2. Reflex - concept, its role and importance in the body

Reflexes (from the Latin slot Reflexus - reflected) call the responses of the body to irritating receptors. In the receptors there are nervous impulses, which, according to the sensory (centripetal) neurons come to the central nervous system. There, the information obtained is treated with inserted neurons, after which motor (centrifugal) neurons and nerve impulses are excited and the actuators are driven by the actuators - muscles or glands. Inserted the neurons, the bodies and the processes of which, do not go beyond the central nervous system. The path under which the nerve impulses from the receptor passes to the executive body is called a reflex arc.

Reflex actions are holistic actions aimed at satisfying a certain need, in food, water, safety, etc. They contribute to the survival of individuals or the species as a whole. They are classified for food, water-producing, defensive, genital, indicative, nesting construction, etc. There are reflexes that establish a certain order (hierarchy) in a herd or flock, and territorial, determining the territory captured by one or another or a pack.

There are positive reflexes when the stimulus causes certain activities, and negative, brakes, in which the activity stops. For the latter, for example, there is a passive-defensive reflex in animals when they freeze when a predator appears unfamiliar sound.

Reflexes play an exceptional role in maintaining the constancy of the inner environment of the body, its homeostasis. So, for example, with an increase in blood pressure, a reflex deceleration of cardiac activity and an expansion of the enlightenment of the arteries, so pressure decreases. With its strong fall, opposite reflexes, reinforcement and acceleration of heart cuts and narrowing clearing the arteries, as a result, the pressure rises. It continuously fluctuates around some constant value, which is called physiological constant. This value is due to genetically.

The famous Soviet physiologist P. K. Anokhin showed that the actions of animals and humans are determined by their needs. For example, the lack of water in the body is first replenished at the expense of internal reserves. Reflexes, delaying water loss in the kidneys, increase the absorption of water from the intestine, etc. If this does not lead to the desired result, in the centers of the brain, regulating the flow of water, arises arising and the feeling of thirst appears. This excitement causes targeted behavior, water search. Thanks to direct bonds, the nerve impulses coming from the brain to the executive bodies, the necessary actions are ensured (the animal finds and drinks water), and due to the inverse relations, nerve impulses going in the opposite direction - from peripheral organs: oral cavity and stomach - to The brain informs the latter about the results of the action. So, during drinking the water saturation center is excited, and when the thirst is satisfied, the corresponding center will slow down. This is how the controlling function of the central nervous system is carried out.

The discovery of I. P. Pavlov's conditional reflexes was a great achievement of physiology.

Unconditional reflexes are inborn, inherited by the organism of the reaction to the environment. Unconditional reflexes are characterized by constancy and do not depend on learning and special conditions For their occurrence. For example, on pain irritation, the body corresponds to a defensive reaction. There is a large manifold unconditional reflexes: defensive, food, indicative, genital, etc.

Reactions underlying unconditional reflexes in animals were produced by millennia during the device different species Animals to the environment, in the process of struggle for existence. Gradually, in conditions of long-term evolution, unconditional reflex reactions necessary to meet the biological needs and preserving the life of the body, were fixed and transferred by inheritance, and those of certain reflex reactions that lost their value for the life of the body lost their expediency, on the contrary, disappeared, Not restoring.

Under the influence of continuous environmental change, more durable and perfect forms of animal response, providing the body to adapt to changed living conditions, were required. In the process of individual development, highly organized animals forms a special type of reflexes, which I. P. Pavlov called conventional.

Conditional reflexes acquired by the body during life provide the appropriate reaction of the living organism to changes in the environment and on this basis is the balancing of the body with the medium. In contrast to unconditional reflexes, which are usually carried out by lower departments of the central nervous system (spinal, oblong brain, subcortical nodes), conditional reflexes in highly organized animals and in humans are carried out mainly by the highest department of the central nervous system (bark of large hemispheres of the brain).

The observation of the phenomenon of the "mental secretion" of the dog helped I. P. Pavlov to open a conditional reflex. Animal, having seen in a distance of food stabbed her saliva even before eating. This fact was interpreted in different ways. The essence of the "mental secretion" explained I. P. Pavlov. He found that, firstly, in order for the dog to start salivation at the sight of meat, she had to see it before at least once. And, secondly, any stimulus (for example, a kind of food, a call, flashing light bulb, etc.) is able to cause salivation subject to the coincidence of the time of action of this irritant and feeding time. If, for example, feeding was constantly preceded by a knock of the cup, in which there was food, it was always the moment when the dog was started to stand out for one, saliva began to stand out. Reactions that are caused by stimuli, previously indifferent. I. P. Pavlov called convention and reflex. The conditional reflex, I was noted by I. P. Pavlov, this phenomenon is physiological, as it is associated with the activities of the central nervous system, and at the same time - psychological, since it is a reflection in the brain of specific properties of irritants from the outside world.

Conditional reflexes in animals in the experiments of I. P. Pavlov were most often developed on the basis of food unconditional reflex, when food was unconditional stimulus, and the function of the conditional stimulus was performed by one of the indifferent (indifferent) but relation to the food of stimuli (light, sound, etc. .).

