The course of the Crimean war. For four years, hostilities were conducted. Reference. Crimean War - Key Facts

Crimean War(Eastern War), Russia's war against the coalition of Great Britain, France, Turkey and Sardinia for dominance in the Middle East. By the middle of the 19th century. Britain and France drove Russia out of the Middle East markets and brought Turkey under their influence. Emperor Nicholas I unsuccessfully tried to negotiate with Great Britain on the division of spheres of influence in the Middle East, and then decided to restore the lost positions by direct pressure on Turkey. Great Britain and France contributed to the aggravation of the conflict, hoping to weaken Russia and seize Crimea, the Caucasus, and other territories from it. The pretext for the war was a dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy in 1852 over the possession of "holy places" in Palestine. In February 1853 Nicholas I sent Ambassador Extraordinary A.S. Menshikov to Constantinople, who demanded with an ultimatum that the Orthodox subjects of the Turkish Sultan be placed under the special protection of the Russian Tsar. The tsarist government counted on the support of Prussia and Austria and considered an alliance between Great Britain and France impossible.

However, British Prime Minister J. Palmerston, fearing the strengthening of Russia, agreed to an agreement with the French Emperor Napoleon III on joint actions against Russia. In May 1853, the Turkish government rejected the Russian ultimatum, and Russia broke off diplomatic relations with Turkey. With the consent of Turkey, an Anglo-French squadron entered the Dardanelles. On June 21 (July 3), Russian troops entered the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which were under the nominal sovereignty of the Turkish Sultan. Supported by Great Britain and France, the Sultan on September 27 (October 9) demanded the cleansing of the principalities, and on October 4 (16), 1853, declared war on Russia.

Against 82 thousand. Army of General M.D. Gorchakov on the Danube, Turkey has nominated almost 150 thousand. army of Omer Pasha, but the attacks of the Turkish troops at Chetati, Zhurzhi and Kelerash were repulsed. Russian artillery destroyed the Turkish Danube flotilla. In Transcaucasia, the Turkish army of Abdi Pasha (about 100 thousand people) was opposed by the weak garrisons of Akhaltsikh, Akhalkalaki, Alexandropol and Erivan (about 5 thousand), since the main forces of the Russian troops were busy fighting the highlanders (see Caucasian War of 1817 -64). From the Crimea, an infantry division (16 thousand) was hastily transferred by sea and 10 thousand were formed. Armenian-Georgian militia, which made it possible to concentrate 30 thousand troops under the command of General V.O.Bebutov. The main forces of the Turks (about 40 thousand) moved to Alexandropol, and their Ardagan detachment (18 thousand) tried to break through the Borjomi Gorge to Tiflis, but was repelled, and on November 14 (26) was defeated near Akhaltsikh by 7 thousand people. detachment of General I. M. Andronnikov. On November 19 (December 1), Bebutov's troops (10 thousand) defeated the main Turkish forces (36 thousand) at Bashkadyklar.

The Russian Black Sea Fleet blocked Turkish ships in ports. On November 18 (30), a squadron under the command of Vice Admiral P. S. Nakhimov destroyed the Turkish Black Sea Fleet in the Battle of Sinop in 1853. The defeat of Turkey hastened the entry into the war of Great Britain and France. On December 23, 1853 (January 4, 1854), the Anglo-French fleet entered the Black Sea. On February 9 (21), Russia declared war on Great Britain and France. On March 11 (23), 1854, Russian troops crossed the Danube near Brailov, Galats and Izmail and concentrated in Northern Dobrudja. On April 10 (22), the Anglo-French squadron bombarded Odessa. In June - July, the Anglo-French troops landed in Varna, and the superior forces of the Anglo-French-Turkish fleet (34 battleships and 55 frigates, including most of the steam) blocked the Russian fleet (14 sailing battleships, 6 frigates and 6 steamboats). frigates) in Sevastopol. Russia was significantly inferior to Western European countries in the field of military equipment. Its fleet consisted mainly of obsolete sailing ships, the army was armed mainly with short-range flint-bore shotguns, while the Allies were armed with rifles. The threat of intervention in the war on the side of the anti-Russian coalition of Austria, Prussia and Sweden forced Russia to keep the main forces of the army on the western borders.

On the Danube, on May 5 (17), Russian troops besieged the fortress of Silistria, but in view of the hostile position of Austria on June 9 (21), the commander-in-chief of the Russian army, Field Marshal I. F. Paskevich, gave the order to withdraw across the Danube. In early July, 3 French divisions moved from Varna to cover the Russian troops, but a cholera epidemic forced them to return. By September 1854, Russian troops withdrew across the river. Prut, and the principalities were occupied by Austrian troops.

On the Baltic Sea, the Anglo-French squadrons of Vice-Admiral Ch. Napier and Vice-Admiral A.F. ships, 9 steamer-frigates and 9 sailing frigates) in Kronstadt and Sveaborg. Not daring to attack these bases due to Russian minefields, first used in hostilities, the Allies began a blockade of the coast and bombarded a number of settlements in Finland. July 26 (August 7) ​​1854 11 thous. Anglo-French troops landed on the Aland Islands and laid siege to Bomarzund, who surrendered after the destruction of the fortifications. Attempts by other landings (in Ekenes, Ganges, Gamlakarlebu, and Abo) ended in failure. In the fall of 1854, the allied squadrons left the Baltic Sea. On the White Sea, British ships bombarded the Kola and the Solovetsky Monastery in 1854, but the attempt to attack Arkhangelsk failed. The garrison of Petropavlovsk-on-Kamchatka under the command of Major General V.S. Zavoiko on August 18-24 (August 30 - September 5), 1854, repulsed the attack of the Anglo-French squadron, defeating the landing force it had landed (see Peter and Paul Defense 1854).

In Transcaucasia, the Turkish army under the command of Mustafa-Zarif Pasha was strengthened to 120 thousand people and in May 1854 launched an offensive against 40 thousand people. Russian corps Bebutov. June 4 (16) 34-th. The Batumi Turkish detachment was defeated in a battle on the river. Chorokh 13 thous. detachment Andronnikov, and on July 17 (29), Russian troops (3.5 thousand) in a meeting battle on the Chingil Pass defeated 20 thousand. Bayazet detachment and on July 19 (31) occupied Bayazet. The main forces of Bebutov (18 thousand) were delayed by the invasion of Eastern Georgia by Shamil's troops and went on the offensive only in July. At the same time, the main Turkish forces (60 thousand) moved to Alexandropol. On July 24 (August 5) at Kyuryuk-Dara, the Turkish army was defeated and ceased to exist as an active combat force.

On September 2 (14), 1854, the allied fleet began landing at Evpatoria 62 thousand. Anglo-French-Turkish army. Russian troops in the Crimea under the command of Menshikov (33.6 thousand) were defeated on the river. Alma and retreated to Sevastopol, and then to Bakhchisarai, leaving Sevastopol to the mercy of fate. At the same time, the commanders of the allied army, Marshal A. Saint-Arno and General F. J. Raglan, not daring to attack the northern side of Sevastopol, undertook a roundabout maneuver and, missing Menshikov's troops on the march, approached Sevastopol from the south of 18 thousand sailors and soldiers at the head with Vice-Admiral V.A.Kornilov and P. S. Nakhimov took up the defensive, deploying, with the help of the population, the construction of fortifications. To protect the approaches from the sea at the entrance to the Sevastopol Bay, several old ships were sunk, teams and guns from which were sent to fortifications. The 349-day heroic Sevastopol defense of 1854-55 began.

