Historical figures of the 15th-16th century. Summary: Statesmen, political and spiritual leaders of Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries. Russian tsars of the 17th century

Studying the history of imperial Russia, researchers, as a rule, focus their attention on the monarchs who determined the fundamental provisions of the domestic and foreign policy of the state. This is a natural approach in the study of absolutism. However, individual officials and commanders also often played an important role in making key decisions. Under weak monarchs, they often became the actual rulers of the empire. And with deep changes during the years of the reign of Peter I, Catherine II and Alexander I, they became a support for the monarch-reformer.

The majority of the population, including the conservative nobility, was not ready to accept the fundamental changes initiated by the monarchs. Without the support of prominent statesmen such as Alexander Menshikov, Mikhail Vorontsov or Nikolai Speransky, the full implementation of the sovereign's plans would have been impossible. The table below provides a brief description of the activities of some civil and military officials who significantly influenced the course of Russian history in the 18th and 19th centuries.

M. Skopin-Shuisky	Prince, boyar, Russian commander. Member of the suppression of the uprising I.I. Bolotnikova. In 1610 at the head of the Russian-Swedish army, he liberated Moscow from the siege of the Tushites.
A. Ordin-Nashchokin (c. 1605-1680)	Russian diplomat, boyar, governor. Directed foreign policy in 1667-71, ambassadorial and other orders. Signed the Andrusovo truce of 1667. In 1672 took the veil as a monk.
P.A. Tolstoy	Count, Russian statesman, ambassador to the Ottoman Empire (1702-14). Since 1718 he was the head of the Secret Chancellery. From 1726 he was a member of the Supreme Privy Council. In 1727 he opposed Menshikov, imprisoned in the Solovetsky Monastery.
F. Lefort	Admiral, Swiss. Since 1678 in Russian service. Companion of Peter I, commanded the fleet in the Azov campaigns. In 1697-98 one of the leaders of the Great Embassy.
F.M. Apraksin	Count, associate of Peter I. He commanded the Russian fleet in the Northern War and the Persian campaign. Since 1718 President of the Admiralty Board, since 1726 a member of the Supreme Privy Council.
D.M. Golitsyn	Prince, one of the leaders of the "supreme leaders", the compiler of the "Conditions". In 1736 convicted on conspiracy charges.
V.V. Dolgoruky	Prince, participant of the Northern War. He led the suppression of the Bulavin uprising. From 1728 he was a member of the Supreme Privy Council. In 1731 he was arrested, in 1739 imprisoned in the Solovetsky Monastery. From 1741 President of the Military Collegium.
V.L. Dolgoruky (c. 1670-1739)	Prince, Russian diplomat. From 1727 he was a member of the Supreme Privy Council. In 1730 he was imprisoned in the Solovetsky Monastery. Executed.
	Russian statesman and military figure, associate of Peter I, senator, president of the Berg and Manufacture College (1717). He translated foreign books, was in charge of the Moscow civil printing house.
A. Menshikov	Companion of Peter I, Most Serene Prince (1707), Generalissimo (1727). The son of a court groom. A major military leader during the Northern War. Under Catherine I, the actual ruler of the state. Peter II exiled to Berezov.
A.V. Makarov	Russian statesman, cabinet-secretary of Peter I (since 1710). He contributed to the accession of Catherine I. Under Peter II, he was the president of the College of Chambers.
B.I. Kurakin	Prince, associate of Peter I, diplomat. Member of the Azov campaigns and the Northern War. He commanded the Semyonovsky regiment in the Battle of Poltava.
A.M. Cherkassky	Prince, Russian statesman. In 1730 he led the opposition of the nobility to the "supreme leaders", from 1731. - office-min., in 1740-41. - Chancellor, President of the College of Foreign Affairs.
P.I. Yaguzhinsky	Count, Russian statesman and diplomat, one of the closest assistants of Peter I, Prosecutor General of the Senate.
B.H. Minich	Count, Russian military and statesman. Under Empress Anna Ioannovna, he was president of the Military Collegium, commanded the Russian army in the Russian-Turkish war of 1735-1739. Exiled in 1742 by Elizaveta Petrovna, returned from exile by Peter III in 1762.
V.N. Tatishchev	Russian historian, statesman. In 1720-22 and 1734-37 he managed state factories in the Urals. In 1741-45. - Governor of Astrakhan
A.I. Osterman	Russian statesman, diplomat, count (1730). Member of the Supreme Privy Council. The actual head of the domestic and foreign policy of Russia under Anna Ioannovna. In 1741 exiled by Elizaveta Petrovna to Berezov.
E.I. Byron	Count, favorite of Empress Anna Ioannovna, Duke of Courland (from 1737), creator of the reactionary regime - Bironovism. After the palace coup of 1741, he was arrested and exiled. Pardoned and returned to Petersburg by Peter III.
A.P. Bestuzhev	Count, Russian statesman and diplomat. In 1740-41. - cabinet minister, in 1744-58. - Chancellor. Since 1762 he has been the first in the Senate.
A.B. Buturlin	Count, favorite of Elizabeth Petrovna. During the Seven Years' War in 1760-61. - Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army.
A.G. Razumovsky	Count, Field Marshal General (1756). Member of the palace revolution of 1741. Since 1742. - morganatic husband of Elizabeth Petrovna.
M.G. Golovkin	Russian statesman, spoke in support of Anna Ioannovna against the "supreme leaders", the opponent of E. Biron. After the accession of Elizabeth Petrovna, he was exiled to Yakutia.
P.I. Shuvalov	Count, Russian statesman. Member of the palace coup of 1741. The actual head of the government under Elizabeth Petrovna. Abolished domestic duties. One of the organizers of the Russian army in the Seven Years' War, improved Russian artillery.
A. Shuvalov	Count, participant in the palace coup of 1741. In 1746-63 he was the head of the Secret Chancellery.
M.I. Vorontsov	Count, Russian statesman and diplomat. In 1741 - a participant in the palace coup and the arrest of the ruler Anna Leopoldovna.
I. Shuvalov	Russian statesman, favorite of Elizabeth Petrovna, adjutant general (1760). He patronized education. 1st curator of Moscow University, President of the Academy of Arts.
N.I. Panin	Count, Russian statesman and diplomat. Since 1747 envoy to Denmark, Sweden. Member of the palace coup of 1762. Educator of Paul I. Author of constitutional projects.
G.G. Orlov	Count, favorite of Catherine II. One of the organizers of the palace coup of 1762. 1st President of the Free Economic Society.
A.G. Orlov	Count, general-in-chief. One of the main participants in the palace coup of 1762. He commanded a Russian squadron in the Mediterranean Sea. For the victories at Navarin and Chesma, he received the title of Chesme. Since 1775 retired.
G. Potemkin	Russian state and military figure, Field Marshal General (1784), organizer of the palace coup of 1762, favorite and closest assistant of Catherine II. Contributed to the development of Sev. Black Sea region. After the annexation of Crimea, he received the title of His Serene Highness Prince of Tauride.
P.A. Palen	Count, Russian cavalry general. In 1798-1801 Petersburg Governor General. One of the organizers and participants in the assassination of Emperor Paul I.
A.A. Arakcheev	Russian statesman, count, general, favorite of Paul I, all-powerful temporary worker under Alexander I. In 1815-25. - the actual head of the state (Arakcheevshchina), organizer and head of military settlements.
MM. Speransky	Count, Russian statesman. Since 1808 - the closest adviser to Alexander I, the author of the plan for liberal reforms, the initiator of the creation of the State Council (1810). In 1812-16 in exile, in 1819-21. - Governor General of Siberia.
A.F. Orlov	Prince, Russian statesman. Participant in the suppression of the Decembrist uprising. In 1844-1856. - the chief of the gendarmes. In 1856 - the first representative of Russia at the Paris Congress. In 1856-60s. - Chairman of the State Council and the Cabinet of Ministers.
P. Kiselev	Count, Russian statesman. In 1837-56. - Minister of State Property, carried out a reform of the management of state peasants. Supporter of the abolition of serfdom.
N. Milyutin	Russian statesman. He belonged to the group of "liberal bureaucrats". Supervisor of preparations for the peasant reform of 1861
M.T. Loris-Melikov	Count, Russian statesman. The actual leader of military operations in the Caucasus in 1877-78. He combined repressions against the revolutionaries with concessions to the liberals.