The natural conditional stimuli is distinguished, which serve as one of the signs of unconditional stimuli (smell of food, a peak of chicken for chicken, causing her parental conditional reflex, a squeak of a mouse for a cat, etc.), and artificial conditional stimuli, absolutely not associated with certain reflex stimuli (for example, a light bulb, which developed a saludinal reflex from the dog, the ringing of the gong, to which the moose was going to the feeder, etc.). However, any conditional reflex has a signal meaning, and if the conditional stimulus loses it, then the conditional reflex gradually fades.

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Each person, as well as all living organisms, has a number of vital needs: in food, water, comfortable conditions. Everyone has instincts of self-preservation and continuing a kind. All mechanisms aimed at meeting these needs are laid at the genetic level and appear simultaneously with the birth of the body. This is congenital reflexes that help survive.

The concept of unconditional reflex

The word Reflex itself for each of us is not something new and unfamiliar. Everyone heard it in his life, and quite many times. This term introduced into the biology of I. P. Pavlov, who devoted a lot of time to study the nervous system.

According to the scientist, unconditional reflexes arise under the action of irritant factors on receptors (for example, pulling out the hand from the hot object). They contribute to the adaptation of the body to those conditions that remain almost immutable.

This is the so-called product of the historical experience of preceding generations, so it is also called a species reflex.

We live in a changing environment, it requires constant adaptations that cannot be provided for by genetic experience. Unconditional human reflexes are constantly braking, then we are modified or again, under the influence of those stimuli, which are surrounded everywhere.

Thus, already familiar stimuli acquire the qualities of biologically significant signals, and the formation of conditional reflexes, which constitute the basis of our individual experience. His Pavlov called the Higher Nervous Activity.

Properties of unconditional reflexes

The characteristic of unconditional reflexes includes several mandatory items:

1. Congenital reflexes are inherited.
2. They are equally manifested in all individuals of this species.
3. For the occurrence of the response, the impact of a certain factor is necessary, for example, for a sucking reflex it is irritation of the lips of the newborn.
4. The perception zone of the stimulus always remains constant.
5. Unconditional reflexes have a constant reflex arc.
6. Distributed throughout life, for some exceptions in newborns.

The value of reflexes

All our interaction with the environment is built at the level of reflex responses. Unconditional and conditioned reflexes play an important role in the existence of the body.

In the process of evolution, there was a division between those aimed at survival of the species, and responsible for fitness to constantly changing conditions.

Congenital reflexes are beginning to manifest itself intrauterine, and their role comes down to the following:

• Maintaining the internal environment at a constant level.
• Preservation of body integrity.
• Preservation of type by reproduction.

The role of congenital reactions is great immediately after birth, it is they who provide an infant survival in completely new conditions for him.

The body lives surrounded by external factors that are constantly changing, and they must be adapted. Here, the highest nervous activity in the form of conditional reflexes is already on the fore.

For the body, they have the following meaning:

• Improve the mechanisms of its interaction with the environment.
• Specify and complicate the processes of contacting the organism with the external environment.
• Conditional reflexes are the indispensable basis for training, upbringing and behavior processes.

Thus, unconditional and conditional reflexes are aimed at maintaining the integrity of the living organism and the constancy of the inner medium, as well as effective interaction with the surrounding world. Among themselves, they can be combined into complex reflex acts that have a certain biological orientation.

Classification of unconditional reflexes

Hereditary reactions of the body, despite their congenitivity, can be very different from each other. It is not at all surprising that the classification may be different, depending on the approach.

Still Pavlov divided all unconditional reflexes on:

• Simple (to them the scientist attributed a sucking reflex).
• Sophisticated (sweating).
• More complex unconditional reflexes. Examples can be given a variety of: nutritional reactions, defensive, sex.

Currently, many adhere to classifications based on the value of reflexes. Depending on this they are divided into several groups:

The first group of reactions has two features:

1. If they are not satisfied, it will lead to the death of the body.
2. It is not necessary to meet the presence of another individual of the same species.

The third group also has its own characteristics:

1. Self-development reflexes are in no way connected with the adaptation of the body to this situation. They are aimed at the future.
2. They are quite independent and do not flow out of other needs.

Also divided by the level of their complexity, then the following groups will appear before us:

1. Simple reflexes. These are the usual responses of the body to external stimuli. For example, pulling out the hand from the hot object or blink when the sorts are inserted.
2. Reflex acts.
3. Reactions of behavior.
4. Instincts.
5. Imprint.

Each group has its own features and differences.

Reflex acts

Almost all reflex acts are aimed at ensuring the vital activity of the body, so they are always reliable in their manifestation and cannot be adjusted.

To those can be attributed:

• Breath.
• Swallowing.
• Vomiting.

In order to stop the reflex act, it is necessary to simply remove the stimulus, it causing it. This can be practiced in animal training. If you want natural needs not distracted from workout, before this you need to walk the dog, that you can eliminate the stimulus that can provoke a reflex act.

Reactions of behavior

This kind of unconditional reflexes can be well demonstrated on animals. Behavioral reactions include:

• The desire of a dog to wear and select items. Reaction of Aportation.
• Manifestation of aggression at the form of an unfamiliar person. Active-defensive reaction.
• Search for odor items. Obligation and search reaction.