The first bombardment of Sevastopol on October 5 (17) did not reach its goal, which forced Raglan and General F. Canrobert (who replaced the deceased St. Arno) to postpone the assault. Menshikov, having received reinforcements, tried in October to attack the enemy from the rear, but in the Battle of Balaklava in 1854, success was not developed, and in the Inkerman battle of 1854, Russian troops were defeated.

In 1854 in Vienna, with the mediation of Austria, diplomatic negotiations were conducted between the belligerents. Great Britain and France, as conditions of peace, demanded a ban for Russia to keep a navy on the Black Sea, Russia's renunciation of protectorate over Moldova and Wallachia and from claims to patronize the Sultan's Orthodox subjects, as well as "freedom of navigation" on the Danube (i.e., deprivation of Russia access to its mouths). On December 2 (14), Austria announced an alliance with Great Britain and France. On December 28 (January 9, 1855), a conference of the ambassadors of Great Britain, France, Austria and Russia opened, but the negotiations did not yield any results and were interrupted in April 1855.

On January 14 (26), 1855, Sardinia entered the war, sending 15,000 troops to the Crimea. frame. 35 thousand people concentrated in Evpatoria. Omer Pasha's Turkish corps. 5 (17) February 19 thous. a detachment of General SA Khrulev tried to seize Yevpatoria, but the assault was repulsed. Menshikov was replaced by General M.D. Gorchakov.

On March 28 (April 9), the 2nd bombing of Sevastopol began, revealing the overwhelming superiority of the Allies in the amount of ammunition. But the heroic resistance of the defenders of Sevastopol forced the allies to postpone the assault again. Canrobert was replaced by General J. Pelissier, a proponent of action. May 12 (24) 16-thous. the French corps landed at Kerch. Allied ships devastated the Azov coast, but their landings near Arabat, Genichesk and Taganrog were repulsed. In May, the Allies carried out the 3rd bombardment of Sevastopol and drove the Russian troops out of the forward fortifications. On June 6 (18), after the 4th bombardment, an assault on the bastions of the Ship Side was undertaken, but it was repulsed. On August 4 (16), Russian troops attacked the positions of the allies on the river. Black, but were thrown back. Pelissier and General Simpson (who replaced the deceased Raglan) carried out the 5th bombing, and on August 27 (September 8), after the 6th bombing, they began a general assault on Sevastopol. After the fall of the Malakhov Kurgan, Russian troops left the city on the evening of August 27 and crossed over to the North side. The remaining ships were sunk.

In the Baltic in 1855, the Anglo-French fleet under the command of Admiral R. Dundas and S. Peno limited itself to blockading the coast and bombing Sveaborg and other cities. On the Black Sea, the Allies landed troops in Novorossiysk and occupied Kinburn. On the Pacific coast, the Allied landing at De-Kastri Bay was repelled.

In Transcaucasia, the corps of General N.N.Muravyev (about 40 thousand) in the spring of 1855 pushed the Bayazet and Ardagan Turkish detachments to Erzurum and blocked 33 thousand. garrison of Kars. To save Kars, the allies landed 45,000 troops in Sukhum. corps of Omer Pasha, but he met on October 23-25 ​​(November 4-6) on the river. Inguri stubborn resistance of the Russian detachment of General I.K. Bagration-Mukhransky, who then stopped the enemy on the river. Tskhenistskali. In the Turkish rear, a partisan movement of the Georgian and Abkhaz population developed. On November 16 (28), the Kars garrison capitulated. Omer Pasha went to Sukhum, from where he was evacuated to Turkey in February 1856.

At the end of 1855, hostilities actually ceased, and negotiations resumed in Vienna. Russia did not have trained reserves, there was not enough weapons, ammunition, food, financial resources, the anti-serfdom peasant movement grew, which became stronger due to the massive recruitment into the militia, the liberal noble opposition became more active. The position of Sweden, Prussia and especially Austria, which threatened war, became more and more hostile. In this situation, tsarism was forced to make concessions. On March 18 (30), the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 was signed, according to which Russia agreed to neutralize the Black Sea with a ban on having a navy and bases there, ceded the southern part of Bessarabia to Turkey, pledged not to build fortifications on the Aland Islands and recognized the protectorate of the great powers over Moldova, Wallachia and Serbia. The Crimean War on both sides was unjust and aggressive.

The Crimean War was an important stage in the development of the art of war. After it, all armies were re-equipped with rifled weapons and the sailing fleet was replaced with steam. In the course of the war, the inconsistency of the column tactics was revealed, the tactics of rifle chains and elements of positional warfare were developed. The experience of the Crimean War was used in the military reforms of the 1860s-70s. in Russia and was widely used in the wars of the second half of the 19th century.

(material prepared on the basis of fundamental works
Russian historians N.M. Karamzin, N.I. Kostomarov,
V.O.Klyuchevsky, S.M. Soloviev, and others ...)

The middle of the 19th century for the Russian Empire was marked by an intense diplomatic struggle for the Black Sea straits. Attempts to resolve the issue diplomatically failed and led to a conflict altogether. In 1853, the Russian Empire went to war against the Ottoman Empire for domination in the Black Sea straits. In short, 1853-1856 was a clash of interests of European states in the Middle East and the Balkans. The leading European states have formed an anti-Russian coalition, which includes Turkey, Sardinia and Great Britain. The Crimean War of 1853-1856 covered significant territories and stretched for many kilometers. Active hostilities were conducted in several directions at once. The Russian Empire was forced to fight not only directly in the Crimea, but also in the Balkans, the Caucasus and the Far East. The clashes on the Black, White and Baltic seas were also significant.

Causes of the conflict

Historians define the reasons for the Crimean War of 1853-1856 in different ways. So, British scientists believe the main reason for the war is the unprecedented increase in the aggressiveness of Nicholas Russia, the emperor led to the Middle East and the Balkans. Turkish historians, however, determine the main reason for the war is Russia's desire to establish its dominance over the Black Sea straits, which would make the Black Sea an internal reservoir of the empire. The dominant causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 are highlighted by Russian historiography, which claims that the clash was prompted by Russia's desire to correct its shaky situation by international scene... According to most historians, a whole complex of causal events led to the war, and for each of the participating countries the preconditions for the war had their own. Therefore, until now, scientists in the current conflict of interests do not come to a single definition of the cause of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Clash of interests

Having considered the reasons for the Crimean War of 1853-1856, let's move on to the beginning of hostilities. The reason for this was the conflict between Orthodox and Catholics for control over the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, which was under the jurisdiction of the Ottoman Empire. Russia's ultimatum demand to hand over the keys to the temple to her provoked a protest from the Ottomans, actively supported by France and Great Britain. Russia, not resigned to the failure of its plans in the Middle East, decided to switch to the Balkans and introduced its units to the Danube principalities.

