Thinking, its forms and types. Forms and types of thinking Human thinking

For some reason, people often or complain about, but no one complains about thinking. And in general, it seems that the very need for the development of thinking is of little concern to us. Don't you think this is strange? For the bulk of people, the process of the birth of thought is no less mysterious than the birth of the Galaxy. But thinking also happens in different ways. But before we talk about the types of thinking, let's figure out what it is.

Every second a person receives a variety of information from the outside world. The result of the work of our senses is visual images, sounds, smells, taste and tactile sensations, data on the state of the body. We get all this as a result of the immediate sensory. This is the primary information, the building material with which our thinking works.

The process of processing sensory data, their analysis, comparison, generalization, inferences - is thinking. This is the highest cognitive process, in the process of which new, unique knowledge is created, that information that is not in our sensory experience.

An example of such a birth of new knowledge is the simplest construction - a syllogism, consisting of two premises - empirical (given in direct experience) knowledge and one inference - a conclusion.

• First premise: all students take exams in winter.
• The second premise: Ivanov is a student.
• Conclusion: Ivanov takes exams in winter.

This conclusion is the result of elementary thinking, because we do not know if Ivanov passes exams in winter, but we get this knowledge through reasoning. Although, of course, most often the process of the birth of thought is more complex and even confusing.

Birth of thought

Everyone knows that thoughts are born in the head, or rather, in the brain. But it is not easy to answer the question of how this happens.

The main role in thinking and in general in mental activity is played by nerve cells - neurons. And we have at least a trillion of them, and each neuron is a whole data processing factory. It is connected by numerous nerve fibers with other neurons and exchanges with them electrochemical impulses that carry information. Moreover, the transmission speed of this information is 100 m / s. It is this high-speed data exchange that is thinking, and it is not for nothing that in ancient times it was believed that human thought is the fastest in the world.

If you imagine the process of thinking in the form of a vivid image, then it resembles fireworks. First, one asterisk flashes - an impulse or signal from an external stimulus. Then, along a chain of nerve cells, it scatters in breadth and depth with new bursts of activity, covering more and more space of the brain.

Interestingly, while passing through the neural circuits of the brain, the impulse must overcome certain "obstacles" at the junctions of nerve fibers. But each subsequent signal along this path will already pass much easier. That is, the more we think, the more often we force the brain to work, the easier the thinking process becomes.

Knowledge is of course of high value. But they are needed primarily as a material for thinking. We become smarter not when we receive new knowledge, but when we comprehend it, we include it in our activity, that is, we think.

The Secret of the Two Hemispheres: Right Brain and Left Brain Thinking

In what form is a thought born in our head? It is not easy to answer this question, since thought is a process and product of information processing, and information in the brain exists in two forms.

1. Sensory and emotional imagery. From the outside world, it comes in the form of sensory images: sounds, colors, pictures, smells, tactile sensations, etc. Very often these bright images are also emotionally colored.
2. Abstract signs - words, numbers, verbal constructions, formulas, etc. Words can denote (replace) any sensory images or be abstract in nature, such as numbers.

Scientists say that a person thinks in two languages ​​- in the language of words and in the language of images. There is even a special type of thinking - conceptual, that is, verbal. Moreover, the centers responsible for conceptual and figurative thinking are located in different hemispheres of the brain, and these two types of information are processed in different ways. The left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for the operations of our consciousness with words and numbers, and the right hemisphere is responsible for operations with sensory images. By the way, in the right hemisphere is the center of creativity, it is associated with intuition and subconsciousness.

The well-known physiologist I.P. Pavlov believed that among us there are people who have clearly expressed one of two types of mental activity:

• right-brain is an artistic type that thinks based on images and sensory perception;
• left-hemisphere - a thinking type that operates better with concepts, abstract signs.

However, you should not divide all people into these two types. Most of us are of the middle type and use both words and images in mental activity. And depending on the goal, task, the problem facing us, either the right or the left hemisphere is activated.

In general, a fully developed adult has all types and types of thinking, including its three main types:

• visual and effective;
• figurative;
• abstract logical.

Although all these three types of thinking are not formed at once.

Visual-Action Thinking

This is the most ancient type of mental activity that arose in the primitive ancestors of man and was the first to form in a small child. And also, according to scientists, it is this type of mental activity that higher animals have.

Thinking is called mediated mental activity, because, in contrast to direct-sensory perception, it uses "mediators" - images or words. And visual-active thinking is distinguished by the fact that material objects act as such "intermediaries" in it. This type of thinking arises only in the process of objective activity, when a person manipulates objects.

Hand thinking children

I think everyone has seen how a small child 2-3 years old plays: makes a tower of cubes, assembles a pyramid, folding the wheels according to size, or even unscrews the wheels of a new car. This is not just a game. The kid thinks so and develops mentally. While only visual-active thinking is available to him, his thinking operations take the form of objective, manipulative activity:

• Comparison - selection of a suitable size circle or cube.
• Synthesis is the compilation of a single whole - a tower - from individual cubic elements.
• Well, and analysis, when the baby disassembles a whole thing (a car or a doll) into separate components.

Scientists call visual-active thinking forethought, emphasizing that there is more immediate-sensory in it than mediated. But this is a very important stage in the development of mental activity, including the mental development of a child.

