete oxidation of 1 DOAP molecule
– 5
– 6
+ 19
+ 20
– 36
– 38
166. How many ATP molecules are required for the synthesis of glucose from glycerol?
– 1
+ 2
– 4
– 6
– 8
167. What enzymes and vitamins are involved in the conversion of lactate into acetyl-CoA
+ LDH 1.2
- LDH 4.5
+ pyruvate oxidase
+ B2 and B5
+ B3 and B1
- B6 and lipoic acid
168. Which of the following ligands increase the rate of direct oxidation of glucose
- AMF
- inorganic phosphate
+ ATP
+ NADP
- cAMP
169. What enzymes are used to form glucose-1-phosphate from glucose
+ glucokinase
+ phosphoglucomutase
- glycogen phosphorylase
+ hexokinase
- phosphoglyceromutase
170. What enzyme of carbohydrate metabolism in hepatocytes is stimulated by insulin?
- enolase
- hexokinase
+ glucokinase
+ glycogen synthetase
- phosphorylase
171. Under what pathological conditions is there an increase in activity
alpha-amylase in blood and urine?
+ acute pancreatitis
- viral hepatitis
+ pyelonephritis
- myocardial infarction
- Wilson's disease
172. What disease is the following clinical picture typical for: limited
the ability to perform intense exercise due to muscle cramps?
- Hers disease
- Gierke's disease
+ Thurier's disease
+ McArdle disease
- Andersen's disease

In this article, we will look at how glucose oxidation occurs. Carbohydrates are compounds of the polyhydroxycarbonyl type, as well as their derivatives. Characteristic features are the presence of aldehyde or ketone groups and at least two hydroxyl groups.

By their structure, carbohydrates are subdivided into monosaccharides, polysaccharides, oligosaccharides.

Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolyzed. Depending on which group is present in the composition - aldehyde or ketone, aldoses are isolated (these include galactose, glucose, ribose) and ketose (ribulose, fructose).

Oligosaccharides

Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates that contain from two to ten residues of monosaccharide origin, connected through glycosidic bonds. Depending on the amount of monosaccharide residues, disaccharides, trisaccharides, and so on are distinguished. What is formed when glucose is oxidized? This will be discussed later.

Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are carbohydrates that contain more than ten monosaccharide residues interconnected by glycosidic bonds. If the polysaccharide contains the same monosaccharide residues, then it is called a homopolysaccharide (for example, starch). If such residues are different, then a heteropolysaccharide (for example, heparin).

What is the significance of glucose oxidation?

Functions of carbohydrates in the human body

Carbohydrates perform the following main functions:

1. Energy. The most important function of carbohydrates, as they serve as the main source of energy in the body. As a result of their oxidation, more than half of the human energy requirement is satisfied. As a result of the oxidation of one gram of carbohydrates, 16.9 kJ is released.
2. Reserve. Glycogen and starch are both forms of nutrient storage.
3. Structural. Cellulose and some other polysaccharide compounds form a strong backbone in plants. They also, in combination with lipids and proteins, are a constituent of all cellular biomembranes.
4. Protective. For acidic heteropolysaccharides, the role of a biological lubricant is assigned. They line the surfaces of the joints that touch and rub against each other, the mucous membranes of the nose, and the digestive tract.
5. Antigoagulant. A carbohydrate such as heparin has an important biological property, namely, it prevents blood clotting.
6. Carbohydrates are a source of carbon required for the synthesis of proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.

In the process of calculating the glycolytic reaction, it is necessary to take into account that each stage of the second stage is repeated two times. From this, it can be concluded that in the first stage, two ATP molecules are spent, and during the second stage, 4 ATP molecules are formed by phosphorylation of the substrate type. This means that as a result of the oxidation of each glucose molecule, the cell accumulates two ATP molecules.

We looked at the oxidation of glucose with oxygen.

Anaerobic glucose oxidation pathway

Aerobic oxidation is the process of oxidation in which energy is released and which takes place in the presence of oxygen, which acts as the final acceptor of hydrogen in the respiratory chain. The donor is the reduced form of coenzymes (FADH2, NADH, NADPH), which are formed during an intermediate reaction of substrate oxidation.

The process of glucose oxidation of the aerobic dichotomous type is the main pathway of glucose catabolism in the human body. This type of glycolysis can occur in all tissues and organs. human body... The result of this reaction is the splitting of the glucose molecule into water and carbon dioxide. In this case, the released energy will be accumulated in ATP. This process can be roughly divided into three stages:

1. The process of converting a glucose molecule into a pair of pyruvic acid molecules. The reaction takes place in the cellular cytoplasm and is a specific pathway for glucose breakdown.
2. The formation of acetyl-CoA as a result of oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvic acid. This reaction takes place in the cellular mitochondria.
3. The oxidation process of acetyl-CoA in the Krebs cycle. The reaction takes place in the cellular mitochondria.

At every stage this process reduced forms of coenzymes are formed, which are oxidized by enzyme complexes of the respiratory chain. As a result, ATP is formed during the oxidation of glucose.

Formation of coenzymes

Coenzymes, which are formed in the second and third stages of aerobic glycolysis, will be oxidized directly in the mitochondria of cells. In parallel with this, NADH, which was formed in the cell cytoplasm during the reaction of the first stage of aerobic glycolysis, does not have the ability to penetrate the mitochondrial membranes. Hydrogen is transferred from cytoplasmic NADH to cellular mitochondria through shuttle cycles. Among such cycles, the main one can be distinguished - malate-aspartate.

Then, with the help of cytoplasmic NADH, oxaloacetate is reduced to malate, which, in turn, penetrates the cellular mitochondria and is then oxidized with the reduction of mitochondrial NAD. Oxaloacetate returns to the cytoplasm of the cell as aspartate.

Modified forms of glycolysis

The course of glycolysis can additionally be accompanied by the release of 1,3 and 2,3-bisphosphoglycerates. In this case, 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate under the influence of biological catalysts can return to the glycolysis process, and then change its form to 3-phosphoglycerate. These enzymes play a variety of roles. For example, 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate, found in hemoglobin, promotes the transfer of oxygen to tissues, while promoting dissociation and a decrease in the affinity of oxygen and erythrocytes.

Conclusion

Many bacteria can change the course of glycolysis to its different stages... In this case, it is possible to reduce their total number or modify these stages as a result of the action of various enzyme compounds. Some of the anaerobes have the ability to decompose carbohydrates in other ways. Most thermophiles have only two glycolysis enzymes, in particular, enolase and pyruvate kinase.

We examined how the oxidation of glucose occurs in the body.