The course of the Crimean War of 1853-1856

It would be advisable to divide the conflict into two periods. The first stage (November 1953 - April 1854) is a direct Russian-Turkish conflict, during which Russia's hopes for support from Great Britain and Austria did not materialize. Two fronts were formed - in the Transcaucasus and the Crimea. The only significant victory for Russia was the Sinop naval battle in November 1853, during which the Turkish Black Sea fleet was defeated.

and the battle of Inkerman

The second period lasted until February 1856 and was marked by the struggle of the union of European states with Turkey. The landing of allied troops in Crimea forced Russian troops retreat into the interior of the peninsula. Sevastopol became the only impregnable citadel. In the fall of 1854, a brave defense of Sevastopol began. The mediocre command of the Russian army hindered rather than helped the defenders of the city. For 11 months the sailors under the leadership of P. Nakhimov, V. Istomin, V. Kornilov repulsed enemy attacks. And only after it became impractical to hold the city, the defenders, leaving, blew up the warehouses with weapons and burned everything that could burn, thereby frustrating the plans of the allied forces to seize the naval base.

Russian troops attempted to divert the attention of the allies from Sevastopol. But they all turned out to be unsuccessful. Collision at Inkerman, offensive to the region of Evpatoria, the battle on the Black River did not bring glory to the Russian army, but showed its backwardness, outdated weapons and inability to properly conduct military operations. All these actions brought the defeat of Russia in the war closer. But it is worth noting that the allied forces also got it. By the end of 1855, the forces of England and France were exhausted, and there was no point in transferring new forces to the Crimea.

Caucasian and Balkan fronts

The Crimean War of 1853-1856, which we have tried to briefly describe, also covered the Caucasian Front, where events developed somewhat differently. The situation there was more favorable for Russia. Attempts to invade Transcaucasia were unsuccessful. And Russian troops were even able to advance deep into the Ottoman Empire and capture the Turkish fortresses of Bayazet in 1854 and Kara in 1855. The actions of the allies in the Baltic and White Seas and in the Far East did not have significant strategic success. And they rather depleted the military forces of both the Allies and the Russian Empire. Therefore, the end of 1855 was marked by the actual cessation of hostilities on all fronts. The warring parties sat down at the negotiating table to sum up the results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Completion and results

Negotiations between Russia and the allies in Paris culminated in the conclusion of a peace treaty. Under the pressure of internal problems, the hostile attitude of Prussia, Austria and Sweden, Russia was forced to accept the demands of the allies to neutralize the Black Sea. The ban on establishing naval bases and the fleet deprived Russia of all the achievements of the previous wars with Turkey. In addition, Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Aland Islands and was forced to give control of the Danube principalities into the hands of the allies. Bessarabia was transferred to the Ottoman Empire.

In general, the results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. were mixed. The conflict pushed the European world to the total rearmament of its armies. And this meant that the production of new weapons was intensifying and the strategy and tactics of warfare were radically changing.

Having spent millions of pounds sterling on the Crimean War, she brought the country's budget to complete bankruptcy. Debts to England forced the Turkish sultan to agree to freedom of religion and equality of all, regardless of nationality. Britain dismissed Aberdeen's cabinet and formed a new one, led by Palmerston, which abolished the sale of officers' ranks.

The results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 forced Russia to turn to reforms. Otherwise, it could slide into the abyss of social problems, which, in turn, would lead to a popular revolt, the result of which no one would undertake to predict. The experience of the war was used in the implementation of the military reform.

The Crimean War (1853-1856), the defense of Sevastopol and other events of this conflict left a significant mark on history, literature and painting. Writers, poets and artists in their works tried to reflect all the heroism of the soldiers who defended the Sevastopol citadel, and the great significance of the war for the Russian Empire.

Howl-on between the Russian im-per-ri-she and the koa-li-tsi-she of the countries (Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-nia, France, Os-man-skaya im-pe -riya and Sar-din-ko-ro-ro-lev-st-in), caused by collision-no-ve-no their in-te-re-sov in the bass-this-not Black-but m., on Kav-ka-ze and Bal-ka-nakh. Og-ra-ni-chen-nye war-en. dey-st-vii were also carried out on Bal-ti-ke, Belom m. and Ti-hom okea-not.

K ser. 19th century Ve-li-co-bri-ta-nia and France you-test-no-whether Russia from the near-eastern markets and under-chi-no-whether your influence to the Os-mans im-periyu. Grew up. great-wit-tel-st-in without-success-pesh-but py-ta-els do-go-go-rit-Xia with Ve-li-co-bree-ta-no-her about raz-de-le spheres of influence in the Near East, and then it was decided to restore the utterly wrong positions by direct pressing on Os -man's im-periyu. Ve-li-co-bri-ta-nia and France is a way-so-st-in-va-whether about-st-re-ni-flick-ta, calculating-you-ass-la- beat Russia and ot-bargain from it Crimea, Kavkaz and other territories. For-mal-nym in-house for K. century. in the service of the dispute between the right-of-the-glorious and the ka-lich. du-ho-ven-st-vom because of the Holy places in Pa-les-sti-ne, na-ho-div-shih-Xia under the blood-tel-st-vom of Russia and France, and in fact it was about the us-ta-no-le-nii of pre-ob-la-give-shu-go influence on the un-labeled Os-man- skuyu im-periu, which-that-paradise-did-las on the help of the West. countries in the co-storage of the state-sub-state at the Bal-ka-nah. In Feb. 1853 over-you-tea-slan-nickname imp. No-barking I adm. A.S.Men-shi-kov on-demand-bo-shaft from the Port of confirmation of the pro-tek-to-ra-ta of Russia over all the right-to-glorious -mi in the Os-man-sky im-peria. Under-hold-li-vay-my Ve-li-co-bree-ta-no-she and Fran-ci-her round. grand-vi-tel-st-in from-clo-ni-lo grew up. but-that and given permission to enter the English-lo-French. es-cad-ry in the strait of Dar-da-nel-ly. In connection with this, Russia ra-zo-rva-la di-plo-ma-tich. relationship with the Os-man-im-per-ri-she and June 21 (July 3-la) entered the voy-ska into the Du-nai princes - Like-da-viyu and Wa-la-hiyu. Under-der-jean-ny Ve-li-ko-brie-ta-ni-she and Fran-ci-she, round. sul-tan Ab-dul-Med-Zhid 27 sept. (Oct. 9) in-tre-bo-shaft you-in-da grew up. troops from the principalities, and 4 (16) oct. ob-i-vil Russia war-well, some-paradise 20 oct. (1 no-yab.), In turn, ob-I-vi-la to the war of the Os-man im-peria. To na-cha-lu wars in the Du-nai princes were-la-wed-do-to-che-na grew up. army (83 thousand people) under the command. gene. from art. M.D.Gor-cha-ko-va (since 1854 - General Feldm. I. F. Pas-ke-vi-cha). On Kav-ka-ze zn-chit. part grew. troops were-la-vle-che-na in the Caucasus-Kaz war-well 1817-64, and for the cover of the Russian-tur. grani-tsy sfor-mi-ro-van 30-thousand-strong-ny corpus (general-l. V.O. Be-bu-tov). In the Crimea at hand. Men-shi-ko-va, na-zn-chen-no-go co-man-blowing the Crimean ar-mi-she and the Black-sea-float, na-ho-di- only 19 thousand people. In zap. about-las-tyakh for covering the Russian-Austr. borders and on se-ve-ro-for-pas-de there was a large contingent of troops (256 thousand people), another approx. 500 thous. people wasp-ta-va-moos in int. rai-onakh of Russia.