Visual-Action Thinking in Adults

This kind of thinking cannot be considered primitive or defective. In adults, it is also present and actively participates in objective activity. For example, we use it when we cook soup, dig garden beds, knit socks, or fix a bathroom faucet. And for some, this type of thinking even at times predominates over abstract-logical and figurative ones. Such people are called masters "from God", they say that they have "golden hands".

Precisely, by the way, the hands, not the head. Because such people can fix a complex mechanism without completely understanding the principle of its operation. To do this, they just need to disassemble it, and then assemble it. When disassembling, they will understand what is causing the breakdown, and when assembling, they will fix it, and even improve the unit.

Visual-figurative thinking

The main tools of visual-figurative thinking are images, as a result of sensory perception and understanding of reality. That is, an image is not a photographic imprint of an object, but the result of the work of our brain. Therefore, it may differ to one degree or another from the original.

The role of images in mental activity

Our thinking operates with three types of images.

1. Perception images are associated with the direct activity of our sense organs: visual pictures, sounds, smells, etc. These are also not photographic copies of reality, because we may not hear something, not see some details - the brain will speculate, add missing.
2. Images-representations are figurative information that is stored in our memory. And when saved, the images become even less accurate, since not too significant and important details are lost or forgotten.
3. Images-imaginations are the result of the activity of one of the most mysterious cognitive processes. With the help of imagination, we can recreate from the description or come up with an image of a never seen creature or object. However, these images are also connected with reality, as they are the result of processing and combining information stored in memory.

All three types of images are actively involved in cognitive activities, even when it comes to abstract logical thinking. Neither problem solving nor creativity is possible without this type of information.

Specificity of imaginative thinking

Imaginative thinking is a higher level of mental activity, but it also does not need words too much. After all, even such abstract concepts as "love", "hatred", "loyalty", "resentment" we can comprehend through images and feelings.

In a child, figurative thinking begins to form at about 3 years old, and the peak of his development is considered 5-7 years old. No wonder this time is called the age of dreamers and artists. At this stage of development, children already have a good command of speech activity, but words do not interfere with images at all, they complement and clarify them.

It is believed that the language of images is more complex than the language of words, because there are much more images, they are diverse, colored with numerous shades of feelings. Therefore, there are not enough words to designate all the images participating in our thinking.

Imaginative thinking is the basis of higher cognitive process- creativity. It is inherent not only to artists, poets, musicians, but also to all those who have a high level of creativity and love to invent new things. But among the bulk of people, visual-figurative thinking fades into the background, yielding primacy to abstract-logical thinking.

Abstract logical thinking

This type of thinking is considered the highest, it is specially taught to children at school, and often the level of its development is identified with the intellect. Although this is not entirely correct, because without the participation of imaginative thinking with the help of only logical thinking, only elementary problems can be solved - albeit complex ones, but having one only correct solution. There are many such problems in mathematics, but in real life they are rare.

But abstract-logical thinking is also valuable in that it allows you to operate with abstract concepts that do not have support on real images, such as, for example, function, differential, justice, conscience, volume, length, etc.

Logical thinking tools

This type of thinking is closely related to speech activity, therefore, the prerequisites for its development appear in children when they have completely mastered speech. Words and verbal constructions - sentences act as tools for logical thinking. The very name of this type of thinking comes not so much from the word "logic" as from the Greek "logos" - a word, concept, thought.

Words in abstract logical thinking replace images, actions, feelings. This allows you to think abstractedly, abstractly, out of touch with a specific situation or object. Animals, even the highest ones, not endowed with the ability to speak, are deprived of such an opportunity.

The process of abstract-logical thinking is sometimes called internal speech, since it takes place in verbal form. Moreover, if reflections (inner speech) do not bring success in solving a problem or comprehending a question, then psychologists recommend switching to external speech, that is, to reasoning aloud. In this case, the person will no longer be distracted by randomly and spontaneously arising images and associations.

Features of abstract logical thinking

We said that figurative thinking is volumetric, multifaceted and allows you to see the situation or problem as a whole, on a large scale. In contrast, abstract-logical thinking is discrete, since it consists of separate bricks, elements. Words and sentences are such building blocks. The use of words allows you to organize thinking, streamline it. Such an organization makes vague, vague thoughts clearer, clearer.

And logical thinking is also linear, it is subject to the laws of the algorithm, which require a sequential transition from one mental operation to another. The most important thing for him is a consistent line of reasoning.

Development of abstract logical thinking

This way of thinking can be difficult when thoughts begin to get confused, as if scattering in different directions, or flitting like mosquitoes on a summer evening. A person does not have time to seriously think over one thought, but it is replaced by the next one, and often not connected with the main problem. Or a brilliant idea dawns, flashes for a moment and flies away to get lost in the maze of convolutions. And so it is a pity, because the idea is not bad, sensible! Just don't catch her already. This stupid "catching thoughts" annoys, tiresome and makes you want to give up on these chaotic thoughts and look for a ready-made solution on the Internet. The reason for such difficulties is simple - the lack of the skill of mental activity. Thinking, like any other activity, requires constant training.

Do you know the saying: “He who thinks clearly speaks clearly”? This law can be read in reverse. Logical thinking requires well-developed, clear, orderly speech. But this is not enough. If figurative thinking is spontaneous, spontaneous, intuitive and depends on inspiration, then the ordered logical obeys strict laws that were formulated in the era of Antiquity more than 2 thousand years ago. At the same time, a special science arose that studies the laws of thinking - logic. Knowledge of the laws and rules of mental activity is a prerequisite for mastering logical thinking.