It is worth noting that the reaction of behavior does not yet mean that the animal will certainly behave. What is meant? For example, a dog having a strong actively-defensive reaction from birth, but the weak physically, most likely, there will be no such aggression.

These reflexes can determine the actions of the animal, but they are quite controlled. They should also be taken into account when training: if an animal is completely there is no olfactory-search reaction, then the search dog is unlikely to bring up from it.

Instincts

There are more complex forms in which unconditional reflexes are manifested. Instincts are just here. This is a whole chain of reflex acts that follow each other and are inextricably interrelated.

All instincts are associated with changing internal needs.

When a child is only born, its lungs practically do not function. The relationship between it and the mother is interrupted by cutting the umbilical bodies, and carbon dioxide accumulates in the blood. He begins his humoral impact on the respiratory center, and an instinctive breath occurs. The child begins to breathe independently, and the first cry of the baby serves as a sign of it.

Instincts are a powerful stimulant in a person's life. They may well motivate success in a certain field of activity. When we stop controlling yourself, we begin to lead instincts. As you yourself understand, there are several of them.

Most scientists adhere to the opinions that there are three main instincts:

1. Self-preservation and survival.
2. Continuation of the kind.
3. Instinct leader.

All of them can generate new needs:

• In safety.
• In material incubation.
• In finding a sexual partner.
• In taking care of children.
• In influence on the surrounding.

You can still list the varieties of human instincts, but, unlike animals, we can control them. For this, our nature has endowed us. Beasts only survive at the expense of instincts, but we also have knowledge to do this.

Do not let your instincts take the top over you, learn them to manage and become the owner of your life.

Imprint

This form of unconditional reflex is also called impregning. There are periods in the life of each individual when all the surrounding furnishings are imprinted in the brain. Each type of this time interval may be different: someone lasts a few hours, and some and several years.

Remember, with what ease of small children make the skills of foreign speech. While schoolchildren apply a lot of effort.

It is thanks to imprint all the kids recognize their parents, distinguish individuals of their own species. For example, Zebra after the birth of a young one for several hours is in a secluded place alone. This is exactly the time that is necessary in order for the young to learn to recognize his mother and did not confuse it with other females in the herd.

Opened this phenomenon of Conrad Lorenz. He spent experience with newborn ducklings. Immediately after hatching the latter, he represented them with various items that they followed, as behind the mother. Even he was perceived as a mother, and pursued him on the heels.

Everyone knows an example with incubator chickens. Compared with their relatives, they are practically hand and are not afraid of a man, because from the very birth they see him in front of them.

Congenital breastfeed reflexes

After his birth, the baby passes a difficult path of development, which consists of several stages. The degree and rate of mastering various skills will be directly dependent on the state of the nervous system. The main indicator of its maturity is the unconditional reflexes of the newborn.

The presence of their baby is checked immediately after birth, and the doctor makes conclusion about the degree of development of the nervous system.

Of the huge number of hereditary reactions, the following can be distinguished:

1. Search reflex Kussmouul. When irritating the area around the mouth, the child turns the head towards the stimulus. Usually reflex fuses by 3 months.
2. Sucking. If you put a finger in the mouth of a child, then it begins to perform sucks. Immediately after feeding, this reflex fuses and activates after a while.
3. Palm-mouth. If the child is pressed on the palm, then it opens the mouth.
4. Grass reflex. If you put a finger in the palm of the baby and click on it slightly, then it takes the reflex compressive and hold.
5. The lower grateful reflex is caused by a slight pressure on the front of the sole. There is a bending of the toes.
6. Reflex crawl. When the stomach is pressed to the sole of the feet causes a crawling movement forward.
7. Protective. If you put a newborn on the stomach, he tries to raise his head and turns her to side.
8. Reflex supports. If you take a baby under the mouse and put on something, then it reflexively extensions the legs and rests on the whole foot.

Unconditional reflexes of the newborn can be listed for a long time. Each of them symbolizes about the degree of development of certain sites of the nervous system. Already after examining a neurologist in the maternity hospital, you can put a preliminary diagnosis of some diseases.

From the point of view of the significance of them for the kid, the reflexes mentioned can be divided into two groups:

1. Segmentary motor automates. They are provided by the segments of the brain barrel and spinal cord.
2. Posotonic automates. Provide the regulation of muscle tone. Centers are on average and oblong brain.

Oral segmental reflexes

Reflexes can be attributed to this type:

• Sucking. Manifested throughout the first year of life.
• Search. Failure occurs at 3-4 months.
• Trump reflex. If you hit your baby with your finger on the lips, then he pulls them into the trot. After 3 months, extinction occurs.
• Palmon-rice reflex shows the development of the nervous system. If it does not manifest or quite weak, then we can talk about the defeat of the central nervous system.

Spinal motor automates

This group includes many unconditional reflexes. Examples can be given as follows:

• Reflex moro. When causing a reaction, for example, a blow on the table not far from the baby's head takes place breeding the hands of the latter to the side. Manifests up to 4-5 months.
• Reflex automatic gait. With a support and a small tilt forward, the crumb makes stepper movements. After 1.5 months begins to fade.
• Reflex Galant. If you spend your finger along the paravertebral line from the shoulder to the buttocks, then the trimming of the body towards the stimulus.