There were no specific plans for the war against-no-ki. Grew up. great-wit-tel-st-in think-that-lo that you can reach your goals de-mon-st-ra-tsi-yo-en. Forces, that's why, after I get into the Du-nai-ny princes, the active actions are not pre-prone -lo. This made it possible for the Os-man im-peria to complete the strategy. turn-over-you-va-tion of your army by the end of Saint-Tyab-ry. Main s-ly tour. troops (143 thousand people) under the command. Omer-pa-shi (av-st-ri-ets Lat-tas, transferred to the tour. skom theater. To the Caucasus. The theater of operations na-ho-di-las Ana-to-li-sky army of Ab-di-pas-shi (about 100 thousand people). Not looking at the number of pre-set-ups, tour. ko-man-do-va-ni wait-da-lo to enter the war so-yuz-nikov, that's why in the cam-pa-nia 1853 on Du-nay- skom theater war-en. dey-st-viya shi-ro-ko-go ra-ma-ha not on-lu-chi-li. To the Caucasus. Theater war-en. action began in Oct. 1853 out-of-zap-na-pa-de-ni-e and for-wick-that round. howl-ska-mi grew up. in a hundred St. No-ko-bark. Ch. s-ly tour. army under the command. Ab-di-pa-shi (about 20 thousand people) na-stu-pa-li on Alek-san-d-ro-pol (Gyum-ri), and the 18 thousand-strong corpus Ali-pa-shi - to Akhal-tsikh. In bo-yah at Ba-yan-du-ra (under Alek-san-d-ro-po-lem) and under Akhal-tsi-hom, pe-re-do-vie ot-ry-dy grew. troops inflicted a round. howl-scam and os-ta-no-see-whether their pro-movement. In the Bash-ka-dyk-lar-skom battle of 1853 there were times-thunder-le-ny chap. s-ly tour. army on Kav-ka-ze. Grew up. Black-naval fleet from the na-cha-la K. century. us-pesh-but dei-st-in-shaft on the sea. com-mu-ni-ka-ti-yakh against-t-ni-ka, block-ki-ro-val tour. fleet in ports. Grew up. es-cad-ra under the command. vi-tse-adm. P.S. Na-khi-mo-va 18 (30) no-yab. in Si-nop-skom s-g-niya 1853 completely destroyed-zhi-la tour. es-cad-ru. It grew up this badly. the fleet won the state control on the Black Sea and left the tour. voy-ska on Kav-ka-ze support from the sea. At the same time, the military. the weakness of the Os-man-im-peria pre-op-re-de-li-la entry into the war of Ve-li-co-bri-ta-nia and France , which on 23.12.1853 (4.1.1854) brought the co-united co-fleet into the Black Sea. Pro-test of Russia against the outbreak of me-w-do-nar. con-ven-tion about the pro-li-wah was from-verg-chickpea, grew. the right-w-tel-stvo ra-zo-rva-lo di-plo-ma-tich. relations with these countries.

In the cam-pa-nii 1854 at the Du-nai theater he grew up. ko-man-do-va-nie pre-pri-nya-lo to-try-to control so-yuz-nikov, ram-thunder the tour. army and from-me-thread the course of the war. Vo-en. dey-st-vii started 11 (23) mar-ta pe-re-right-howy grew. troops one-time-men-but in the regions of Brai-lo-va, Ga-la-tsa and Iz-mai-la, for-hva-tom Isak-chi, Tul-chi, Ma-chi-na , and then Gir-so-vo. The people of Bol-ga-rii pri-vet-st-in-shaft grew. voy-ska as os-vo-bo-di-te-lei from the tour. yoke. All in. Greece broke out-well-lo anti-tu-rets-re-establishment, one-on-the-far-neck on-stu-p-le-nie grew. troops were-lo-o-ta-nov-le-but because of the non-decision of M. D. Gor-cha-ko-va. Only on May 4 (16), at the request of the imp. No-ko-barking I na-cha-la wasp-da Si-li-st-ri. Pro-in-loch-ki with the beginning of the cam-pa-nii in-zvo-li-whether Ve-li-co-bri-ta-nii and France to issue in-en.-po li-tich. co-yuz, develop a plan of co-together-st-st-vii and complete the under-go-to-comrade ex-ped. troops. 15-16 (27-28). 3.1854 these countries are-I-vi-li war-nu Russia and Russian-tour. howl-on-pe-re-grew-la in the war of Russia with koa-li-tsi-she ev-rop. go-su-darst. Ang-lo-French. fleet (34 liner ships, 55 frets, mostly pa-rus-no-pa-ro-vie with win-to-you-mi dv-ha-te-la -mi), pe-re-dya to active dey-st-vi-yam on the Black m., under-verg ob-str-lu Odessa-su and other coastal cities ro-da, blo-ki-ro-val grew. fleet (14 pa-rus-line ships and 6 frigates; 6 pa-ro-ho-dof-re-ha-tov) in Se-va-hundred-po-le. In na-cha-le apr. 1854 Av-st-ria with-together-st-but with Ve-li-ko-brie-ta-ni-she and Fran-ci-she you-dv-nu-la ul-ti-ma-tiv-tre -bo-va-nia, under-der-jean-nye Prus-si-she, according to you-in-the-doo grew. troops from Mol-da-vii and Va-la-hii. I grew up in torture. di-plo-ma-tov do-beat-sya co-voice-this ev-rop. countries for the withdrawal of the flo-that so-yuz-nikov from the Black-th m. in exchange for the acceptance of their conditions us-ne-ha did not have. By the end of August, it was growing. ar-miya po-ki-nu-la for-ni-may-ter-ri-to-rii, which-rye were-whether ok-ku-pi-ro-va-ny av-st-riy- tsa-mi.