And although this type of thinking is considered the highest, but you should not limit yourself to it. It is not a panacea or a unique multifunctional tool. The most effective problem facing us can be solved by connecting imaginative thinking.

Creative thinking

There is one more view, which stands somewhat apart. They began to study it relatively recently, but research has already proved the fundamental importance of this type of thinking not only for a full-fledged human life, but also for the development of human civilization. It . But it is worth talking about it separately.

Thinking- the mental process of modeling the laws of the surrounding world on the basis of axiomatic provisions. However, there are many other definitions in psychology.

For example: the highest stage of information processing by a person, the process of establishing connections between objects or phenomena of the surrounding world; or - the process of reflecting the essential properties of objects, as well as the connections between them, which leads to the emergence of ideas about objective reality. Debates over definition continue to this day.

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Positive Psychology, Positive Thoughts and the Law of Stretching, How to attract the best in your life. Hello everyone, my name is Elena and welcome to my channel "Psychology of Happiness", where happiness is the meaning of life. Probably many of you have heard about the "law of attraction", that if you think positively and represent positively, then in your life you will be able to attract love, happiness, health, money. But how do you become a positive person? How to start thinking positively when we all live in a world where problems happen, difficulties happen, there are people who offend you, who annoy you, who do not understand you, and how can you even think positively in this world? What influences this? Let's figure it out, I will offer you 3 things that you can change your life, and then you can reprogram your brain and become a positive person, let's start, the first rule is to filter everything that gets into your ears, everything that you hear is most likely from do you have some favorite music, perhaps when you are driving work on , in the car you listen to your favorite radio station, or maybe you listen to songs from your phone, maybe when you go in for sports, run or exercise you have a favorite music to which you do it, and so, I suggest you filter out what you listen to - is it music, is it happy or is it sad? because there are a lot of songs about unhappy love, about how hard it is for me, how bad I feel without you, what a miserable one, because I am alone, and we don't just listen to this, we get used to these words and we begin to sing along with these words and so Thus, it turns out that we, as it were, constantly keep these unhappy, suffering, touching, tearing soul and heart songs with your head. Who needs it? How can they affect your life? And they can affect your life very negatively, because the more you listen to them, it becomes as if such a saying, your inner voice already begins to sing along with these negative things, so reconsider your repertoire of songs, and just delete all negative radio stations, negative songs from it if you cannot refuse the news, and the news - they are always about the worst, the worst, and in the news it also exaggerates everything very much, then limit yourself to listen, the news can be 20-30 minutes a day, but no more. Rule number 2 is to filter everything that you see films that you watch on TV, videos that you watch on YouTube, videos that you see on Facebook, VKontakte, because, again, they like to show some kind of tragedy on TV, that is, something then something bad happened and now the person is suffering, especially in the news, they will also ask how and why, and how you felt and then they will chew it for a very long time, so you, again, teach your brain to focus on the negative, why do you need it? how can you be positive about your life, how can you be positive about other people or events if you live constantly and introduce this negative, you hear it with your ears, see it with your own eyes, so try to watch some films that inspire which show some kind of success, when, for example, a person aspired to something, achieved his dream, watch some inspiring video, it is very useful to listen to the speech of a successful person who has achieved success, this will start to motivate you, gradually, when you listened to this one, two, three times, you will think - damn, why can't I do that, I can do it too, I want it too, and if you listen to negative things constantly and see negative things, then when something happens you will think - oh yes, I saw, like this, it happened to Seryoga, it happened to Mary Ivanna, well, actually, it’s like - this life is so, so unhappy, in fact it’s not life like that, on in fact, it is your choice, what you choose, and advice number 3 is to filter everything that you say, just observe yourself and, perhaps, you will be surprised how often you talk about some bad events in your life when someone calls you a friend asks how are you, what do you tell me first? Is it positive about your life or negative? where do you focus more on the positive or the negative? Usually, people talk about the positive quickly and briefly, but about the negative in detail, with writing, and as if they plunge into it even more, and in general, for the sake of interesting things, you can ask your close friend or your closest friends - as you think I often complain , more often I speak about some unpleasant negative thoughts, and either I'm still a person who is cheerful, who is sociable, tell me honestly, you know me, let's say for several years somehow you think, I am an optimist or I am a pessimist, and then try to watch what you say, such thoughts come to your mind, and so, 3 things - filter: what you hear, what you see, what you say, and then you can really become a positive person, and surround yourself with positive people if you want bring more positive into your life and become a positive person, then I offer you a seven-day experiment with Tony Robbins, a very simple challenge, very interesting absolutely free - the link will be izu, as well as how to become rich and how positive thinking and the law of length affects the amount of money in your life all the links below, now send this video to your friends, put your fingers up, support my channel, write your comments, questions or your thoughts below under the video , I read them with pleasure, subscribe to my channel, be sure to click on the "bell" to receive notifications about new videos and thank you just to watch "The Psychology of Happiness", where happiness is the meaning of life!

Study history

Ancient philosophers and scientists began to study thinking, but they did it from the standpoint not of psychology, but of other sciences, primarily philosophy and logic. The first of these was Parmenides. In the essay "The Way of Truth" (ancient Greek. Αλήθεια ) he presented the first in the history of European philosophy, an abbreviated presentation of the main provisions of deductive metaphysics. At the same time, he considers the process of thinking from the point of view of logic. From the point of view of philosophy, he claims that being is analogous to thought:

Later, 2 other ancient Greek scientists lived and worked: Protagoras and Epicurus, representatives of sensationalism, a philosophical movement that played a significant role in the scientific approach to thinking much later.