Key documents of the era

"The Tale of Bygone Years", "Russian Truth", "Izbornik", "Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh", "The Truth of the Yaroslavichs".

Alexander Nevskiy(1220-1263) - son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, grandson of Vsevolod the Big Nest. Prince of Novgorod (1236-1251), Grand Duke of Vladimir (since 1252). After the defeat of the Swedish military detachments of Birger at the mouth of the Neva in 1240, it became known as Nevsky. On April 5, 1242, on the ice of Lake Peipus, he defeated the troops of the Livonian Order, ensuring the independence of North-Western Russia from foreigners. Being the Grand Duke of Vladimir, he took measures to prevent the devastating raids of the Mongol-Tatars on Russia. He was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church as a warrior-deliverer, who also opposed the introduction of Catholicism in the northwestern Russian lands.

Evpatty Kolovraty- the legendary hero, the Ryazan boyar. In 1237, with a "regiment" of 1,700 people, he defeated the Mongol-Tatars in Suzdal. Killed in battle. Sung in "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu".

Daniel Alexandrovich(1261-1303) - the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky. Grand Duke of Moscow. Under him, the Moscow principality separated from the Vladimir principality as an independent one, and founded the Danilov Monastery. Canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church.

Ivan Danilovich Kalita(1296-1341) - the son of Daniil Alexandrovich. Grand Duke of Moscow (since 1325) and Grand Duke of Vladimir (since 1328). Having assisted the Horde in suppressing the Tver uprising in 1327, he received a label to reign in Kostroma. In 1332 he received the bulk of the grand ducal possessions. Significantly replenished the treasury. Expanding the territory of the Moscow principality, increasing its influence and authority, Ivan Kalita laid the foundation for the subsequent transformation of Moscow into a center for collecting Russian lands and fighting against the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

Sergius of Radonezh(about 1321-1391) - founder and abbot of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. The initiator of the introduction of the communal charter in Russian monasteries. He actively supported the unification and national liberation policy of Prince Dmitry Donskoy.

Reseeding. Alexander(? -1380) - monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. Hero of the Battle of Kulikovo. His duel with the Tatar hero Temir-Murza (Chelubey), in which both died, was the beginning of the battle.

Oslyabya Rodion(? -1398) - monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, brother of Peresvet. Hero of the Battle of Kulikovo. In 1398 he traveled with the Moscow embassy to Byzantium.

Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy(1350-1389) - Grand Duke of Moscow (since 1359). The main thing was to strengthen the positions of the Moscow principality and the struggle for the great reign of Vladimir. From the 1370s, he strengthened resistance to the Horde, including the armed one. In the battle on the Piana River (1377) he was defeated. On the Vozha River (1378) he defeated the Horde army. In September 1380, he showed military leadership talent and defeated the huge Golden Horde army of Mamai. Significantly expanded the boundaries of the Moscow principality at the expense of the Meshchersky, Smolensk, Oka, Belarusian lands. He was the first Russian prince who inherited power in the Grand Duchy of Vladimir to his son without the sanction of the Horde. Canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church.

Vasily II Vasilyevich Dark(1415-1462) - Grand Duke of Moscow (since 1425). In the internecine struggle of 1425-1453, he won. In 1446 he was blinded by his cousin Dmitry Shemyaka. He annexed the Nizhny Novgorod principality, part of the Yaroslavl lands, to Moscow. He took measures to develop the Vyatka, Perm lands, the Pechersk region. Reduced land grants to secular feudal lords. He personally led numerous military campaigns.

Ivan III Vasilievich(1440-1505) - Grand Duke of All Russia (since 1478). Founder of the united Moscow state. He attached to the Moscow principality Yaroslavl (1463), Rostov (1474) principalities, Novgorod (1477), Tver principality (1485), and a number of other territories. Under Ivan III, the final liberation of Russia from the Mongol-Tatar yoke took place (1480). Under him, the apparatus of the Russian centralized state took shape and the Sudebnik of 1497 was compiled. He led an active foreign policy.

Vasily III Ivanovich(1479-1533) - Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow, sovereign of all Russia (since 1505). Supporter and continuer of the line to strengthen the Russian centralized state. In 1510 he annexed Pskov, in 1521 - Ryazan. During the Russo-Lithuanian War, Smolensk became part of Russia (1514). To ensure the security of the southern and eastern borders of the state, he ordered the creation of the Great Barrier Line (1521). He sought to limit the monastic land ownership. Under him, the international position of the Moscow state was noticeably strengthened.

Key documents of the era

"Sudebnik" of 1497, "Sudebnik" of 1550, "Stoglav" of 1551, "Chronograph", "Great Menaia", the First Petition of Ivan Peresvetov, Correspondence of Ivan the Terrible and Andrei Kurbsky, "Decree on Fugitive Peasants" of 1597 .

historical figures

Ivan IV Vasilyevich the Terrible(1530-1584) - Grand Duke of Moscow and All Russia (since 1533), Russian Tsar (since 1547). In February 1547 he married Anastasia Romanovna Zakharyina - Yurieva. The first years of rule with the Chosen Rada, whose reforms marked major changes in the country. He led an active foreign policy. In 1565 he established an oprichnina, which he abolished in 1572. The result of the oprichnina was the ruin and devastation of the country, the undermining of the peasant economy, which formed the basis of the country's economy.

Fedor Ivanovich(1557-1598) - Russian tsar. He was married to Irina Godunova. He was humble and religious. At the initial stage of the reign, the Regency Council, appointed by Ivan the Terrible, had real power. Since 1586, Boris Godunov became practically co-ruler of the tsar. He died without leaving an heir. The Rurik dynasty ended with him.

Kurbsky Andrey Mikhailovich(1528-1583) - prince, boyar. Member of the Elected Rada. During the Livonian War - governor. During the period of persecution of members of the Chosen Rada, he preferred to flee to Lithuania. Participated in the war against Russia.

Adashev Alexey Fedorovich(? -1561) - a duma nobleman, okolnichiy, bed-keeper. Since the late 1540s - the head of the Elected Rada. Initiator of a number of reforms. He was the keeper of the state treasury, the press, headed the Petition Order. In 1560 he fell into disgrace and died in Yuriev.

Sylvester(?-around 1566) - priest of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. He had a great influence on Ivan IV, being his confessor. Member of the Elected Rada. Author of a special edition of "Domostroy" and other works. Since 1560, in disgrace. Take the monastic vows.