In ju-not - ju-le ang-lo-fran-co-tour. ex-pe-dits. voy-ska (62 thousand people, 134 field and 114 siege weapons) under the command. French march-sha-la A. Zh.L. Saint-Art-no and Brit. gene. F.J. Rag-la-na co-wed-up-to-that-were in Var-not, and 1-6 (13-18) Sept. you-sa-di-fox in the Ev-pa-to-rii-bay-te. Try-to-be-ta-no-vit pro-movement against-ni-ka on ru-be-same r. Al-ma (see Al-min-s battle-nee-nie-1854) pri-ve-la to a-ra-zh-niyu grew. armies, which-to-paradise went vna-cha-le to Se-va-hundred-po-ly, and then to paradise-on Bakh-chi-sa-raya, os-ta-viv Se -two-one-hundred-pole without cover-tie su-ho-put-ny troops. Voy-ska so-yuz-nikov went-to-go to go-ro-du from the south. Ang-li-cha-not for-hva-ti-li Ba-lak-la-woo, but French-tsu-zy - Ka-we-sho-woo-that, where were you created-da-us - new bases for supplying the following combat actions. In Se-va-sto-le 13 (25) Sept. the volume of the siege, the beginning of the Se-va-hundred-polish defense, 1854-55. Attempt-ka co-yuz-no-go ko-man-do-va-nia to grab Se-va-one hundred-pol after the 9-day art. ob-stre-la, on-cha-to-go 5 (17) oct., the end of the failure. The fire grew. ba-ta-rai bore the tangible damage of the siege ar-tyl-leria and the co-slaves against the on and gene. F. Kan-ro-be-ra (for-me-niv-she-go Saint-Ar-no) ot-l-live assault. Grew up. howl 13 (25) Oct. pre-pri-nya-whether to-torture for-hva-ta uk-re-p-len-noy bas-zy English. troops in the district of Ba-lak-la-you. Chor-gun -sky detachment (general-l. P. P. Li-p-rand-di) under the cover of the detachment of the general-m. O.P. ka-va-le-rii, one-to-develop so-tich. success-infantry failed. New, ge-not-ral-ny, the assault of Se-va-one-hundred-po-la, on-zen-chen so-yuz-ni-ka-mi on 6 (18) no-yab., Was co-torn In-ker-man-skim crap 1854, in which-rum, did not look at the growth. troops, the enemy-nickname-carried-the-cheat. on-the-ri and, from-ka-zav-shis from the storm-ma, went to the long-tel-noy wasp-de go-ro-da.

To the Caucasus. Theater of operations with-mid-to-to-chi-whether the army of Mus-ta-fy For-reef-pa-shi numbering up to 120 thousand people. and in May 1854 they went to the n-stu-n-le-nie on the alek-san-d-ro-pol-skom and ku-ta-is-skom on-right-le-ni-yah pro tiv 40 thousand-syach-no-th cor-po-sa V.O. Be-bu-to-va. Ch. the forces of the cor-poo-sa (18 thousand people) at this time from-ra-zha-whether the invasion in Vost. To Georgia from-ryadov mountains-tsev under the pre-in-di-tel-st-vom Sha-mi-la. Don't look at it, I grew up. howl-ska, dey-st-vuya dep. from-rya-da-mi, once-gro-mi-whether tu-rock on the river. Cho-rokh, in Kyu-ryuk-Da-rin-skom 1854 and for-nya-li Baya-zet.

In the spring of 1854, combat actions began on the Baltiysk m. and French. es-cadres under the command. vi-tse-ad-mi-ra-lov Ch. Ney-pi-ra and A. F. Par-se-val-De-she-na (11 wines and 15 pa-rus neural co-slaves, 32 pa-ro-ho-do-f-re-ha-ta and 7 pa-rus-ny frets). Balt. the fleet consisted of 26 pa-rus-line ship-slaves, 25 frees-ga-tov and cor-ve-tov, of which only 11 were pa-ro-you-mi. For the defense of the bases from the sea grew. sea-rya-ki for the first time use-pol-zo-va-whether min-nye for-g-de-niya. 4 (16) Aug against-t-no-ku managed to ov-la-do the main. grew up. uk-re-p-le-ni-em on the Aland Islands - Bo-mar-zun-dom. By-trying-ki you-sa-dit dr. De-san-you are-no-ud-who's. Ose-new 1854 co-yuz-nye co-slaves in-ki-nu-li Bal-tiyskoe m. In the north in 1854 several. English and French. co-slaves went to Be-loe m. and without-success-pesh-but py-ta-lis ata-co-vat Solovets-kie islands. On Dal-nem Vos-to-ke in August. 1854 English-lo-French. es-kad-ra pre-pr-nya-la po-torture ov-la-child Pe-tro-pav-lov-skim Port (see Pe-tro-pav-lov-ska about-ro- on 1854). One-na-ko, by-ter-singing by-ra-ze-nie, co-yuz-naya es-cad-ra left-la from the be-re-gov Kam-chat-ki. Combat actions in these theaters of operations had a second-ro-ste-pen-value, co-yuz-ni-ki before-after-to-va-if the target was grow grew. ko-man-do-va-to divert their forces from Ch. te-at-ra - Crimea. In de-cab-re to the enemy-w-deb-noy of Russia, English-lo-French. koa-li-tions were connected to Av-st-rya (see Vienna Union to-thief in 1854), one-on-one to the war. dey-st-vi-yah participation does not take-ni-ma-la.

14 (26) .1.1855, according to the demand of France in the war, I entered the Sar-din-ko-ro-left-st-in, on-the-right-viv-neck to the Crimea 15 thousand-strong corpus (General A. La Mar-mo-ra). In Feb-ra-le grew up. ko-man-do-va-nie pre-nya-lo not-successful-try-ku ov-la-do Ev-pa-to-ri-ei, after that I get in-beer on the pre-table imp. Alek-sandr II mixed with a hundred commands. Crimean army (128 thousand people, including 43 thousand people in Se-va-hundred-po-le) A.S. Men-shi-ko-va and signified instead of not-th M. D. Gor-cha-ko-va. However, the swagger of the co-man-blowing could no longer change the thread of the affairs. During the spring and summer of 1855, the allied troops (175 thousand people) produced 5 many-su-fine art. about-shots and pre-pri-nya-whether several. assault Se-va-one hundred-la. In re-zul-ta-te on-the-second of them 27 Aug. (8 Sept.) There was-la-hwa-che-na key position in the system-te-me ob-ro-us Se-va-sto-po-la - Ma-la- hov kur-gan. Grew up. ko-man-do-va-ny-nya-lo the decision to hit the city and move to the north. be-reg Se-va-one hundred-polish bay-you. The remaining co-slaves were for-that-p-le-ny. Os-lab-len-nye allied troops-ska, having seized the south. part of the go-ro-da, could not-continue-to-go-n-le-nie.

On the Baltic Sea in 1855, dey-st-vo-va-li ang-lo-franc. es-cadres (20 wines-to-vy-ney-ko-slaves, 32 pa-ro-ho-dof-re-ha-ta and kor-ve-ta, 18 other su-dov ) under the command. rear-ad-mi-ra-lov R. Dan-da-sa and Sh. Pe-no. After under-ry-va of several ships on the rise. min-nah at Kron-shtad-that the opponent-nickname did not show activity. His actions in the main. og-ra-ni-chi-va-ls block-ka-doy and about-stre-lom in be-re-zhya. At the end of July, he, without-success-successfully, tried-t-tal-Xia to praise Gel-sing-force (Hel-sin-ki) and cover his fortress Svea -borg. To the end of no-yab-rya English-lo-French. es-cad-ry in-ki-nu-li Bal-ti-m whether the bloc-cad-nye actions, the efficiency of which-ryh was not-meaningful. To the Caucasus. The theater of operations in May on-cha-los on-stu-p-le-nie Ch. forces Division. Kavk. cor-poo-sa (gene. from info. N.N. blo-ka-da 33-thousand-day round. gar-ni-zo-na in the cross-by-sti Kars. You are a garden-ka on the Black-sea-sea in a be-re-zhye Kav-ka-za tour. ex-pe-dits. kor-pu-sa Omer-pas-shi (45 thousand people) and his departure from Su-hu-ma with the aim of de-blo-ka-dy Kar-sa us- ne-ha did not have. Lie-sheen-ny support of gar-ni-zones of the cross-by-sti 16 (28) no-yab. ka-pi-tu-li-ro-shaft. Omer-pas-sha with omer-tat-ka-mi times-thunder-len-no-go kor-pu-sa went to Su-hu-mu, from-ku-da in February. 1856 on ships-slaves eva-kui-ro-val-sya to Turkey. Do-ro-ga to Er-zur-room turned out to be open, but the arrival of the winter and the work-non-nia with the help of the supply didn’t grow up. howl-scam pro-continue-live on-stu-n-le-ny. By this time-me-ni-en. and eco-no-mich. Possibility of the sides were practically used up, vo-en. action-st-viya stopped at all theaters. After the death of the imp. No-ko-barking I in-go-but-were-pe-re-go-th-ry in Ve-not, and 18 (30) .3.1856 was under-pi-san Pa-riga peace 1856, the sub-result of the Crimean war.