The largest theorist of the doctrine of thinking at that time was Aristotle. He studied its forms, substantiated and deduced the laws of thinking. However, thinking for him was the activity of an “intelligent soul”. In addition, he mainly dealt with questions of formal logic.

Medicine has played an important role in the study of thinking. The first forerunners of the brain theory of thinking were the ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras and his student, Alcmeon of Croton, a philosopher and physician. The great physician Hippocrates, who accepted their theory, stated:

Active psychological studies of thinking have been going on since the 17th century, but even then they were essentially dependent on logic. According to the early teaching on thinking belonging to XVII century, the ability to think is innate, and thinking itself was considered separately from the psyche. Contemplation, logical reasoning and reflection were considered intellectual abilities. With the advent of associative psychology, thinking was reduced to associations and was considered as an innate ability. In the Renaissance, scientists again returned to the postulate of antiquity that the psyche is a consequence of the work of the brain. However, their reasoning was not supported by experiment, therefore, they were more abstract measure. They opposed sensation and perception to thinking, and the discussion was conducted only about which of these two phenomena is more important. Sensualists based on the teachings of the French philosopher E. B. de Condillac asserted: ““ to think ”means to feel," and reason - “complicated sensations,” that is, they gave the decisive importance to sensation and perception. Their opponents were rationalists. Their prominent representative was R. Descartes, the forerunner of reflexology. They believed that the senses give approximate information, and we can only cognize it with the help of the mind. at the same time, they considered thinking to be an autonomous, rational act, free from direct feeling. According to D. Diderot, sensations:

At the same time, the heyday of the psychological trend - reflexology. Among its prominent figures are I.M.Sechenov, I.P. Pavlov and V. M. Bekhtereva .

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Würzburg School of Psychology (O. Külpe and others), whose works were based on the phenomenology of E. Husserl and the rejection of associationism, placed thinking at the center of its interests. In the experiments of this school, thinking was studied by the methods of systematic introspection in order to decompose the process into its main stages.

He contributed to the study of thinking and psychoanalysis, studying unconscious forms of thinking, the dependence of thinking on motives and needs.

One of the newest is the information-cybernetic theory of thinking. Human thinking is modeled from the point of view of cybernetics and artificial intelligence.

Nature and main species

Main characteristics

Physiology

Thinking is a function of the brain. There are several theories of the physiology of thinking. Following the works of I.P. Pavlov, thought is a consequence of the reflex connection between man and reality. Its implementation requires the work of several systems of the brain.

The first of these is the subcortical region. It is activated by unconditioned stimuli from external or inner peace... The second system is the cerebral hemispheres without the frontal lobes (German) Russian and departments of speech. The principle of its work: stimuli by a temporary (conditioned) connection "connect" to an unconditioned reaction. It - first signaling system.

Principle 3 of the system: distraction from the specific qualities of perceived objects and generalization of signals from the first two instances. It - second signaling system... At its level, words are perceived and signals coming here are replaced by speech. Therefore, it includes the frontal lobes and 3 analyzers: speech-motor, speech-auditory and speech-visual. In addition, the second signaling system regulates the first. Its conditioned connections can be formed without irritation and reflect not only the past and present, but also the future.

The physiological basis of thinking is the work of the cerebral cortex. It is characterized by processes common to the nervous system, mainly a combination of dominant excitation with surrounding inhibition.

Neurophysiology

Certain information was obtained using EEG... So, during mental activity in the frontal leads, there is an increase in spatial synchronization. This was first established in his experiments by M. N. Livanov v. Ultraslow potentials increase and become more frequent with certain types of mental activity, namely, with mental stress, they become shorter than the zeta waves. By temporal characteristics, they show readiness for mental activity. However, the EEG method remains extremely limited in terms of the study of thinking.

Scientists are trying to understand whether the activity of a collection of neurons can characterize a particular thought process. This is probably possible, given that the brain is a material substrate for thinking processes. Here we are talking about the so-called "constellations" A. A. Ukhtomskiy or "patterns". The difficulty lies in recoding neurophysiological information into psychological information. I began to study this back in N. P. Bekhtereva .

The thinking process is often associated with decision making. Choice search studies were carried out using EP registration using EEG. There was a cross-correlation of EEG potentials between the anterior and posterior parts of the brain, namely the frontal, parietal and occipital lobes, that is, the brain coverage is very wide. The EP parameters were influenced by the information content of the stimulus. In decision-making, motivation is important - the interaction of perception and associations according to P.S.Simonov. However, due to the fact that in reality the brain does not have sufficient information about all the alternatives, qualitative verbal concepts are used - linguistic variables.

Of the newer methods for the study of thinking, neuroimaging methods are used. So, to recognize thoughts, you can use functional MRI... In the experiment, with an accuracy of 72% -90%, fMRI was able to establish which set of pictures the subject was looking at. Soon, according to the authors of the studies, thanks to this technology, it will be possible to establish what exactly the subject sees in front of him. This technology can be used to visualize dreams, early warning of brain diseases, create interfaces for paralyzed people to communicate with the outside world, marketing advertising programs and the fight against terrorism and crime. Also used in experiments PAT.