Macarius(1482-1563) - church leader, writer. Metropolitan since 1542. In 1551, he achieved the rejection by Ivan IV of the project for the secularization of church lands. Editor of the "Great Honors of the Menaion" and "The Book of the Powerful Royal Genealogy." With his assistance, a printing house was opened in Moscow.

Peresvetov Ivan Semyonovich- Russian writer-publicist of the XVI century, the ideologist of the nobility. In his petitions, he put forward a holistic and clear concept of a noble state headed by an autocratic tsar.

Key documents of the era

The cross-kissing letter of Tsar Vasily Shuisky (1606), the Cathedral Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1649), the New Trade Charter (1667), the "Life" of Archpriest Avvakum.

Boris Fyodorovich Godunov(1552-1605) - Russian tsar. Since 1567 - a member of the Oprichny court of Ivan the Terrible. On February 17, 1598, he was elected tsar by the Zemsky Sobor. An outstanding statesman who possessed outstanding abilities and skills in managing a vast country. During the decisive battles with the troops of False Dmitry I died.

False Dmitry I (Tsar Dmitry)(? -1606) - Russian Tsar (June 1605-May 1606). Impostor. Presumably a fugitive monk of the Chudov Monastery in Moscow, Grigory Otrepiev.

Vasily Ivanovich Shuisky(1552-1612) - Russian Tsar from 1606 to 1610. When elected to the kingdom, he gave a cross-kissing record about the boundaries of his power, about loyalty to the people. In September 1610, he was extradited by the government to the Poles, taken to Poland, where he soon died in captivity.

Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov(1596-1645) - the first Russian tsar from the Romanov dynasty. He was elected tsar at the Zemsky Sobor in February 1613. In his reign, the foundations of autocratic power were laid.

Alexey Mikhailovich"The Quietest" (1629-1676) - Russian Tsar from 1645. In the selection of the closest assistants, he was guided primarily by their abilities. He was an active participant in the drafting of the Council Code of 1649, which created the legislative basis for Russian society for many decades.

Filaret(in the world Fedor Nikitich Romanov) (1554-1633) - boyar since 1587. In 1600, for preparing a conspiracy against Boris Godunov, he was forcibly tonsured a monk. Since 1605 - Metropolitan of Rostov. He was taken prisoner by the Poles. In 1619 he was returned to Russia and elected patriarch. He became in fact the co-ruler of his son - Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich.

Nikon(in the world - Nikita Minin) (1605-1681) - Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia (1652-1666). Carried out church and ritual reform. In 1655, he came up with the idea of ​​the primacy of church power over secular power, which led to a conflict with the authorities. In 1666, at the initiative of the tsar, a church council was convened, which condemned Nikon and deprived him of the rank of high priest. He was exiled to a monastery, where he died.

Key documents of the era

Decree on uniform inheritance (1714), Table of ranks, Decree on the purchase of village factories (1721), Customs tariff (1724), "Conditions" of Empress Anna Ioannovna "(1730), Manifesto on granting liberties and freedom to all Russian to the nobility (1762), Letter of commendation to the nobility (1785), Letter of commendation to cities (1785), Manifesto on not forcing peasants to work on Sundays (1797).

Ivan V Alekseevich(1666-1696) - Russian Tsar in 1682-1696. He was in poor health and did not aspire to independent rule. Removed from real power by Sofia Alekseevna, and then by his brother Peter I.

Sofia Alekseevna(in monasticism - Susanna) (1657-1704) - ruler of Russia in 1682-1689. She was an educated, power-hungry and cruel person. After the failure of the conspiracy against Peter I in 1689, she was imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent, and after a new coup attempt (1698), she was tonsured a nun.

Peter I Alekseevich the Great(1672-1725) - Russian tsar since 1682, emperor since 1721. He was an outstanding statesman who significantly advanced the development of Russia in all areas. He considered the main task of his reign to be Russia's access to non-freezing seas. He died on January 28, 1725, without having time to leave orders about the heir to the throne.

Anna Ioannovna(1693-1740) - Russian Empress (1730-1740). In 1710-1711 she was married to the Duke of Courland, after his death she lived mainly in Mitov. After the death of Peter II, members of the Supreme Privy Council decided to invite Anna to the Russian throne, subject to the restriction of her power. Having agreed to these conditions, Anna soon broke the “conditions” “at the request” of the guards-nobles. Rule the country with the help and support of foreigners.

Elizaveta Petrovna(1709-1761) - Empress (1741-1761), born out of wedlock. By a number of signs, one can say that her course was the first step towards the policy of enlightened absolutism. Led an active foreign policy.

Catherine II the Great(born Sophia Augusta Frederick of Anhalt-Zerbst) (1729-1796) - Russian Empress (1762-1796). Originally from Prussia. In internal affairs, she tried to pursue a policy of enlightened absolutism, but after the Peasants' War and the French Revolution, she set a course to tighten the regime and intensify repression. In foreign policy - significantly expanded the boundaries of the Russian Empire.

Pavel I(1754-1801) - Russian emperor (1796-1801). Upon accession to the throne, he began a radical breakdown of everything that his mother Catherine II had created. Many of Catherine's closest associates fell into disgrace. At the same time, the general direction of domestic policy has not fundamentally changed.

Alexey Petrovich(1690-1718) - Tsarevich, eldest son of Peter I and Evdokia Lopukhina. He was hostile to Peter's reforms. Fearing persecution by his father, in 1716 he secretly left for Austria, was returned, arrested and an influential politician. A man of great intelligence, rare energy and ability to work.

Menshikov Alexander Danilovich(1673-1729) - Russian statesman and military leader, Generalissimo (since May 1727). He was the closest associate of Peter I. After his death, he led the movement for the enthronement of Catherine I, becoming the de facto ruler of Russia. Then he was compromised in the eyes of Peter II, accused of high treason, arrested, exiled with his family to Berezov, where he soon died.

Brief biographical information

Andreev Leonid Nikolaevich(1871-1919). Writer. He graduated from the Faculty of Law of Moscow University (1897). He began to publish as a feuilletonist in 1895. In the early 1900s. became close to M. Gorky, joined the group of writers "Knowledge". In early works ("Thought", 1902; "Wall", 1901; "The Life of Vasily of Thebes", 1904), disbelief in the human mind, in the possibility of reorganizing life, appeared. Red Laughter (1904) denounces the horrors of war; the stories The Governor (1906), Ivan Ivanovich (1908), The Tale of the Seven Hanged Men (1908), and the play To the Stars (1906) express sympathy for the revolution and protest against the inhumanity of society. The cycle of philosophical dramas (The Life of a Man, 1907; Black Masks, 1908; Anatema, 1910) contains the thought of the impotence of the mind, the idea of ​​the triumph of irrational forces. In the last period, Andreev also created realistic works: the plays "Days of Our Life" (1908), "Anfisa" (1909), "The One Who Gets Slaps" (1916). Andreev's work with its schematism, sharpness of contrasts, grotesque is close to expressionism.

Bazhenov Vasily Ivanovich(1737-1799). Son of a village priest. Initially, he studied in the "team" of D.V. Ukhtomsky, then at Moscow University. Since 1755 in St. Petersburg - a student and assistant to S.I. Chevakinsky during the construction of St. Nicholas Cathedral. Studied at the Academy of Arts since its foundation. After graduating from the Academy, he was sent as a pensioner to France and Italy for further education. He studied at the Paris Academy with Ch. de Vailly. Lived and worked in Italy. He had the title of professor at the Roman Academy, a member of the academies in Florence and Bologna. In 1765 he returned to St. Petersburg. Participated in the competition for the Yekateringof project, for which he received the title of academician. He served as an architect of the artillery department. In 1767 he was sent to Moscow to put the buildings in the Kremlin in order.