Po-ra-ze-nie in K. century. was-lo-u-words-le-but eco-no-mich. and vo-en. from-a-hundred-stu of Russia, thunder-mozd-ky for-by-ro-kra-ti-zi-ditch. app-para-rat state management could not provide a ready-to-comrade country for the war, but the mistakes grew. di-plo-ma-tii pri-ve-whether to poly-li-tich. Isolation of Russia. Voy-na was an important eta-pom in the development of war. lawsuit. After her, the armies of most-of-the-shin-va countries were-were-on-weapons-on-weapons, the pa-rus-n fleet was replaced by pa-ro -you m. In the ho-de K. century. about-on-ru-lived-las not-so-standing-tak-ti-ki-koln, in-l-chi-whether the development of tak-ti-ka shooter. tse-pei and ele-men-you po-zits. wars. Re-zul-ta-you K. v. education-words-whether pro-ve-de-noe eco-no-mich., so-ci-al-ny and vo-en. re-forms in Russia. Po-te-ri grew. armies for the time of war with-a-hundred-if-whether St. 522 thousand people, tou-rock - approx. 400 thousand people, French-tsu-zov - 95 thousand people, English-li-chan - 22 thousand people.

CRIMEAN WAR

1853-1856

Plan

1 prerequisites for war

2.The course of hostilities

3.Actions in Crimea and the defense of Sevastopol

4.Military action on other fronts

5 diplomatic efforts

6.Results of the war

Crimean (Eastern) War of 1853-56 was conducted between The Russian empire and the coalition of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), France, Great Britain and Sardinia for domination in the Middle East, in the Black Sea basin, in the Caucasus. The Allied Powers no longer wanted to see Russia on the world political stage. New war served as an excellent opportunity to fulfill this goal. Initially, England and France planned to wear out Russia in the fight against Turkey, and then, under the pretext of defending the latter, they counted on attacking Russia. In accordance with this plan, it was planned to deploy hostilities on several fronts, separated from one another (on the Black and Baltic Seas, in the Caucasus, where they placed special hope on the mountain population and on the spiritual leader of the Muslims of Chechnya and Dagestan-Shamil).

BACKGROUND OF WAR

The reason for the conflict was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy over the possession of Christian shrines in Palestine (in particular, in the issue of control over the Church of the Nativity of Christ in Bethlehem). The prelude was the conflict between Nicholas I and the Emperor of France Napoleon III. The Russian emperor considered his French "colleague" illegal, since the Bonaparte dynasty was excluded from the French succession to the throne by the Congress of Vienna (a pan-European conference, during which the borders of the states of Europe were determined after Napoleonic Wars). Napoleon III, realizing the fragility of his power, wanted to divert the attention of the people by the then popular war against Russia (revenge for the war of 1812) and at the same time satisfy his irritation against Nicholas I. Having come to power with the support of the Catholic Church, Napoleon also sought to repay an ally, defending the interests of the Vatican in the international arena, which led to a conflict with the Orthodox Church and directly with Russia. (The French referred to the treaty with the Ottoman Empire on the right to control the Christian holy places in Palestine (in the 19th century, the territory of the Ottoman Empire), and Russia - to the decree of the Sultan, which restored the rights Orthodox Church in Palestine and giving Russia the right to defend the interests of Christians in the Ottoman Empire) .France demanded that the keys to the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem be given to the Catholic clergy, and Russia, so that they remain with the Orthodox community. Turkey, which in the middle of the 19th century was in a state of decline, had no opportunity to refuse either side, and promised to fulfill the requirements of both Russia and France. When a typical Turkish diplomatic ruse was uncovered, France brought a 90-gun steam battleship under the walls of Istanbul. As a result, the keys to the Church of the Nativity of Christ were transferred to France (i.e. the Catholic Church). In response, Russia began mobilizing its army on the border with Moldova and Wallachia.

In February 1853 Nicholas I sent Prince Menshikov A.S. as ambassador to the Turkish Sultan. with an ultimatum to recognize the rights of the Orthodox Church to holy places in Palestine and to grant Russia patronage over Christians in the Ottoman Empire (who made up about a third of the total population). The Russian government counted on the support of Austria and Prussia and considered an alliance between Great Britain and France impossible. However, Great Britain, fearing the strengthening of Russia, agreed to an agreement with France. The British ambassador, Lord Stradford-Redcliffe, convinced the Turkish sultan to partially meet Russia's demands, promising support in case of war. As a result, the Sultan issued a decree on the inviolability of the rights of the Orthodox Church to holy places, but refused to conclude an agreement on protection. Prince Menshikov defiantly behaved at meetings with the Sultan, demanding full satisfaction of the ultimatum. Feeling the support of Western allies, Turkey was in no hurry to respond to Russia's demands. Without waiting for a positive answer, Menshikov and the embassy staff left Constantinople. Trying to put pressure on the Turkish government, Nicholas I ordered the troops to occupy the principality of Moldova and Wallachia subordinate to the sultan. (Initially, the plans of the Russian command were distinguished by courage and decisiveness. It was supposed to conduct a "Bosphorus expedition" landing ships for their exit to the Bosphorus and connection with the rest of the troops. When the Turkish fleet entered the sea, it was planned to break it and then follow to the Bosphorus. The breakthrough of the Russian stage in the Bosphorus endangered the capital of Turkey, Constantinople. To prevent France from lending support to the Ottoman sultan, the plan called for the occupation of the Dardanelles. Nicholas I accepted the plan, but after listening to the next anti-arguments of Prince Menshikov, he rejected it. Subsequently, other active-offensive plans were rejected and the choice of the emperor settled on another faceless plan, a refusal to take any active actions. The troops, under the command of Adjutant General Gorchakov, were ordered to reach the Danube, but avoid hostilities. The Black Sea Fleet was to remain on its shores and evade combat, allocating only cruisers to monitor enemy fleets. With such a demonstration of strength, the Russian emperor hoped to put pressure on Turkey and accept its terms.)

This provoked a protest from the Ports, which led to the convening of a conference of plenipotentiaries of England, France, Prussia and Austria. Its result was the Vienna Note, a compromise on all sides, demanding the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Danube principalities, but giving Russia the nominal right to protect the Orthodox in the Ottoman Empire and nominal control over the holy places in Palestine.

The Vienna note was accepted by Nicholas I, but rejected by the Turkish sultan, who succumbed to the promised military support of the British ambassador. The Porta proposed various changes to the note, which caused the refusal of the Russian side. Consequently, France and Britain formed an alliance with the obligation to defend Turkish territory.