Classification

• Visual-effective thinking (A form of thinking that manipulates the subject area. Available in children from birth to one and a half years)
• Specific objective thinking (Tasks are solved with the help of an existing, real object. Formation at the age of 1.5 to 7 years)
• Visual-figurative thinking (It is carried out with direct perception of the surrounding reality, images are presented in short-term and operative memory. Dominates from 3 years old to primary school age).
• Abstract-logical thinking (Thinking in abstractions - categories that are not in nature. Formed from the age of 7. It is believed that animals do not have abstract thinking.)

Basic forms (criteria) of thinking

Theoretical and experimental approaches to research

Thinking and intelligence

It can be concluded that human behavior and activities are associated with thinking, therefore, under the concept of "mind" we define the process of thinking and its features.

Objective methods with the help of an experiment can single out the components associated with the solution of mental tasks, on the basis of which it is considered a separate mental process. Other components involved in the regulation of behavior cannot be isolated on their own. And the concept of "intelligence" is associated with an attempt psychological tests appreciate mental and creative abilities.

Theories about the origin and presence of thinking in humans are divided into 2 groups. Representatives of the first believe that intellectual abilities congenital and unchanging. One of the most famous theories of the first group is the theory of thinking of Gestalt psychology. According to the second group, mental abilities develop in the process of a person's life. Thinking depends either on external influences of the environment, or on internal development subject, or on the basis of both.

Experimental research

Tests are now examining thinking in people between the ages of 2 and 65. They can be classified into 3 groups.

The first group - tests of achievement, showing the amount of knowledge required in a certain scientific and practical area (control tests at school). The second is intelligence tests assessing the conformity of intelligence to biological age. Among them is the Stanford-Binet test. (English) Russian and Wechsler's test. The third is criterion-oriented tests that assess the ability to solve intellectual problems (MIOM test and modification of the intelligent battery of tests by R. Amthauer B.M. Kulagin and M. M. Reshetnikova(test "KR-3-85")).

Tests can be viewed as an experimental model that underlies conceptual-experimental models of intelligence. One of the most famous of them was proposed by J.P. Guilford. According to his concept, intelligence can be assessed in 3 areas: content, product and character. Guilford's model of intelligence includes 120 different intellectual processes, reduced to 15 factors: five operations, four types of content, six types of products of mental activity.

The main stages of thinking

Through the use of self-observation data of famous scientists (such as G.L.F. Helmholtz and A. Poincaré), four stages of creative thinking were distinguished: preparation, maturation, enlightenment and verification of truth. Currently, there are many different classifications of the sequence of the act of thinking.

Basic thinking operations

The main types of mental operations:

1. Concretization;

Comparison

Comparison is one of the key operations carried out by a person in cognition of the world around him, himself and other people, as well as in situations of solving various, in particular, cognitive and communicative tasks, depending on the conditions (context) in which it is performed, which cannot be understood outside the unity of the process in the course of which it is carried out, the result to which the subject who carries it out also leads. It consists in establishing similarities and differences. Operation in progress directly(perceiving objects at the same time) or indirectly(by inference, using indirect signs). The properties being compared are important here. It is also important to select common indicators for comparison. For example, when measuring a distance, it is impossible to compare kilometers in one case, and in the other - the time spent on travel. It is necessary to select an essential characteristic for comparison. To avoid mistakes, you need to make a comprehensive comparison.

The second example of errors in comparison is a superficial comparison by analogy, in which, if there is a similarity in one or even a group of features, we believe that all other features also converge. So, having seen the similarity of the structure of impact and volcanic craters V.G.Bukher (English) Russian believed that the cause of their occurrence is the same. However, a similar comparison may be correct. So, chordates have a distinctive feature - a chord, and from it scientists can judge that, therefore, the principle of the structure of their body is also similar in general terms. It can be concluded that the truth of the inference by analogy depends on the interdependence of signs. So, the chord arose among the common ancestors of the chordates and reflects the process of evolution, while the structure of the craters is similar only outwardly.

Analysis and synthesis

Analysis is a logical method of defining a concept, when it is decomposed according to features into its component parts, in order to make cognition clear in its entirety. Thus, from the parts of the whole, you can mentally create its structure. Together with the parts of the object, we highlight its properties. Analysis is possible not only through perception, but also from memory, that is, through presentation.

Synthesis is a way to assemble a whole from parts or phenomena, as well as their properties, as the antipode of analysis.

V childhood analysis and synthesis first appear in the practical manipulation of objects. And with age, in order to understand the structure of the device, a person assembles and disassembles it. Since this is not always possible, in some cases, objects are first studied separately, and then mental operations are performed on their totality. So, in the study of microbiology, the structure of individual microorganisms is first studied and only then, in practice, the doctor analyzes their totality in the study of water.

Analysis and synthesis is not only practical, but also theoretical. If at the same time they are separated from other mental operations, they become mechanistic. So, the child's disassembly of a toy, cut off from other processes, is completely useless, at the same time, when assembling it, the parts are not assembled somehow to their simple sum.

Analysis and synthesis are always closely interconnected.

Abstraction and concretization

Abstraction is a distraction in the process of cognition from insignificant aspects, properties, connections of an object or phenomenon in order to highlight their essential, natural features. The highlighted part or property is considered separately from the others. In this case, the selection of individual parts or properties from the information occurs. So, using the term "table", we represent an abstract table without separate properties that are present in all tables known to us. This is a specific concept.

From concrete concepts, you can make a transition to abstract ones, that is, signs and properties of objects and phenomena: "sobriety", "wisdom", "brightness". On the one hand, they are completely separate from other properties. On the other hand, they need sensory support, without it becoming formal (see Abstract concept).