The grandiose project of the Grand Kremlin Palace he created was not implemented, but had a huge impact on the formation of the classic principles of urban planning in Russia. During the work in the Kremlin around Bazhenov, a school of young classicist architects developed (M.F. Kazakov, I.V. Egotov, E.S. Nazarov, R.D. Kazakov, I.T. Tamansky), who developed in their further independent works of Bazhenov's ideas.

Belinsky Vissarion Grigorievich(1811-1848). Literary critic and philosopher. As a critic, he had a strong influence on the social movement in Russia. As a philosopher, he developed Hegel's teachings, primarily his dialectical method, introduced many concepts from Western European philosophical literature (immediacy, outlook, moment, negation, concreteness, reflection, etc.) into the Russian colloquial language. He developed the provisions of realistic aesthetics and literary criticism based on a concrete historical analysis of the phenomena of art. The concept of realism he created is based on the interpretation of the artistic image as a unity of the general and the individual. The nationality of art is a reflection in it of the characteristics of a given people and national character. From 1840 he turned to German and French radicalism. This was manifested in his famous letter to N. Gogol (1847).

Berdyaev Nikolai Alexandrovich(1874-1948) - Russian religious philosopher, since 1922 in exile, lived in Berlin, then in Paris. Being strongly influenced by Marx, Nietzsche, Ibsen, Kant and Carlyle, he defended the ideas of existentialism, in which the problems of philosophy prevailed, taught about the primacy of freedom over being (freedom cannot be determined by anyone or anything, even God, it is rooted in non-being) , about the revelation of being through a (god-like) person, about the rational course of history, wrote about Christian revelation, on issues of sociology and ethics. For polemics with the theorists of scientific communism, he was arrested twice, and in the fall of 1922 he was exiled from Russia along with dozens of scientists, writers, and publicists.

Major works: "The Meaning of Creativity", 1916; "The Meaning of History", 1923; "New Middle Ages", 1924; "On the appointment of a person", 1931; "I and the World of Objects", 1933; "The fate of man in the modern world", 1934; Spirit and Reality, 1949; "Existential Dialectics of the Divine and the Human", 1951; "The Kingdom of the Spirit and the Kingdom of Caesar", 1952; "Self-Knowledge", 1953.

Blok Alexander Alexandrovich(1880-1921). Russian poet. Father - professor of law at Warsaw University, mother - M.A. Beketova, writer and translator. He graduated from the Slavic-Russian department of the philological faculty of St. Petersburg University (1906). Poetry began to write from childhood, printed - since 1903. In 1904 he published the collection "Poems about the Beautiful Lady", where he appeared as a symbolist lyricist who was influenced by the mystical poetry of Vl. Solovyov. Since 1903, a social theme entered Blok's abstract romantic poetry: the anti-human city with its slave labor and poverty (section "Crossroads", 1902-1904). The theme of the Motherland is constantly present in Blok's poetry. His work becomes tragic and deep, imbued with a sense of the catastrophic era (the cycle "On the Kulikovo Field", 1908, sections of the cycle "Free Thoughts", 1907, "Iambs", 1907-1914). Blok's love lyrics are romantic; along with delight and rapture, it carries a fatal and tragic beginning (sections of the Snow Mask cycle, 1907, Faina, 1907-1908, Carmen, 1914).

The mature poetry of Blok is freed from abstract symbols and acquires vitality, concreteness (“Italian Poems”, 1909, the poem “The Nightingale Garden”, 1915, etc.). Many ideas of Blok's poetry are developed in his dramaturgy: the plays The Stranger, The Pavilion, The King in the Square (all in 1906), Songs of Fate (1907-1908), Rose and the Cross (1912-1913). Blok's poetic fame was strengthened after the release of the collections Unexpected Joy (1906), Snow Mask (1907), Earth in the Snow (1908), Lyric Dramas (1908), Night Hours (1911).

In 1918, Blok wrote the poem "The Twelve" - ​​about the collapse of the old world and its collision with the new; the poem is built on semantic antitheses, sharp contrasts. The poem "Scythians" (of the same year) is dedicated to the historical mission of revolutionary Russia.

Bryusov Valery Yakovlevich(1873-1924). Writer. Born into a merchant family. The literary debut - three collections "Russian Symbolists" (1894-1895) was a selection of samples of Western poetry (verses in the spirit of P. Verlaine, S. Mallarme, etc.). The Third Guard (1900) marks the beginning of Bryusov's creative maturity. In it, as in the book "To the City and the World" (1903), the characteristic features of Bryusov's poetry are clearly visible - the completeness of the images, the clarity of the composition, strong-willed intonation, oratorical pathos. Since the beginning of the XX century. Bryusov becomes the leader of symbolism, conducts a lot of organizational work, manages the Scorpio publishing house, and edits the Libra magazine.

The book of poems "Wreath" (1906) is the pinnacle of Bryusov's poetry. The high rise of romantic lyrics, magnificent historical and mythological cycles are combined in it with samples of revolutionary poetry.

In the books of poems All Melodies (1909), Mirror of Shadows (1912), and Seven Colors of the Rainbow (1916), along with life-affirming motifs, notes of fatigue sound, and there are formal searches in their own right. During the same period, the historical novels The Fiery Angel (1908) and The Altar of Victory (1913), collections of stories and dramatic scenes Earthly Axis (1907), Nights and Days (1913), collections of articles Distant and relatives "(1912). During World War I, Bryusov collaborated with M. Gorky. He studies the history and literature of Armenia, translates the poems of Armenian poets. Bryusov accepted the October Revolution unconditionally. In 1920 he joined the RCP(b). He worked in the People's Commissariat of Education, in the State Publishing House, was in charge of the Book Chamber. He published books of poems Last Dreams (1920), On Such Days (1921), Moment (1922), Dali (1922).

Bulgakov Sergey Nikolaevich(1871-1944). Religious philosopher, theologian, economist. Professor of political economy in Kyiv (1905-1906) and in Moscow (1906-1918). Emigrated in 1923, professor of dogmatics and dean of the Russian Theological Institute in Paris in 1925-1944. Experienced a significant influence of I. Kant, F.M. Dostoevsky and V.S. Solovyov, from whom he learned the idea of ​​unity. He sought the salvation of Russia on the path of religious revival, and in this regard, he saw all social, national relations and culture as overestimated on a religious basis. The dominant idea in Bulgakov's teaching was the idea of ​​incarnation, i.e. the inner connection of God and the world he created - Sophia ("wisdom of God"), which manifests itself in the world and man, making them involved in God. The sophiology developed by him was expounded in the following works: “Non-Evening Light” (1917), “On God-manhood. Trilogy" ("Lamb of God", 1933; "Comforter", 1936; "Bride of the Lamb", 1945). Other works: “Two cities. Studies on the nature of social ideals, vol. 1-2, 1911; "Quiet Thoughts", 1918; "Burning Bush", 1927. Died in Paris.

Bunin Ivan Alekseevich(1870-1953). Russian writer. From an impoverished noble family. In his youth he worked as a proofreader, statistician, librarian, reporter. Published since 1887.