Unconditional reflexes are estimated on the scale: satisfactory, elevated, reduced, is absent.

Differences between conditional and unconditional reflexes

Even Sechenov argued that in those conditions in which the body lives is completely insufficient to survive innate reactions, new reflexes are required. They will contribute to the adaptation of the body to changing conditions.

What differ from conditional unconditional reflexes? Table it demonstrates well.

Despite the obvious difference of conditional reflexes from unconditional, together these reactions provide survival and preservation of the form in nature.

Page 51 of 84

Since conditional reflexes are simply special occasions of associations in which an irritant exciting taking neurons causes an external reaction, it is obvious that this type of phenomena is also found in human life often, as well as associations of other types. In this chapter, we will briefly consider conditional reflexes, usually observed in humans, and show that they do not differ in their properties from the conditioned reflexes found in animals.
Conditional reflexes in humans can be divided into two categories: those that are found in each person, because they are an integral part of his life, and those formed only in certain circumstances, based on a special experience of one person or group of people. Most defensive conditional reflexes belong to the second category. It seems to us that it is not interesting to stop on them, since the reader can not be the right reflexes. Let us dwell on the first category of human conditional reflexes and discuss those of them that seem especially interesting to us. It will be about conditional reflexes associated with food intake and sleep.
Meal. A person usually takes food at regular intervals and at certain times of the day. And the clock of food intake, and the situation in which it occurs, although different from different nations and social groups, but within each group are characterized by astounding constancy and even rigor. This is a constancy that seems natural to us, directly related to conditional reflexes. In a person who always eats at a certain time of the day and in a certain setting, there is a strong conditional reflex of hunger, which forces it in the next days to eat in the same watches and in the same place. This, in turn, fixes nutritional conventional reflexes even more and more strengthens the habit of a certain power mode. Moreover, the presence of such habits in the whole group leads to such spatial-temporary events as preparation for food at a certain time, maintenance in certain places, which again establishes clear borders of food intake, thereby causing further consolidation of the corresponding conditional reflexes.
It is interesting to analyze the interaction between the two main conditional reflexes associated with the meal of food: the conditional reflex of hunger and the conditional reflex for food in their manifestations in a person's life.
The conditional reflex of hunger is determined mainly by a temporary factor, that is, the time interval that has passed after the previous meal. Proof of the fact that this factor acts to a large extent as conditional, and not as an unconditional stimulus, is the fact that the appearance of hunger depends entirely on our daily stereotype and timed to him. We feel hunger before the usual moments of food intake, no matter how distributed during the day and what are the intervals between them. If we did not eat at normal time, then hunger, as a rule, disappears (detecting its conditionaloreflex nature) and appears approximately by the time of the next meal.
These conventional reflexes of hunger are associated not only with the moment of food intake, but also with the number and quality of food. Although, as indicated in ch. I, and the amount of food consumed during one reception and its composition (in the assumption of free choice) depends on the intensity of the undisputed reflector drive of hunger, and selectivity is dictated by the need for the body, however, the number and quality of food eaten significantly depend on the conditional reflexes . If we are accustomed to some time to get a light breakfast, then the intensity of the conditional reflex of hunger will fit it and it will be unpleasant to us if a light snack will be replaced by another type of food. On the contrary, accustomed to the fact that lunch is usually abundant, consisting of a number of dishes, we will not be satisfied if we will give a light snack instead. In the same way, if we are accustomed to breakfast from coffee, toasts, eggs and jams, and we will be offered soup and meat instead, we will have a negative reaction to this change, since the conditionaloreflex drive of hunger at this moment is directed to another type of food. It even seems to us that we were given simply inedible food, although in a few hours we will congratulate the same dishes with a big appetite.
If the conditional reflexes of hunger are installed mainly at the time and to a lesser extent on external stimuli, the conditional reflex to food, on the contrary, depends exclusively from external stimuli, directly preceding the act of food, especially from the external substitution of the meal. When we get up because of your workplace, we put on a coat and go to the dining room, saliva does not stand out, although we are experiencing a very strong drive of hunger. But when we come, sit down in place, turn the napkin, read the menu - then we have a salivation begins, a sign of the manifestation of the conditional reflex.
It should be noted that the conditional reflex in the form of salivation can manifest itself in a setting other than that related to meals. If, for example, someone describes in the company of gourmets, with knowledge of various dishes, the listeners begins to highlight saliva. This is because bright images of food caused by the activation of the corresponding gnostic neurons on the relationships coming from audible neurons can replace direct perception of food; We seem to get food in your imagination.
The relationship between the conditional reflex for food and the conditional reflex of hunger in humans is the same as in animals. People, strictly adhering stereotypes in nutrition (for example, in guesthouses) and usually overeating, rarely experience real hunger, and stimuli, which sign for them the moment of food intake is different (for example, social). Nevertheless, a strong conditional reflex on food, which begins to act when they sit at a well-served table, and especially when they try the first pieces of delicious food, causes strong hunger drive. To his surprise, they are able to eat all the food with a big appetite and pleasure. After all, there is no wonder: "Appetite comes during a meal."
And vice versa, if a person is experiencing strong, even unbearable, hunger, which makes him go, then when he comes and sits down at a well-nesting table, powerful conditional stimuli begins to act on him, signing about the upcoming treatment, and feeling of hunger is weakened.
The saturation state is as well as the drive of hunger, can easily become conditional inflexive. It is well known that if a person has launched some food in some specific place, then later both this food, and the place associated with it is disliked, because at the same time the conditional reflector saturation begins to act, which suppresses appetite.