When performing the process of abstraction, you can make mistakes of 2 kinds:

1. Assimilating certain concepts, it is difficult to move from specific examples to a different setting.
2. Abstraction from essential features, as a result of which the representation is distorted.

Concretization is the separation of the particular from the general. At the same time, we represent specific objects in all their diversity. Concretization of the concept of "table": "writing table", "dining table", "cutting table", "work table".

Types of abstraction

Induction and deduction

Induction is a process of inference based on the transition from a particular position to a general one.

To avoid an error in inductive inference, it is necessary to know what the observed fact or phenomenon depends on and to establish whether this property or quality changes in the isolated cases that we observed.

Deduction is a method of thinking in which a particular position is logically derived from the general, a conclusion according to the rules of logic; a chain of inferences (reasoning), the links of which (statements) are connected by a logical consequence.

The deduction method is very important in real life. However, in order to avoid mistakes when using the deductive method, it is important to realize that the observed individual case falls under general position... Here it is appropriate to recall the experiment of the famous Soviet child psychologist L.I.Bozhovich. She asked the students which harrow would loosen the soil deeper - 60- or 20-notch harrow. More often the students did not give the correct answer, although they knew the laws of pressure.

Solving complex problems. Creative thinking

Development

In the development of thinking, several stages are distinguished, which differ from different authors. These concepts, in spite of their differences, have common positions.

Most modern concepts identify the initial stage of thinking with generalization. At the same time, thinking is connected with practice. At the same time, it is based on experience, both personal and based on the observation of adults.

The following features can be distinguished in the thinking of children. First, there is the connection between generalization and action. Secondly, clarity, concreteness and reliance on isolated facts.

A distinction should be made between responsiveness and distractibility (in children). They have a different genesis:

• responsiveness - a consequence of a decrease in the level of activity of the cortex; contributes to the destruction of purposeful activity.
• distraction is a consequence of an enhanced orientation reflex, high activity of the cortex. The formation of a large number of temporary connections is the basis for further purposeful activity.

5. Slipping

Correctly solving any task and adequately reasoning about any subject, patients unexpectedly get lost from the correct train of thought on a false, inadequate association, and then again are able to continue reasoning consistently, without repeating the mistake, but also without correcting it. Typical for fairly intact patients with schizophrenia.

Slips are sudden, episodic. In an associative experiment, random associations and associations of consonance (woe-sea) often appear.

The process of generalization and distraction is not disturbed. They can correctly synthesize material, correctly highlight essential features. At the same time, for a certain period of time, the correct course of thinking in them is disturbed due to the fact that the patients in their judgments begin to be guided by random signs that are insignificant in this situation.

Operational side

1. Decreasing the level of generalization

In the judgments of patients, direct ideas about objects and phenomena dominate; operating common features replaced by the establishment of specific connections between objects. They cannot select the features that most fully reveal the concept.

2. Distortion of the generalization process

They reflect only the random side of phenomena, the essential relationships between objects are little taken into account; the objective content of things and phenomena is not taken into account.

Violation of the generalization process is caused by the fact that patients are not guided by culturally accepted relations between objects. So, in the task, the fourth-extra patient can combine a table, bed and wardrobe, calling them volumes bounded by wooden planes.

Motivational component

Diversity of thinking

Diversity of thinking- judgments of patients about any phenomena occur in different planes. Patients do not perform tasks, although they learn the instructions, they have preserved mental operations

Thinking is a process that carries out the perception, processing and structuring of information in the process of human life. It contributes to the development of skills, gives rise to conclusions, provides life. The ability to think, or think, is the hallmark that distinguishes humans from animals.

Characteristics of the main types of thinking

There are two main types of thinking:

• theoretical;
• practical.

The first allows you to think about distant objects and situations that are not in the field of vision, the second requires the direct participation of the senses: sight, touch, smell and hearing.

The type of theoretical thinking of a person can be divided into:

• conceptual - it is based on already available information in the form of established concepts, on the basis of which new conclusions are built;
• figurative - when, in the process of the birth of thought, consciousness uses images, recreating them from memory;
• abstract-logical - not using images and forms, it is used when one cannot rely on a visual form.

Practical thinking is divided into:

• Visual-effective - carried out in the process of working with objects. A striking example of such thinking can be the process of collecting a puzzle by a child. During the game, tactile contact, thinking, the birth of an output occur.

• Visual-figurative - it is possible when using images, as an addition to a visual picture. An example of such thinking can be design work in which a person sees the existing interior and, using images, reflects on the topic of rearrangement, renovation or new furniture.

Also, thinking can be analytical and intuitive, depending on the degree of development in time. Analytical thinking uses logic and experience and takes time. The intuitive is sensory-based and has a high flow rate.

According to the degree of novelty, they are distinguished:

• reproductive - giving birth to conclusions based on existing skills, most often by analogy with some example;
• productive - creating a solution based on your own ingenuity.

Properties and functions of thinking

All types of thinking have four main functions:

1. understanding;
2. solving problems;
3. generating your own goals:
4. reflection.

The comprehension function ensures the assimilation of new information. It makes it possible to repeat what you have heard, paraphrasing sentences in your own way. A concept makes data easier to remember and easier to remember by applying logic to sparse input. For example, when an inexperienced driver arrives at a car service and unknowingly informs in a philistine language that he does not like the car's work, and the car service employees, having an understanding of the mechanisms, the laws of physics, the sequence of work of units, can identify the reason, relying on logic, while having scarce owner data.