The first books of I. Bunin are poetry collections. His poems are an example of the "old" classical form. The theme of young Bunin's poetry is native nature. Then he began to write stories. In 1899, I. Bunin began to cooperate with the Znanie publishing house. The best stories of this period are "Antonov apples" (1900), "Pines" (1901), "Chernozem" (1904). The story "The Village" (1910) had a serious public outcry. The chronicle of the degeneration of the manor nobility was the story "Sukhodol" (1911). I. Bunin's prose is an example of picturesqueness, rigor, rhythmic expressiveness.

Poetry collection of I. Bunin "Leaf fall" (1901) - received the Pushkin Prize. In 1909 Bunin was elected an honorary academician. Bunin's translation of Longfellow's poem "The Song of Hiawatha" became famous. In 1920 Bunin emigrated. Later he lives and works in France.

In exile, he creates works about love ("Mitina's Love", 1925; "The Case of Cornet Elagin", 1927; a cycle of short stories "Dark Alleys" 1943). The autobiographical novel "The Life of Arseniev" (1930) occupies a central place in the work of the late Bunin. In 1933, the writer was awarded the Nobel Prize. Abroad, I. Bunin also created a philosophical and literary treatise on L.N. Tolstoy "The Liberation of Tolstoy" (1937) and "Memoirs" (1950).

Butlerov Alexander Mikhailovich(1828-1886). Chemist, public figure. Educated at Kazan University (1844-1849). Since 1854 he was a professor of chemistry at this university, and in 1860-1863. its rector. In 1868-1885. professor of chemistry at St. Petersburg University. Since 1871 - academician.

A.M. Butlerov - the creator of the theory of chemical structure, the head of the largest Kazan school of organic chemists. The main ideas of the theory of chemical structure were first expressed in 1871. The first one explained the phenomenon of isomerism. Butlerov's views received experimental confirmation in the works of scientists from his school. Published in 1864-1866. in Kazan with three issues of "Introduction to the full study of organic chemistry". For the first time, on the basis of the chemical structure, Butlerov began a systematic study of polymerization.

The great merit of A.M. Butlerov was the creation of the first Russian scientific school of chemists. Among his students are such famous chemists as V.V. Markovnikov, A.N. Popov, A.M. Zaitsev, A.E. Favorsky, M.D. Lvov, I.L. Kondakov.

Butlerov devoted much effort to the struggle for recognition of the merits of Russian scientists, appealing to public opinion through the press. He was a champion of higher education for women, participated in the organization of the Higher Women's Courses (1878), created the chemical laboratories of these courses.

Voronikhin Andrey Nikiforovich(1759-1814). From the family of serfs of Count A.S. Stroganov (according to some assumptions, his illegitimate son). Initially, he studied under the icon painter G. Yushkov in the icon painting workshop of the Tyskor Monastery. In 1777 he was transferred to Moscow, where he worked for V.I. Bazhenov. From 1779 he lived in St. Petersburg in the houses of the Stroganovs. In 1781, together with Pavel Stroganov and his teacher Romm, he traveled around Russia. In 1785 he received a "free". From 1786 he lived abroad with Stroganov and Romm in Switzerland and France. In 1790 he returned to Russia, worked for A.S. Stroganov. In 1794 he was "appointed" to the Academy of Arts. Since 1797 - in the rank of academician of perspective painting, since 1800 he taught at the Academy. Since 1803 - professor. A brilliant representative of classicism. Having won the competition for the project of the Kazan Cathedral, he created an ingenious building, which has no precedents in taste, proportionality, grace and grandeur.

The main works in St. Petersburg and its environs: the restructuring of the interiors of the Stroganovs' palace, the Stroganovs' dacha in Novaya Derevnya (not preserved), the Kazan Cathedral and the grating enclosing the square in front of it, the Mining Institute, the interiors of the Pavlovsk Palace, the Pink Pavilion in Pavlovsk, the fountain on Pulkovo Hill.

Herzen Alexander Ivanovich(1812-1870). Thinker, writer, publicist, politician. In 1831-1834. led a circle at Moscow University, in 1835-1840. in exile (Vyatka), from 1847 until the end of his life in exile (London). Published under the pseudonym Iskander. Fighter against serfdom and autocracy. According to his philosophical views, he is a materialist (works "Amateurism in Science" - 1843 and "Letters on the Study of Nature" - 1846). The creator of the so-called. "Russian socialism" - the theoretical basis of populism. He pinned his hopes on the Russian peasant community - the embryo of socialist social relations.

In 1853, together with N.P. Ogarev founded the Free Russian Printing House in England. Herzen is the publisher of the almanac "Polar Star" (1855-1868) and the newspaper "The Bell" (1857-1867) - radical uncensored publications that were illegally imported into Russia and had a great influence on Russian public opinion. He contributed to the creation of a secret revolutionary society "Land and Freedom" and supported the Polish uprising of 1863-1864, which led to a reduction in his influence among Russian liberals.

A.I. Herzen is an outstanding writer, the author of anti-serfdom books - the novel "Who is to blame?" (1846), the stories "Doctor Krupov" (1847) and "The Thieving Magpie" (1848). One of the best works of Russian literature - "The Past and Thoughts" (1852-1868) - a wide canvas of the social life of Russia and Western Europe in the 19th century.

Glinka Mikhail Ivanovich(1804-1857). The founder of Russian classical music, an outstanding composer.

From the nobles of the Smolensk province. From 1817 he lived in St. Petersburg and studied at the Noble Boarding School at the Main Pedagogical School. In the 20s. 19th century is a popular metropolitan singer and pianist. In 1837-1839. Kapellmeister of the Court Choir.

In 1836, M. Glinka's heroic-patriotic opera A Life for the Tsar (Ivan Susanin) was staged at the Bolshoi Theater in St. Petersburg. It sings of the courage and resilience of the people. In 1842, the premiere of the opera "Ruslan and Lyudmila" (based on the poem by A.S. Pushkin) took place - a new achievement in Russian music. This opera is a magical oratorio with alternating wide vocal-symphonic scenes, with a predominance of epic elements. Russian national features in the music of "Ruslan and Lyudmila" are intertwined with oriental motifs.

Of great artistic value are Glinka's "Spanish Overtures" - "Jota of Aragon" (1845) and "Night in Madrid" (1848), scherzo for orchestra "Kamarinskaya" (1848), music for the tragedy by N. Kukolnik " Prince Kholmsky.

M. Glinka created about 80 works for voice and piano (romances, arias, songs). Glinka's romances, the pinnacle of Russian vocal lyrics, became especially famous. Romances based on poems by A. Pushkin ("I remember a wonderful moment", "Do not sing, beauty, with me", "The fire of desire burns in the blood", etc.), V. Zhukovsky (ballad "Night View"), E. Baratynsky (“Do not tempt me needlessly”), N. Kukolnik (“Doubt”).

Under the influence of the work of M. Glinka, a Russian musical school was formed. Glinka's orchestral writing combines transparency and impressive sound. Russian songwriting is the foundation of Glinka's melody.

Gogol Nikolay Vasilievich(1809-1852). Great Russian writer. Born in a family of noblemen of the Poltava province Gogol-Yanovsky. Educated at the Nizhyn Gymnasium of Higher Sciences (1821-1828). Since 1828 - in St. Petersburg. In 1831 - acquaintance with Pushkin, which played a special role in the formation of Gogol as a writer. Unsuccessfully tried to teach the history of the Middle Ages.