Sleep. Unflexive sleep, like food and defensive activity, has a dual nature. It is necessary to clearly distinguish the drive of sleep - the desire to fall asleep, which we call the unconditional reflex of drowsiness, and the actual sleep is an unconditional sleep reflex. The unconditional reflex of the drowsiness is excited by a more or less long lack of sleep, while unconditional sleep reflex develops under the action of such external stimuli, as the adoption of a lying or half-round position, muscle relaxation, environmental monotony and a comfortable bed.
It is easy to see that, as in the case of food activity, drowsiness and sleep can easily become conditionaloreflex, just like driving hunger and eating.
The conditional reflex of the drillness is produced for a while when we go to bed on the usual routine of the day. In people who are accustomed to sleep after lunch, drowsiness arises by this time, and they suffer if circumstances do not allow you to go to bed. But if this dream is prevented, then drowsiness gradually passes, which indicates its conditionalflex character. If the afternoon dream is to impede from day to day, then drowsiness, not supported by sleep, ceases to appear in accordance with the principles of conventional reflexes. Most people begins to sleep in the evening, as they are accustomed to go to bed at this time, but those who work at night, on the contrary, at this time are fresh and vigorous and become expensive to the morning.
The conditioned sleep reflex, on the contrary, is produced on those stimuli, which usually accompany falling asleep: type of bedroom, comfortable bed, nightwear, a certain pose, in which a person usually falls asleep, reading a book, radio, smoking cigarettes. This is due to the formation of links between gnostic neurons, which present the relevant perceptions, and neurons in which the hypnogenic stimuli listed above are presented. It is well known that if in the usual atmosphere where we are used to sleep, something is strongly changing, it is impossible to fall asleep if, of course, I want to sleep very much. Strong unconditional reflex drowsiness caused, as a rule, a long lack of sleep, makes us fall asleep even in an unusual atmosphere; It helps to establish a new conditional reflex to a new environment and contributes to the establishment of links between the respective gnostic neurons and hypnogenic neurons.
The legal question arises: how can conditional reflexes of drowsiness and sleep may be produced, if both of these states are opposed to the "Awakening Reaction"?
This question can be answered like this. As previously emphasized, the formation of associations does not necessarily occur against the background of general activation (which is generally a physiological artifact obtained in artificial experimental conditions); For this, there is enough partial activation affecting only certain structures and not concerning others. Taking this into account, we can assume that drowsiness is no less active than any other drive. On the contrary, experiencing drowsiness, the animal is actively looking for a place to sleep, just like a hungry animal looking for food; It, of course, is more sensitive to all irritations that are related to the goal. Consequently, drowsiness activates associations associated with the conditional sleep reflex, just as well as hungry in relation to conditional reflexes for food.
We led to a higher ethological analysis of two important conditional reflexes in order to illustrate the role of the preservative classic conventional reflexes in a person's life. The main conclusion from this analysis is reduced to the fact that both the preparatory and executive activity have an unconditional reflective nature and are regulated primarily by the "the needs of the body", which he "gives to know" the corresponding nervous centers, mainly through the chemoreceptors, which are on the periphery, so and in the central nervous system. However, more subtle regulation of the other activity is carried out through conditional reflexes, which, perhaps, are not strong enough to cause significant changes, but which are so distributed in time and space to adapt them to the characteristics of the life of a separate individual or the team.
Social behavior a person turns out to be another field of manifestation of conditional reflexes; We will call them social conventional reflexes. Social environment surrounds a person since his birth to death, to a large extent determining the conditions of his life; From this environment, the most external irritations affecting human life comes. Not going to enter into all the details of human relationships, we would like, however, to attract attention only to one side, closely related to the issues under consideration.
Each person, be it an adult or a child, with constant communication with other people, highly specific emotional relationships are produced, which are based on conditional reflexes. The formation of these conditional reflexes is as follows. For a given person, whom we will consider the object (call it O), the attitude towards it of other people with which it is connected can be considered as a kind of unconditional irritation (therefore, we call them P1, P2, P3-); As a result, various conditioned reflexes arise as emotional and executive. For example, P1, as a rule, is aggressive in relation to our Oh, he insults him or harm him; P2 is always kind and soft with o; P3 is his partner in sexual life; P4 saves about the danger (true or imaginary), thereby relaxing in the last feeling of anxiety; P5 tried to cause harm, but he failed, after which he had a sense of victory. Accordingly, the behavior of P1 causes u about unconditional reflex of fear and rage, the behavior of P2 causes a sense of attachment, P3 - sexual attraction and the corresponding unconditional executive reflex, P4 - causes a state of relief, A P5 is a sense of satisfaction. Typically, various behavioral acts of this person cause a number of emotional unconditional reflexes, or complementary to each other (for example, attachment and sexual attraction), and sometimes antagonistic to each other (for example, attachment and fear).
As a result, according to the principles of the formation of conditional reflexes, this person, that is, his face, voice or image, become typical conditional stimuli and cause relevant emotional conditioned fear reflexes, affection, sexual drive, relief. The properties of these social conditional reflexes are surprisingly similar to the properties of classical conventional reflexes developed in experimental animals. This will again be shown in the next chapter, where we will discuss the alteration of conditional reflexes caused by a change in the reinforcing agent associated with this conventional signal.
Another type of classical conditional reflexes, playing an important role in a person's life, are conditional reflexes associated with the words read or heard. As many times mentioned earlier, there are strong associations between the words and incentive objects that they are indicated and cause their images or hallucinations. If these stimulus objects in turn are associated with unconditional irritants from the sphere of emotional or executive reflexes, then the words cause typical conditional reflexes of the second order.
Here are some examples. If in the company it comes to delicious food, then very soon this conversation begins to call him a conditional reflex of hunger and (or) conditional reflex for food. When reading a story in which a sexual topic is addressed, images arising under the influence of the read can cause sexual conventional reflex. If there are some terrible events in the story, the corresponding images cause a conditional fear reflex.