The problem solving function is based on building connections between events, predicting events and choosing between the available options. A person uses this function continuously, every day, many have already reached almost automaticity and acquired the function of reflection. When the solution of a specific problem once satisfied an individual, the next time he will use to solve the same problem the decision relying on experience, if this task is repeated regularly, thinking reflexively produces a finished result, without questioning the chosen path.

Generating your own goals is the most important function in personal development and self-improvement. By setting tasks for himself, a person is able to develop, learn new things, master skills, expand the field of thinking. This is another distinctive human trait that is not inherent in animals. Representatives of the animal world solve the problems that arise in front of them in connection with changes in weather conditions, the availability of food, mating games. Without the influence of external factors, animals will not learn anything. For this reason, individuals raised in captivity have little chance of survival in the wild - they grew up in conditions that provide them with food for hours, without exerting effort. In the wild in short term it is difficult for an animal to rearrange its behavior, while simultaneously learning to fight natural competition. A person is able to develop his skills, to train skills not when it is vitally important for him, but when it may be useful in the future.

Examples of different types of thinking

A person is able to think in different ways, depending on each specific situation. This is due to the effectiveness of a certain type of thinking for solving certain problems. Some types of thinking can be distinguished:

• Deductive - with its help the required conclusion is most often achieved, a solution is found. Deduction is the ability to think from the general to the particular. An example of the most elementary deduction is the situation when a person enters a room and sees a broken vase on the floor. From the general data, the eyewitness receives the law of gravitation and the presence of a cat in the room. Having analyzed the animal's love for active games and its complete lack of accuracy in relation to dishes in conjunction with gravity, as a result of deductive thinking, a person makes a conclusion that helps to clarify the circumstances of what happened. This method is often used in forensics, medicine, research sciences. Implies analysis of input data.
• Inductive is the opposite of deductive. The process proceeds in the opposite direction. A person can have several particular situations, from which he draws general conclusions. A good example of induction is testing students at school. The teacher, having received the completed forms, assesses them and makes a conclusion about the degree of education of the child, about the percentage of perception of the studied material. Newton, who discovered the law of gravitation, also used induction, noting the tendency of objects to fall to the ground. The inductive method of thinking moves from the particular to the general.

• Analytical - an example of thinking based on a deep analysis of the situation. This type leads along the path from the general to the particular, structures, systematizes, without neglecting the details. This type of thinking is focused on results. The more arguments, the faster the analysis will give a solution. For example, psychologists use analysis in their theoretical studies: the facial expressions of the interlocutor can tell a lot. Popular gestures — touching the nose, squinting, looking down — indicate that the narrator is most likely not telling the truth. Psychological education will allow using analytical thinking to combine what the client said, his behavior, complaints, circumstances, in order to draw a conclusion on how to direct a person to solve his problem.
• Creative is the freest type of thinking. It is not limited by the scope of laws and regulations, does not depend on the amount of input data. This way of thinking is not available to everyone, it is difficult to learn it. It is rather congenital, less often acquired. Unlike deductive, it allows the most fantastic solutions, requires a flexible and plastic mind. An example is the profession of an advertiser who creates a video for his product, which should be original, interesting, attractive, even if we are talking about the most ordinary rubber ball. Fantasy, aimed at describing an object, with the help of creative thinking, will make it possible to present the product to the consumer in an original way.

• Interrogative - increasing experience and all-round development of the mind. Based on a large number of questions on each specific topic. Looking for answers to each, a person receives a large amount of information, becomes able to solve the problems that have arisen. By using this type of mindset, you can avoid common problem solving mistakes. Thanks to this feature, new facts are revealed, attention is paid to the initially invisible side of the issue. This method is useful even in solving everyday household problems. The broader the list of questions, the more extensively the situation will be studied. The most basic questions used in the application of this type are what is the reason for what happened, what happened shortly before the incident, whether it somehow affected the surrounding things, what other options for the development of the event could have been, and what could become the basis. The interrogative type of thinking is close to analytical.

Development of different types of thinking

For full-fledged independent development, it is possible, even without understanding what thinking is, to improve it. To do this, you need to track the cause-and-effect relationships in everything, try to investigate every situation that deserves attention.

Interesting. Compare similar situations. For example, the plants bloom on one windowsill, but the same ones on the other do not. It is important to compare: whether watering occurs at the same time, what is the illumination of the room, whether there are drafts, what the pot is made of, whether the composition of the earth is the same.

Asking yourself questions as much as possible, like young children. Many things for adults are obvious, invisible, not worthy of attention... But when a child capable of speaking appears in the house, he asks parents many questions, a considerable percentage of which often perplex adults. Children see things differently, their brains are not limited by generally accepted foundations, they are able to think broadly and very creatively. It is important for all adults to learn to think like children, not to limit themselves to customs, habits and experiences.

The type of creative thinking, on the one hand, is the simplest - the main thing is to apply imagination. On the other hand, he is one of the most difficult, difficult for him to learn. If creativity is not the strongest side of the personality, you can use a ready-made list of tasks for development. Examples of training thinking:

1. Imagine what an ordinary green tree looks like when turned inside out.
2. List the ways of using a round stone with a diameter of 15 cm (name at least 15 options for use).
3. List everything that happens in nature white(or any other natural shade). Clouds, snow, and a polar bear are usually the first to come to mind. Only at the fifth minute of reasoning, the subject will name egg white, salt and sugar, and sea foam and limestone can be expected only after the twenty minute of exercise.
4. Spend 30 minutes before going to bed for various tests. Over time, through training, the results will improve. IQ tests should not be ignored. The first characteristic obtained should not be upsetting, its task is to become a motive for starting work on oneself.