Trying to use the opportunity to "teach a lesson" to Russia with someone else's hands, the Ottoman sultan demanded that the territory of the Danube principalities be cleared within two weeks, and after these conditions were not met on October 4 (16), 1853, he declared war on Russia. On October 20 (November 1), 1853, Russia replied with a similar statement.

PROGRESS OF MILITARY ACTIONS

The Crimean War can be divided into two stages. The first was the Russian-Turkish company proper (November 1853 - April 1854) and the second (April 1854 - February 1856), when the Allies entered the war.

CONDITION ARMED FORCES RUSSIA

As subsequent events showed, Russia was not organizationally and technically ready for war. The combat strength of the army was far from those listed on the lists; the reserve system was unsatisfactory; due to the intervention of Austria, Prussia and Sweden, Russia was forced to keep a significant part of the army on the western border. The technical backwardness of the Russian army and navy has become alarming.

ARMY

In the 1840-50s, the process of replacing outdated smooth-bore guns with rifled ones was actively going on in the European armies. At the beginning of the war, the share of rifled guns in the Russian army was approximately 4-5% of the total; in French-1/3; in English, more than half.

FLEET

Since the beginning of the 19th century, outdated ones have been replaced in European fleets. sailing ships to modern steam rooms. Russian fleet on the eve of the Crimean War, it occupied the third place in the world in terms of the number of warships (after England and France), but in terms of the number of steam ships it was significantly inferior to the Allied fleets.

START OF MILITARY ACTIONS

In November 1853 on the Danube against 82 thousand. Army General Gorchakov M.D. Turkey has nominated nearly 150,000 army of Omar Pasha. But the attacks of the Turks were repulsed, and the Russian artillery destroyed the Danube flotilla of Turkey. The main forces of Omar Pasha (about 40 thousand people) moved to Alexandropol, and their Ardagan detachment (18 thousand people) tried to break through to Tiflis through the Borjomi Gorge, but was stopped, and on November 14 (26) was defeated near Akhaltsikh 7 -thousand. detachment of General Andronnikov I.M. On November 19 (December 1), the troops of Prince V.O. (10 thousand people) under Bashkadyklar defeated the main 36-thousand. army of Turkey.

At sea, the initial success was also accompanied by Russia. In mid-November, the Turkish squadron moved to the area of ​​Sukhumi (Sukhum-Kale) and Poti for the landing, but due to a strong storm it was forced to take refuge in the Sinop Bay. This became known to the commander of the Black Sea Fleet, Vice Admiral P.S. Nakhimov, and he led his ships to Sinop. On November 18 (30), the Battle of Sinop took place, during which the Russian squadron defeated the Turkish fleet. The Battle of Sinop went down in history as the last major battle of the era of the sailing fleet.

The defeat of Turkey hastened the entry into the war of France and England. After Nakhimov's victory at Sinop, the British and French squadrons entered the Black Sea under the pretext of protecting Turkish ships and ports from attacks from the Russian side. On January 17 (29), 1854, the French emperor presented an ultimatum to Russia: withdraw troops from the Danube principalities and begin negotiations with Turkey. On February 9 (21), Russia rejected the ultimatum and announced the severance of diplomatic relations with France and England.

15 (27) March 1854 Great Britain and France declared war on Russia. On March 30 (April 11), Russia responded with a similar statement.

To forestall the enemy in the Balkans, Nicholas I ordered to go on the offensive in this area. In March 1854, the Russian army under the command of Field Marshal I.F. invaded Bulgaria. Initially, the company developed successfully - the Russian army crossed the Danube at Galati, Izmail and Brailaa and occupied the fortresses of Machin, Tulcea and Isakcha. But in the future, the Russian command showed indecision, and they only crossed the siege of Silistria on May 5 (18). However, the fear of entering the war on the side of the coalition of Austria, which in alliance with Prussia concentrated 50 thousand. army in Galicia and Transylvania, and then, with the permission of Turkey, took possession of the latter on the banks of the Danube, forced the Russian command to lift the siege, and then at the end of August completely withdraw troops from this area.

CRIMEAN WAR 1853-1856

Causes of the war and the balance of power. Russia took part in the Crimean War, Ottoman Empire, England, France and Sardinia. Each of them had their own calculations in this military conflict in the Middle East.

For Russia, the regime of the Black Sea straits was of paramount importance. In the 30-40s of the XIX century. Russian diplomacy waged an intense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, the Unkiar-Iskelessi treaty was concluded with Turkey. According to it, Russia received the right to freely send its warships through the straits. In the 40s of the XIX century. the situation has changed. On the basis of a number of agreements with European states, the straits were closed to all navies. This had a heavy impact on the Russian fleet. He found himself trapped in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on its military power, sought to re-solve the problem of the straits, to strengthen its positions in the Middle East and the Balkans.

The Ottoman Empire wanted to return the territories lost as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars at the end of the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries.

England and France hoped to crush Russia as a great power, to deprive her of influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula.

The pan-European conflict in the Middle East began in 1850, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy in Palestine over who would own the Holy Places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Orthodox Church was supported by Russia, and the Catholic Church was supported by France. The dispute between the clergy grew into a confrontation between these two European states. The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, sided with France. This caused a sharp discontent in Russia and personally Emperor Nicholas I. A special representative of the tsar, Prince A.S. was sent to Constantinople. Menshikov. He was entrusted with obtaining privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and the right of patronage for the Orthodox subjects of Turkey. Failure of the mission of A.S. Menshikov was a foregone conclusion. The Sultan was not going to yield to the pressure of Russia, and the defiant, disrespectful behavior of her envoy only aggravated conflict situation... Thus, it would seem that it was a private, but for that time important, given the religious feelings of people, the dispute about the Holy Places became the reason for the emergence of the Russian-Turkish, and subsequently the all-European war.

Nicholas I took an uncompromising position, hoping for the might of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). But he miscalculated. The Russian army numbered over 1 million people. However, as it turned out in the course of the war, it was imperfect, primarily in technical terms. Its armament (smoothbore guns) was inferior to the rifled weapons of the Western European armies. Artillery is also outdated. The Russian fleet was predominantly sailing, while the European naval forces were dominated by ships with steam engines. There were no well-established communications. This did not allow to provide the place of hostilities with a sufficient amount of ammunition and food, human replenishment. The Russian army could successfully fight against a similar Turkish army, but could not resist the united forces of Europe.

The course of hostilities. To put pressure on Turkey in 1853, Russian troops were sent to Moldova and Wallachia. In response, the Turkish sultan declared war on Russia in October 1853. He was supported by England and France. Austria has adopted a position of "armed neutrality". Russia found itself in complete political isolation.

The history of the Crimean War is divided into two stages. The first - the Russian-Turkish campaign proper - was conducted with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854. On the second (April 1854 - February 1856), Russia was forced to fight against a coalition of European states.

The main event of the first stage is the Battle of Sinop (November 1853). Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in the Sinop Bay and suppressed the coastal batteries. This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. An Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea, attacking Kronstadt and Sveaborg. British ships entered the White Sea and bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery. A military demonstration was also held in Kamchatka.