The same principle of verbal conventional reflexes is also valid in a related group of phenomena called suggestion. If you are convinced to say a person that in the room where he just entered, it is very cold, it will really begin to test the hallucination of the cold and will tremble. In the same way, if I persistently convince someone that in the newly eaten food was a worm, a man may appear nausea and even vomiting. If you inspire a person that he wants to sleep, there is a lot of so much and he really falls asleep.
The susceptibility to the suggestion is different in different people and is dependent, among other things, on the degree of emotionality in general, on the strength of associations between words and emotions, as well as from the emotional state in which a person is currently at the moment and which is determined by his own impulse. So, it is much easier for a person to inspire that a bush in a dark forest is a damned gangster, if he is already afraid than if he is in a cheerful, careless mood. Hungry is much easier to inspire that the smell that felt the smell is smelling than a person called. The above examples clearly discovered the sum of the excitation of neurons corresponding to the unconditional stimulus with the simultaneous action of a weak conventional signal and a weak unconditional agent. Naturally, there is the same mechanism here as the sum of the excitation of Gnostic neurons through perception and through associations.

Conclusion and conclusions

In accordance with the considerations set forth in this chapter, the development of classical conventional reflexes is nothing more than the formation of associations between an indifferent and biologically significant stimulus, that is, that causes an external unconditional answer. In this case, the indifferent stimulus acquires the ability to cause the same answer as the unconditional stimulus; This allows you to study the association with an objective and relatively accurate method. By definition, the classic conditional reflex includes only those effects that are caused by a reinforcing agent, although it is not clear whether all or only part of the effects of unconditional stimulus can become conditional inflexive.
Since the main types of congenital activity of the body consist of preparatory reflexes (drives) and executive, the same is equitable for both conditional reflexes. Thus, food conditional reflexes can be divided into conditional reflexes of hunger and conditional reflexes for food, and defensive - on conditional fear reflexes and conditional pain reflexes, etc.
The basis of the conditional reflex of hunger is the relationship between the receiving neurons of the representation of the conventional signal and the neurons of the representative office of the hunger, localized at the highest level of the emotive system. The conditional reflex on food is based on the relationship between the synons of the conditional signal and certain flavoring neurons. The main indicator of the symptoms of hunger is a motor anxiety that can turn into an instrumental reaction if it is for this special training (see CH. IX). The main indicator of the conditional reflex to food is the selection of saliva.
The activating factor ensuring the formation of ancient reflex of hunger is an unconditional reflex of hunger, and for the conditional reflex to food - a formed conventional reflex of hunger, which causes simultaneous activation of neurons in the gennic field of the conventional signal and in the taste of the Gnostic field.