Literary fame since 1832 ("Evenings on a farm near Dikanka"). In 1835 - the publication of the collections "Arabesques" and "Mirgorod". The pinnacle of Russian drama in the first half of the 19th century. was the comedy The Inspector General (1836).

From 1836 to 1848, with short breaks, Gogol lived abroad (mainly in Rome), working on his main work, the novel-poem Dead Souls. Only the 1st volume (1842) was published, which caused a huge public outcry with its display of the unattractive sides of Russian reality. Gogol's realism, which manifested itself primarily in The Inspector General and Dead Souls, his skill as a satirist put the writer at the head of Russian literature.

Gogol's stories became famous. In the so-called. Petersburg stories ("Nevsky Prospekt", "Notes of a Madman", "Overcoat") the theme of human loneliness acquires a tragic sound. The story "Portrait" examines the fate of the artist in a world where money rules. The picture of the Zaporizhian Sich, the life and struggle of the Cossacks is presented in Taras Bulba. The story "The Overcoat" with its defense of the "little man" became a kind of manifesto of Russian critical realism.

In 1847, N. Gogol published the book "Selected passages from correspondence with friends", which was misunderstood by a significant part of Russian society. In it, he tried to express his idea of ​​moral ideals, the duty of every Russian person. The ideal of Gogol, who turned more and more to religion, was Orthodox spiritual renewal. From the same positions, he tries to create positive images in the 2nd volume of "Dead Souls", which he is working on after returning to Russia. As a result of a deep spiritual crisis in February 1852, Gogol burned the manuscript of the 2nd volume of the novel. Shortly thereafter, he died in Moscow.

Danilevsky Nikolay Yakovlevich(1822-1885). Philosopher, sociologist, naturalist. In the book "Russia and Europe" (1869) he outlined the sociological theory of isolated "cultural-historical types" (civilizations) that are in continuous struggle with each other and the external environment and go through certain stages of maturation, decrepitude and death. History is expressed in the change of cultural-historical types displacing each other. He considered the most historically promising type to be the "Slavic type", most fully expressed in the Russian people and opposed to the cultures of the West. Danilevsky's ideas anticipated similar concepts of the German philosopher of culture Oswald Spengler. Danilevsky is also the author of the work "Darwinism" (vols. 1-2, 1885-1889), directed against the theory of Charles Darwin.

Derzhavin Gavrila Romanovich(1743-1816). Russian poet. He came from a poor noble family. He studied at the Kazan gymnasium. From 1762 he served as a private in the guards, participated in a palace coup. In 1772 he was promoted to officer. Participant in the suppression of the Pugachev uprising. Later served in the Senate. In 1773 he began to print poetry.

In 1782 he wrote "Ode to Felitsa", glorifying Catherine II. After the success of this ode, he was awarded by the Empress. Governor of Olonets (1784-1785) and Tambov (1785-1788) provinces. In 1791-1793. cabinet-secretary of Catherine II. In 1794 he was appointed president of the College of Commerce. In 1802-1803. - Minister of Justice of Russia. Since 1803 - retired.

Derzhavin in poetry was able to create a new style that contained elements of lively colloquial speech. Derzhavin's verse is characterized by the concreteness of the image, the plasticity of images, didactics and allegorism. He managed to combine elements of ode and satire in one poem. In his odes, he glorified military leaders and monarchs, condemned unworthy nobles and social vices. The most famous are "Ode on the Death of Prince Meshchersky" (1779), "God" (1784), "Waterfall" (1794). In the philosophical lyrics of Derzhavin, a deep understanding of the problems of life and death, the greatness and insignificance of man was manifested. The work of G. Derzhavin is the pinnacle of classicism in Russian literature.

Dostoevsky Fyodor Mikhailovich(1821-1881) - great Russian writer. Born in the family of a doctor. In 1843 he graduated from the St. Petersburg Military Engineering School, was enrolled as a draftsman in the engineering department, but retired a year later. Dostoevsky's first novel Poor People (1846) made him one of the most famous writers in Russia. Soon such works by F. Dostoevsky as "The Double" (1846), "White Nights" (1848), "Netochka Nezvanova" (1849) appeared. They manifested the profound psychologism of the writer.

Since 1847, Dostoevsky became a member of circles of utopian socialists. Attracted to the prosecution in the case of the Petrashevites, he was sentenced to death, which, just before the execution, was replaced by 4 years of hard labor, followed by the definition of a private in the army. Only in 1859 he was able to return to St. Petersburg.

At the turn of the 1850s - 1860s. Dostoevsky publishes the stories "Uncle's Dream" and "The Village of Stepanchikovo and Its Inhabitants" (both in 1859), the novel "Humiliated and Insulted" (1861), "Notes from the House of the Dead" (1862), written about hard labor . Dostoevsky is also included in public life (participation in the magazines Vremya and Epoch). He becomes a supporter of the theory of pochvennism, one of the greatest thinkers in Russia. Dostoevsky demanded from the intelligentsia, which had broken away from the "soil", rapprochement with the people, moral perfection. He angrily rejected Western bourgeois civilization (Winter Notes on Summer Impressions, 1863) and the spiritual image of an individualist (Notes from the Underground, 1864).

In the second half of the 1860s and in the 1870s. F.M. Dostoevsky creates his best novels: Crime and Punishment (1866), The Idiot (1868), Demons (1872), The Teenager (1875), The Brothers Karamazov (1879) -1880). These books reflected not only social problems and contradictions, but also the philosophical, ethical, social searches of the writer. The basis of Dostoevsky's work as a novelist is the world of human suffering. At the same time, Dostoevsky, like no other classic writer, mastered the skill of psychological analysis. Dostoevsky is the creator of the ideological novel.

The activity of Dostoevsky as a publicist continues. In 1873-1874. he edited the magazine Grazhdanin, where he began to publish his Diary of a Writer, which was published in separate issues monthly in 1876-1877, and sporadically later. F. Dostoevsky's speech about Pushkin became famous, which became a deep analysis of the national significance of the genius of Russian literature and at the same time a declaration of the moral and philosophical ideals of Dostoevsky himself. The influence of F. Dostoevsky on Russian and world literature is enormous.

Ekaterina II Alekseevna(1729-1796), Empress of Russia (Catherine the Great) in 1762-1796 By origin, a German princess from the Anhalt-Zerbst dynasty (Sophia Frederick Augustus). In Russia since 1744. Wife of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (in 1761-1762 Emperor Peter III) since 1745. After the coup of 1762, the Empress reorganized the Senate (1763), secularized the monastic lands (1764), approved the Institution for Administrations provinces (1775), letters of grant to the nobility and cities (1785). Expanded the territory of Russia as a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars (1768-1774) and (1787-1791), as well as three sections of the Commonwealth (1772, 1793, 1795). A prominent figure in national education. In her reign, the Smolny and Catherine's Institutes, pedagogical schools in Moscow and St. Petersburg, and Foundling Homes were opened. In 1786, she approved the "Charter for Public Schools of the Russian Empire", which marked the beginning of the creation of an extra-class system of schools in Russia. Catherine II is the author of many prose, drama and popular science works, as well as "Notes" of a memoir nature. Corresponded with Voltaire and other figures of the French Enlightenment of the 18th century. A supporter of "enlightened absolutism."