The main goal of the joint Anglo-French command was the capture of the Crimea and Sevastopol, the naval base of Russia. On September 2, 1854, the allies began to land an expeditionary corps in the region of Evpatoria. The battle on the r. Alma in September 1854 Russian troops lost. By order of the commander, A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and went to Bakhchisarai. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by sailors Black Sea Fleet, was actively preparing for the defense. It was headed by V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov.

In October 1854, the defense of Sevastopol began. The garrison of the fortress showed unprecedented heroism. In Sevastopol, admirals V.A. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov, V.I. Istomin, military engineer E.I. Totleben, lieutenant-general of artillery S.A. Khrulev, many sailors and soldiers: I. Shevchenko, F. Samolatov, P. Koshka and others.

The main part of the Russian army undertook diversionary operations: the battle of Inkerman (November 1854), the offensive on Evpatoria (February 1855), the battle on the Black River (August 1855). These military actions did not help the Sevastopol residents. In August 1855, the last assault on Sevastopol began. After the fall of the Malakhov Kurgan, the continuation of the defense was difficult. Most of Sevastopol was occupied by the allied forces, however, finding there some ruins, they returned to their positions.

In the Caucasian theater, hostilities developed more successfully for Russia. Turkey invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered a major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress Kare fell.

The extreme exhaustion of the forces of the allies in the Crimea and the Russian successes in the Caucasus led to the cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.

The Parisian world. At the end of March 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed. Russia has not suffered significant territorial losses. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from it. However, she lost the right of patronage to the Danube principalities and Serbia. The most difficult and humiliating condition was the so-called "neutralization" of the Black Sea. Russia was banned from having on the Black Sea naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses. This dealt a significant blow to the security of the southern borders. The role of Russia in the Balkans and the Middle East was reduced to nothing.

The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment of international forces and on the internal situation in Russia. The war, on the one hand, exposed its weakness, but on the other, it demonstrated the heroism and unshakable spirit of the Russian people. The defeat summed up the sad outcome of Nikolaev's rule, shook the entire Russian public and made the government come to grips with reforming the state.

What you need to know on this topic:

Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century. Social structure of the population.

Agricultural development.

The development of Russian industry in the first half of the XIX century. Formation of capitalist relations. Industrial revolution: essence, preconditions, chronology.

Development of water and highways communications. Start of railway construction.

Aggravation of socio-political contradictions in the country. Palace coup in 1801 and accession to the throne of Alexander I. "The days of the Alexandrovs are a wonderful beginning."

The peasant question. The decree "on free farmers". Government measures in the field of education. State activity of M.M. Speransky and his plan of state transformations. Creation of the State Council.

Russia's participation in anti-French coalitions. Tilsit Peace Treaty.

Patriotic War of 1812. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes and the beginning of the war. The balance of forces and military plans of the parties. M.B. Barclay de Tolly. P.I.Bagration. M.I.Kutuzov. The stages of the war. Results and significance of the war.

Foreign campaigns 1813-1814 Congress of Vienna and its decisions. Sacred union.

The internal situation of the country in 1815-1825 Strengthening of conservative sentiments in Russian society. A.A. Arakcheev and Arakcheevshchina. Military settlements.

Foreign policy of tsarism in the first quarter of the 19th century

The first secret organizations of the Decembrists were the Union of Salvation and the Union of Prosperity. Northern and Southern Society. The main program documents of the Decembrists are "Russian Truth" by P.I. Pestel and "Constitution" by N.M. Muraviev. Death of Alexander I. Interregnum. Uprising on December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg. The uprising of the Chernigov regiment. Investigation and trial of the Decembrists. The meaning of the Decembrist uprising.

The beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. Strengthening the autocratic power. Further centralization, bureaucratization of the state system in Russia. Strengthening repressive measures. Creation of the III branch. Censorship charter. The era of censorship terror.

Codification. M.M.Speransky. Reform of the state peasants. P.D. Kiselev. The decree "on obliged peasants."

Polish uprising of 1830-1831

The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the second quarter of the XIX century.

Eastern question. Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 The problem of straits in the foreign policy of Russia in the 30-40s of the XIX century.

Russia and the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 in Europe.

Crimean War. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes of the war. The course of hostilities. The defeat of Russia in the war. The Paris Peace of 1856. International and internal consequences of the war.

Accession of the Caucasus to Russia.

Formation of the state (imamate) in the North Caucasus. Muridism. Shamil. Caucasian War. The significance of the annexation of the Caucasus to Russia.

Social thought and social movement in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.

Formation of government ideology. The theory of the official nationality. Circles of the late 20s - early 30s of the XIX century.

N.V. Stankevich's circle and German idealistic philosophy. A.I. Herzen's circle and utopian socialism. "Philosophical letter" P.Ya. Chaadaev. Westerners. Moderate. Radicals. Slavophiles. MV Butashevich-Petrashevsky and his circle. The theory of "Russian socialism" by A.I. Herzen.

Socio-economic and political prerequisites for the bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the XIX century.

Peasant reform. Preparation of the reform. "Regulations" February 19, 1861 Personal liberation of the peasants. Nadela. Ransom. Obligations of the peasants. Temporarily liable state.

Zemskaya, judicial, urban reforms. Financial reforms. Reforms in the field of education. Censorship rules. Military reforms. The significance of bourgeois reforms.

Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the XIX century. Social structure of the population.

Industry development. Industrial revolution: essence, preconditions, chronology. The main stages in the development of capitalism in industry.

The development of capitalism in agriculture. Rural community in post-reform Russia. Agrarian crisis of the 80-90s of the XIX century.

Social movement in Russia in the 50-60s of the XIX century.

Social movement in Russia 70-90s of the XIX century.

The revolutionary populist movement of the 70s - early 80s of the XIX century.

"Land and Freedom" of the 70s of the XIX century. "Narodnaya Volya" and "Black Redistribution". The assassination of Alexander II on March 1, 1881. The collapse of "Narodnaya Volya".

Labor movement in the second half of the 19th century. Strike struggle. The first workers' organizations. The emergence of a work question. Factory legislation.

Liberal populism of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The spread of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. Group "Emancipation of Labor" (1883-1903). The emergence of Russian social democracy. Marxist circles of the 80s of the XIX century.

Petersburg "Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class". V.I.Ulyanov. "Legal Marxism".

Political reaction of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The era of counterreforms.

Alexander III. Manifesto on the "inviolability" of the autocracy (1881). Counter-reform policy. Results and significance of counter-reforms.

The international position of Russia after the Crimean War. Changes in the country's foreign policy program. The main directions and stages of Russian foreign policy in the second half of the XIX century.

Russia in the system international relations after the Franco-Prussian war. Union of three emperors.

Russia and the Eastern Crisis of the 70s of the XIX century. The goals of Russia's policy in the Eastern question. The Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878: reasons, plans and forces of the parties, the course of hostilities. San Stefano Peace Treaty. Berlin Congress and its decisions. The role of Russia in the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman yoke.

Foreign policy of Russia in the 80-90s of the XIX century Education Triple union(1882). Deterioration of Russia's relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary. The conclusion of the Russian-French alliance (1891-1894).

• Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia: late 17th - 19th centuries ... - M .: Education, 1996.