Food, in addition to a specific unconditional response, also causes an anticerive reflex of hunger, which slows down the drive of hunger. The same applies to conditional reflex to food. As a consequence, the conditional meal and the sylneal conventional signal is usually represented by different incentive objects. The syncable signal turns out to be, as a rule, the entire situation associated with feeding and (or) feeding time, while the conditional signal of food typically serves a sporadic signal directly preceding the food unconditional stimulus. Both conditional reflexes - the reflex of hunger and the reflex for food - often turn out to be intertwined by replacing each other in the presence of the same conventional signal. If an indifferent irritant is usually supported by the presentation of food with a short isolated action of the conditional signal, then in this case the conditional reflex to food prevails over the sylneal conventional reflex to such an extent that the animal due to the lack of hunger reluctantly takes food. If this stimulus is sometimes not reinforced by food or introduce another similar conditional agent used without reinforcement, then the drive of hunger is enhanced. In general, we can say that confidence in the appearance of food or any other attractive unconditional stimulus in the presence of a conventional signal tends to loosen the corresponding drive, making the animal relatively indifferent to the achievement of the target. At the same time, the insecurity, on the contrary, strengthens the drive and makes the goal more desirable. In fact, the entire climbing ritual, so common and in animals and in people whose purpose consists in a certain deferment of sexual act, leads to an increase in sexual entry and facilitates the subsequent executive penaltone. The problem of communication between the sex drive and the availability of sexual goals is analyzed in detail in the monumental work of M. Pruda (48].
The situation in relation to defensive conventional reflexes is somewhat different, since the supporting harmful stimulus causes and unconditional fear reflex and the executive defensive unconditional reflex. Therefore, both relevant conditional reflex overlap each other in more thanthan with food conditional reflexes. However, here a long-acting irritant, such as an experimental situation, causes mainly (or even exclusively) a conditional fear reflex, while a short stimulus preceding the harmful unconditional stimulus, also causes an executive conditional reflex. The stronger the fear component in this defensive conditional reflex, the more stable and stronger the executive reaction, if, of course, the conditional fear reflex is not so strong to destroy the appropriate association between conditional and unconditional irritation.
The usual development of conditional reflexes leads not only to the formation of associations directed from the experimental situation and sporadic signal to the unconditional drive agent and an actuator agent, respectively, but also to the formation of associations of other types: 1) associations between the experimental situation and the conventional signal; 2) associations between the unconditional drive agent and the conventional signal (Fig. 51). Thanks to these associations, the excitability of neurons that perceive the conditional signal is increasing during the experiment. That is why the same conditional signal, given outside the experimental situation, causes a weaker answer or does not cause a response at all.

The magnitude of classical conditional reflexes depends on the intensity of activation in the Gnostic fields involved in the formation of the conditional reflex, on the strength of the reinforcing stimulus and on the nature of the conventional signal.
Numerous experiments have shown that the conditional response caused by this conditional signal depends on its intensity, the lack of monotony and spatial coincidence with the unconditional agent. In dogs, auditory conventions are more effective than visual. All these facts find their explanation in the general properties of the excitability of neurons and the impact on them activation.

FIG. 51. The main relationship between the conventional signals (USS), the experimental situation (Exp. Ohrust.) And unconditional Agents of Executive (s) and Drive Reflex (D).
The best temporary mode for the formation of the conditional reflex is a bit of the conventional signal with a partial coincidence with reinforcement. It is not clear however, why the simultaneous presentation of the conventional signal and unconditional irritation does not lead to the formation of the conditional reflex. If in the same situation, two stimuli are given in random order, then mutual weak associations are formed between them. It is possible that the overlap is a special case of this phenomenon.
Experiments with the removal of certain areas of the cortex, as well as the entire new bark, showed that although such damage impairs the ability to perceive conventional signals and unconditional stimuli, the ability to form conditional reflexes, as such, is preserved. We offer a hypothesis, according to which the gross perception of incentive objects is carried out by basal ganglia; These ganglia are a primitive multi-analyzer system that establishes communication mainly with an emotive brain. This explains why the destruction of the cortex may be destructive for certain actuators of conventional reflexes, but does not violate the conventional driving-reflexes.
Experimental data relating to classic conventional reflexes in animals shed light to similar phenomena in humans. In the daily life of a person, the following classical conventional reflexes play an important role: 1) Conditional reflex of hunger and conditional reflex for food; 2) Conditional Drive Reflexes and Executive Reflexes associated with other types of preservative activity (sexual behavior, sleep, defecation, etc.); 3) social conditioned reflexes, when acts of behavior of other people serve for a person unconditional agents, and people themselves become conventional signals; 4) Conditional reflexes on printed and oral words that cause images described by the words of incentive objects, causing appropriate conditional reflexes. The phenomena of suggestion is also based on this mechanism.

In the course of evolutionary and social Development A person has developed a natural protection system for adverse environmental factors, i.e. from dangers. Its foundation is a nervous system. Thanks to it, there is a connection between the body with an external environment lei (light, sound, smell, mechanical impact) and a variety of information about the processes inside and outside the body. The response of the organism for irritation carried out and controlled by the central nervous system is called the reflex, and the entire activity of the nervous system is reflex. In the diverse reflex activity, there are congenital unconditional reflexes that are inherited and persisted throughout the body's life.

Unconditional human reflexes are diverse. For example, wandering your hands in response to the skin burn, the closure of the eyes in the event of the danger of their damage, the abundant release of tears under the action of substances irritating the eyes, etc. These and many other reflexes got the name of defensive.

An indicative reflex occupies a special place among unconditional reflexes in safety. He appears in response to a new stimulus: a man is alarming, listens, turns his head, sticks his eyes, thinks. Approximate reflex ensures the perception of an unfamiliar stimulus.

Unconditional reflexes is a hereditary "program" of behavior. They provide normal interaction only with a stable medium. However, a person lives in an exceptionally variable, mobile, diverse environment. Unconditional reflexes as connections permanent to ensure flexible response in a variable medium is not enough. It is necessary to addition to their temporary flexible connections. Such connections are called conditional reflexes.