Zhukovsky Vasily Andreevich(1783-1852). Poet. The illegitimate son of the landowner A.I. Bunin and the captive Turkish woman Salkha. The views and literary preferences of the young Zhukovsky were formed in the Moscow Noble Boarding School (1797-1801) and the Friendly Literary Society (1801) under the influence of the traditions of noble liberalism. In 1812 Zhukovsky joined the militia. Patriotic notes are associated with the Patriotic War of 1812, sounded in the poem “A Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors” (1812) and others. Pushkin, Decembrists, M.Yu. Lermontov, A.I. Herzen, T.G. Shevchenko. After retiring in 1841, Zhukovsky settled abroad.

Zhukovsky's first poetic experiments are connected with sentimentalism ("Rural Cemetery", 1802, etc.). In his lyrics, Zhukovsky developed and deepened the psychological searches of the school of N.M. Karamzin. Dissatisfaction with reality determined the nature of Zhukovsky's work with his idea of ​​a romantic personality, a deep interest in the subtlest movements of the human soul. Since 1808, Zhukovsky turned to the ballad genre (“Lyudmila”, 1808, “Svetlana” 1808-1812, “Aeolian Harp”, 1814, etc.). In ballads, he recreates the world of folk beliefs, church-bookish or knightly legends, far from real modernity. Zhukovsky's poetry is the pinnacle of Russian romanticism.

The psychological realism of Zhukovsky for the first time in Russian poetry opened the spiritual world of a person, thereby creating the prerequisites for the future development of realism.

Kazakov Matvei Fyodorovich(1738-1812). Born in Moscow. He studied at the architectural school of D.V. Ukhtomsky. In 1763-1767. worked in Tver. Was an assistant to V.I. Bazhenov when designing the Grand Kremlin Palace. For the first time in Russia, he created structures for domes and ceilings of large spans. Since 1792 he headed after V.I. Bazhenov architectural school during the expedition of the Kremlin building. Pupils: I.V. Egotov, O.I. Bove, A.I. Bakirev, F. Sokolov, R.R. Kazakov, E.D. Tyurin and others. Drafted a project for the organization of a construction trade school (“School of Stone and Carpentry”). He supervised the drawing up of the general and facade plan of Moscow, in connection with which he completed with his assistants thirty graphic albums of particular and civil buildings containing drawings of most Moscow houses of the late 18th century. One of the founders and greatest masters of classicism. The author of most of the buildings that define the appearance of classical Moscow.

Main works: the Petrovsky (Putevoi) Palace, the Senate building in the Kremlin with the famous domed hall, the Church of Philip the Metropolitan, the Golitsyn Hospital, the university building, the house of the Noble Assembly, the houses of Gubin, Baryshnikov, Demidov in Moscow, the church and mausoleum in the estate of Nikolsko-Pogorely in Smolensk province.

Karamzin Nikolai Mikhailovich(1766-1826). Writer, publicist and historian. The son of a landowner of the Simbirsk province. Educated at home, then in Moscow, in a private boarding school (until 1783); He also attended lectures at Moscow University. Novikov's journal "Children's Reading for the Heart and Mind" published numerous translations of Karamzin and his original story "Eugene and Yulia" (1789). In 1789 Karamzin traveled across Western Europe. Returning to Russia, he published the Moscow Journal (1791-1792), in which he also published his works of art (the main part of the Letters of a Russian Traveler, the novels Liodor, Poor Liza, Natalya, Boyar's Daughter, poems " Poetry", "To Grace", etc.). The magazine, which also published critical articles and reviews of Karamzin on literary and theatrical topics, promoted the aesthetic program of Russian sentimentalism, the most prominent representative of which was N.M. Karamzin.

At the beginning of the XIX century. Karamzin acted as a publicist, substantiating the program of moderate conservatism in his journal Vestnik Evropy. In the same journal, his historical story "Martha Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novgorod" (1803) was published, which asserted the inevitability of the victory of the autocracy over the free city.

The literary activity of Karamzin played a big role in the development of the Russian literary problem of personality, in the improvement of artistic means of depicting the inner world of a person, in the development of the Russian literary language. The early prose of Karamzin influenced the work of V.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov, young A.S. Pushkin. From the mid 1790s. Karamzin's interest in the problems of history was determined. He leaves fiction and works mainly on the "History of the Russian State" (vols. 1-8, 1816-1817; vol. 9, 1821, vol. 10-11, 1824; vol. 12, 1829; reprinted several times), which became not only a significant historical work, but also a major phenomenon in Russian artistic prose.

Karamzin defended the inviolability of the autocracy and the need to preserve serf relations, condemned the Decembrist uprising and approved the massacre of them. In the “Note on Ancient and New Russia” (1811), M.M. Speransky.

He first used a large number of historical documents, incl. Trinity, Laurentian, Ipatiev chronicles, Dvina charters, Code of Laws, testimonies of foreigners, etc. Karamzin placed extracts from documents in lengthy notes to his History, which for a long time played the role of a kind of archive. Karamzin's "History" helped to increase interest in national history in various strata of Russian society. It marked a new stage in the development of the nobility trend in Russian historical science. The historical concept of Karamzin became the official concept supported by the government. Slavophiles considered Karamzin their spiritual father.

Kramskoy Ivan Nikolaevich(1837-1887). Painter, draftsman, art critic. From a poor bourgeois family. In 1857-1863. studied at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, was the initiator of the so-called. "rebellion of 14", which ended with the creation of the Artel of artists who left the Academy. Ideological leader and creator of the Association of Traveling Exhibitions.

Created a gallery of portraits of major Russian writers, scientists, artists and public figures (portraits of L.N. Tolstoy, 1873; I.I. Shishkin, 1873; P.M. Tretyakov, 1876; M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, 1879; C .P. Botkin, 1880). The features of the art of Kramskoy as a portrait painter are expressive simplicity of composition, clarity of drawing, deep psychological characteristics. Kramskoy's populist views found their most vivid expression in the portraits of peasants ("Woodsman", 1874, "Mina Moiseev", 1882, "Peasant with a bridle", 1883). The central work of I. Kramskoy is the painting "Christ in the Desert" (1872). In the 1880s Kramskoy's paintings "Unknown" (1883), "Inconsolable grief" (1884) gained fame. These canvases are distinguished by the skill of revealing complex emotional experiences, characters and destinies.

Kruzenshtern Ivan Fyodorovich(1770-1846). Outstanding navigator and oceanographer, Russian military sailor. Founder of the Naval Academy, one of the founders of the Russian Geographical Society. Head of the first Russian round-the-world expedition on the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva" (1803-1805). He discovered the trade wind countercurrents in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, laid the foundation for systematic deep-sea research of the World Ocean. Mapped the coast of. Sakhalin (about 1000 km). Author of the Atlas of the South Sea (vols. 1-2, 1823-1826). Admiral.

Kuindzhi Arkhip Ivanovich(1841-1910). Landscape painter. Born in Mariupol, in the family of a Greek shoemaker. He studied painting on his own, and then at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts. Member of the Association of Traveling Exhibitions.

He created landscapes designed for specific social associations in the spirit of the Wanderers (The Forgotten Village, 1874, Chumatsky Trakt, 1873). In mature works, Kuindzhi masterfully applied compositional techniques and lighting effects (Ukrainian Night, 1876; Birch Grove, 1879; After the Thunderstorm, 1879; Night on the Dnieper, 1880).