1. To read specific literature that was not attractive earlier, the list should include works of fiction that will help teach you to dream.
2. Even in social studies lessons, schoolchildren are asked to write a work on the topic "if I were ..." and they name the profession. It is also useful for an adult to use this technique once or twice a week, reflecting on the topic of what kind of specialist he could become, the manifestation of what personal qualities could be observed under the circumstances.

The human essence is prone to laziness, therefore, the brain is more developed in the one who is subject to daily life difficulties, in contrast to those whose life flows measuredly, not requiring strength of character and cunning. A striking example is the comparison of a villager and a city dweller. The first one knows how his own sewage system works, is able to independently and in a short time determine the cause of the malfunction, using deduction, analysis, and a critical type of thinking. A city dweller, proceeding from reflex thinking, will cut off the water, plug the drain hole and call a specialist without going into details.

Classification table of thinking in psychology

Classification criterion	Type of thinking	Application area
By functional difference	Creative	art, advertising, PR activities
	Critical	medicine, military service, transport
By novelty	Reproductive	pedagogy, construction
	Productive	design, modeling, engineering development
By the type of tasks being solved	Practical	material and technical areas
	Theoretical	philosophy, analysis, secondary education
By the degree of deployment	Analytical	military-strategic direction, accounting, audit
	Intuitive	at home, when meeting with something new

The given areas of application are not limited to the use of one or another type of thinking, this is just a short list to which each type belongs. It is often difficult to isolate a single species from the thought process. Very often they are used in combination, complementing each other, expanding opportunities.

The daily educational process, independently used for their brain activity, is able to develop the typology of thinking to the fullest. People with strong willpower can train the mind on their own, because this process is not easy. If you do this at regular intervals, you can achieve a lot in life, and also greatly reduce the risk of developing sclerosis and dementia in old age.

Video

Classification of types of thinking.

· in form: visual-effective, visual-figurative, abstract-logical

· by the nature of the tasks being solved: theoretical and practical

· by the degree of deployment: discursive (i.e. based on previous reasoning) and intuitive

· by the degree of novelty and originality: reproductive (reproductive - thinking based on images and ideas gleaned from any sources) and productive (creative - based on creative imagination)

Convergent (logical, sequential, linear) and divergent (creative, versatile - speed, flexibility, originality, accuracy)

1. Visual - effective(subject-effective, sensorimotor) - simple and early in ontogenesis, relies on the direct perception of objects and the manipulation of them. The child solves a mental problem by directly manipulating an object, disassembling a typewriter, for example. Thinking is woven into the material practical activity of people (up to 3 years old). The child analyzes and synthesizes cognizable objects as he practically separates, dismembers and reunites with his hands, connects with each other certain objects perceived at the moment. The content is perceptual images.

2. Visual-figurative(higher, later - 4-7 y.) Content - a mnemonic image (representation) is added to the perceptual image. The content of a mental task is based on figurative material: a person generalizes, compares objects and phenomena, their images in the course of this thinking. at the age of four. The connection between thinking and practical actions, although they remain, is not as close, direct and immediate as before. . In the course of analyzing and synthesizing a cognizable object, a child does not necessarily and does not always have to touch the object that interests him with his hands. In many cases, systematic practical manipulation with the object is not required, but in all cases it is necessary to clearly perceive and visualize this object. In other words, preschoolers think only in visual images and do not yet possess concepts, they compare objects and phenomena .. The absence of concepts in preschoolers is most clearly revealed in the following experiments by J. Piaget.

Children aged about 7 years are shown two completely identical and equal in volume balls made of dough. They carefully examine both presented objects and say that they are equal. Then, in front of the subjects' eyes, one of the balls is turned into a cake. The children themselves see that not a single piece of dough was added to this flattened ball, but simply changed its shape. However, the subjects found that the amount of dough in the cake increased.

The fact is that the visual-figurative thinking of children is still directly and completely subordinated to their perception, and therefore they cannot yet distract themselves, abstract themselves with the help of concepts from some of the most striking properties of the object under consideration.

3. Logical (abstract-theoretical, abstract, abstract)(school age). Content is a perceptual image, a mnemonic image, a concept. Tasks are solved verbally.

On the basis of practical and visual-sensory experience, children at school age develop, first in the simplest forms, abstract thinking, i.e. thinking in the form of abstract concepts. At the end school education in children, a system of concepts is formed to one degree or another. Pupils begin to successfully operate not only with individual concepts, but with entire classes and systems of concepts.

But even the most abstract thinking, going far beyond the limits of sensory knowledge, never, however, completely divorced from sensations, perceptions and representations. Visibility plays a dual role in the development of concepts in students. On the one hand, it facilitates this process. On initial stages in the development of thought, it is easier for a child to operate with visual, sensually concrete material. An excessive amount of bright, specific-sensual details in visual aids and illustrations can divert attention from the basic, essential properties of the cognized object. This makes it difficult to analyze and generalize these essential features.

The development of abstract thinking in schoolchildren in the course of mastering concepts does not at all mean that their visual-effective and visual-figurative thinking now ceases to develop or disappears altogether.