Conditional reflexes are formed on the basis of individual experience. Since the acquisition of individual experience is training, the formation of conditional reflexes is one of the types of training.

Conditional reflexes formed in the learning process allow the body more flexibly adapt to specific environmental conditions and underlie the production of habits, the whole lifestyle.

The adaptive value of conditional reflexes is huge. Thanks to them, a person can take the necessary actions in advance for its protection, focusing on the signs of possible danger, without seeing the most danger. Conditional stimuli have a signal character. They warn about danger.

All direct sensations, perception and the corresponding human reactions are carried out on the basis of unconditional and conditional reflexes. However, in the specific conditions of the social environment, a person is focused and reacts not only to immediate stimuli. For a person, a signal of any stimulus serves as its word, and its semantic content. Words pronounced, audible and visible are signals, symbols of specific items and environmental phenomena. In a word, a person denotes everything that perceives with the help of senses.

Words, as well as other environmental factors (physical, chemical and biological), in relation to human health, may be indifferent, can have a beneficial effect, and they can harm - up to death (suicide).

Conditional reflexes and their meaning.

Environmental conditions in which man and animals are constantly changing. Since unconditional reflexes are quite conservative, they cannot provide every time the adaptation of the body's reactions, respectively, with these changes. In the process of evolution, animals developed the ability to form reflexes that manifest themselves only in certain conditions, named I. P. Pavlov conditional reflexes.

Conditional reflexesunlike unconditional, have a temporary nature and can be fed with a change in environmental conditions. Coinciding in its actions with unconditional stimuli, conditional acquire alarm, warning value. They provide man and animals the opportunity to respond in advance to negative or positive stimuli.

Conditional reflexes are formed on the basis of unconditional. In the process of developing the body, they submit themselves the function of unconditional, adapting them according to the new environmental requirements. When forming conditional reflexes, you should follow certain rules, conditions. The first and basic condition is coincidence in timeone-time or reusable action of the conditional stimulus (indifferent) with an unconditional stimulus or actions immediately after it. For example, to form a conditional salivary reflex in dogs to the sound of the call, it is necessary that this sound has been preceded by feeding several times. After such an unification in the time of conditional and unconditional stimuli, the saliva is allocated when the call is turned on without accompanying its food. Consequently, the bell became a conditioned stimulus of salivation. In the same way, conditioned reflexes in humans are formed. For example, lemon use determines salivation. This is an unconditional reflector reaction. Combining several times the use of lemon with the inclusion of light, only the inclusion of light will cause salivation. This is a conditional reflector reaction.

An important condition for the formation of conditional reflexes is a certain the sequence of action of irritants, Conditioned by the fact that under the influence of the unconditional stimulus in the core of a large brain in the nervous center of this irritant, a strong focus of excitement is formed. The excitability of other sections of the cortex decreases, so weak conditional stimulus will not cause the excitation of the corresponding bark zone. For the formation of conditional reflexes, it is also necessary that the large brain bark is free from other activities, and the body was in a normal functional state. The effect of permanent stimuli, the painful condition of the body significantly complicates the formation of conditional reflexes. Unlike the animal brain, the human brain is able to form conditional reflexes not only in response to specific signals, but also on the heard or read words, numbers, drawings, which ensures the possibility of abstraction and generalization. The latter make up the basis of our thinking and consciousness.

The mechanism for the formation of conditional reflexes. Research I. P. Pavlova found that the formation of conditional reflexes is based on the establishment of temporal relations in the core of a large brain between the nervous centers of unconditional and conditional stimuli. Temporary nervous communication It is formed as a result of the interaction of the processes of arousal and testing (laying) of the path for its conduct, which simultaneously and repeatedly arise in the cortical centers of unconditional and conditional stimuli. The formation of temporary ties is characteristic not only by the bore of a large brain, but also to other departments of the central nervous system. This is evidenced by experiments in which simple conditioned reflexes were produced in animals with remote bark. Reactions of the type of conditional reflexes can be developed in animals that are not having a bark, and even in invertebrate animals with a very primitive nervous system, such as ringed worms.

However, for higher animals and a person, a major role in the formation of temporary ties plays a large brain bark, although subcortical structures are also important for the formation of conditional reflexes.

Thus, conditional reflexes are formed as a result of mutually agreed activities of the crust and subcortex centers, therefore the structure of the reflex arc of conditional reflexes is quite complex. The role of the crust and subcortical structures in the formation of various reflexes of non-etinakov. For example, in the formation of vegetative conventional reflexes, the bark and the subcortical play the same role, while in complex behavioral reactions, the leading role belongs to the crust. However, in these cases, subcortical centers and reticular formations contribute to the formation of conditional reflexes.

The activity of various departments of the central nervous system in the formation of complex behavioral conventional reflexes manifests itself in the fact that their formation processes are accompanied by the appearance of approximate reflex reactions. Increased excitability of large brain cortex contributes to the closure of temporary nervous bonds.

So, conditional reflexes make it possible to adapt their behavior according to environmental changes. Conditional reflexes are formed on the basis of unconditional. The basis of the mechanism for the formation of conditional reflexes is the establishment of time nervous bonds in the core of a large brain between the nervous centers of unconditional and conditional stimuli.