A.I. Kuindzhi taught at the Academy of Arts (professor since 1892, full member since 1893). Dismissed in 1897 for supporting student unrest. In 1909, he initiated the creation of the Society of Artists (later - the Society named after AI Kuindzhi). The teacher of a number of famous artists - N.K. Roerich, A.A. Rylova and others.

Cui Caesar Antonovich(1835-1918) - composer, music critic, military engineer and scientist.

He graduated from the Nikolaev Engineering Academy in 1857, was left with it as a teacher (since 1880 - professor). Author of capital works on fortification, teacher of the course of fortification at the Academy of the General Staff. Since 1904 - engineer-general.

Received the greatest fame as a music critic (since 1864), a supporter of realism and folk music, a propagandist of M.I. Glinka, A.S. Dargomyzhsky. Kui was one of the members of the "Mighty Handful". Author of 14 operas. Ts.A. Cui created more than 250 romances, distinguished by expressiveness and grace. Popular among them are "The Burnt Letter" and "The Tsarskoe Selo Statue" (words by A.S. Pushkin), "Aeolian Harps" (lyrics by A.N. Maikov), etc. Cui's legacy includes numerous works by chamber instrumental ensembles and choirs.

Lavrov Petr Lavrovich(1823-1900). Philosopher and sociologist, publicist, ideologist of "populism". He took part in the work of the underground revolutionary organizations "Land and Freedom", "Narodnaya Volya", was arrested, exiled, but fled abroad. In philosophical works (The Practical Philosophy of Hegel, 1859; The Mechanical Theory of the World, 1859; Essays on Practical Philosophy, 1860; Problems of Positivism and Their Solution, 1886; The Most Important Moments in the History of Thought, 1899) believed that the subject of philosophy is man as a single indivisible whole; the material world exists, but in judgments about it a person cannot go beyond the world of phenomena and human experience. In sociology ("Historical letters", 1869) developed the concepts of culture and civilization. The culture of a society, according to Lavrov, is the environment given by history for the work of thought, and civilization is a creative principle, found in a progressive change in the forms of culture. The carriers of civilization are "critical thinking individuals". The measure of the enlightenment of human moral consciousness acts as a criterion of social progress, which consists in increasing the consciousness of the individual and solidarity between individuals. In politics, he preached propaganda among the people.

Levitan Isaac Ilyich(1860-1900). Landscape painter. The son of a minor employee from Lithuania. He studied at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture under A.K. Savrasov and V.D. Polenov. Since 1891, a member of the Association of the Wanderers. In 1898-1900. participant of exhibitions of the magazine "World of Art".

He worked in the Crimea, on the Volga, in Finland, Italy, France. In his paintings, I. Levitan managed to achieve clarity of composition, clear spatial plans, and a balanced color system (“Evening. Golden Reach”, “After the Rain. Reach”, both 1889). The creator of the so-called. a mood landscape in which the state of nature is comprehended as an expression of the movements of the human soul.

With their intonation, Levitan's mature landscapes are close to Chekhov's lyrical prose ("Evening Bells", "At the Pool", "Vladimirka", all 1892). The late works of I. Levitan are widely known - “Fresh wind. Volga", 1891-1895; "Golden Autumn", 1895; "Over Eternal Peace", 1894; "Summer Evening", 1900

The work of the great landscape painter I. Levitan had a significant impact on the next generation of artists.

Lermontov Mikhail Yurievich(1814-1841). Great Russian poet. Born in the family of a retired captain, brought up by his grandmother - E.A. Arsenyeva, who gave her grandson a good education. He studied at the Moscow Noble Boarding School (1828-1830) and Moscow University (1830-1832). Later - at the school of guards ensigns and cavalry cadets (1832-1834). He served in the Life Guards Hussar Regiment.

The early works of M. Lermontov (lyrical poems, poems, dramas "The Strange Man", 1831, "Masquerade", 1835) testify to the creative growth of the author. In those years, he was working on the novel "Vadim", depicting episodes of the uprising led by Pugachev. The youthful poetry of Lermontov was imbued with a passionate impulse for freedom, but later pessimistic tones began to prevail in his work.

M. Lermontov is a romantic poet, but his romanticism is far from contemplative, filled with a tragic feeling, including elements of a realistic view of the world. With the appearance of the poem "The Death of a Poet" (1837), Lermontov's name becomes known to all reading Russia. For this poem, he was arrested, and then transferred to the Nizhny Novgorod Dragoon Regiment, in the Caucasus. The Caucasian theme became one of the main ones in Lermontov's work.

In 1838, Lermontov was transferred to the Grodno Hussar Regiment, and then returned to the Life Guards Hussar Regiment. Held in St. Petersburg 1838-1840. - the heyday of the talent of the great poet. His poems began to appear regularly in print. The historical poem The Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilievich... (1838) and the romantic poem Mtsyri (1839) had great success. The peaks of Lermontov's work were the poem "The Demon", and the novel "A Hero of Our Time" (1840). An artistic discovery was the image of Pechorin, the protagonist of the novel, which shows a wide background of social life. Such poems as "Borodino" (1837), "Duma", "Poet" (both 1838), "Testament" (1840) appear. Lermontov's poems are marked by an unprecedented energy of thought.

In February 1840, for a duel with the son of the French ambassador, Lermontov was again court-martialed and sent to the Caucasus. As part of the active army, he takes part in a difficult battle on the Valerik River (in Chechnya). In the last months of his life, M. Lermontov created his best poems - “Motherland”, “Cliff”, “Dispute”, “Leaf”, “No, I do not love you so passionately ...”, “Prophet”.

Being in the summer of 1841 for treatment in Pyatigorsk, Lermontov died in a duel. In the work of M. Lermontov, civic, philosophical and purely personal motives organically intertwined. And in poetry, and in prose, and in drama, he showed himself to be an innovator.

Leskov Nikolai Semenovich(1831-1895). Great Russian writer. Born in the Oryol province, in the family of a petty official. He studied at the Oryol gymnasium. From the age of 16 he served as an official in Orel, then in Kyiv. For several years he was an assistant to the manager of large estates, he traveled a lot around Russia. Since 1861 - in St. Petersburg, working on articles and feuilletons.

In the 1860s writes wonderful stories and novels: “Extinguished Business” (1862), “Stingy” (1863), “The Life of a Woman” (1863), “Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District” (1865), “Warrior » (1866). At the same time, his long polemic with supporters of radical, socialist ideas begins. In a number of his works, N. Leskov (then known under the pseudonym M. Stebnitsky) debunks the images of nihilists, “new people”. These anti-nihilistic works include the story "The Musk Ox" (1863), the novels "Nowhere" (1864), "Bypassed" (1865), "On Knives" (1870). Leskov seeks to show the futility of the efforts of the revolutionaries, the groundlessness of their activities.

In the 1870s a new period of N. Leskov's creativity begins. The writer creates images of Russian righteous - people, mighty in spirit, patriots. The peaks of N. Leskov's prose were the novel "Cathedrals" (1872), novels and stories "The Enchanted Wanderer", "The Sealed Angel" (1873), "Iron Will" (1876), "The Non-Deadly Golovan" (1880 d.), “The Tale of the Tula Oblique Lefty and the Steel Flea” (1881), “Pechersk Antiques” (1883). In the work of N. Leskov, the motives of the national identity of the Russian people, faith in their creative forces are strong.

In the 80s - 90s. 19th century the critical, satirical content of N. Leskov's prose grows. He writes works both penetratingly lyrical (the story "Dumb Artist", 1883), and sharply satirical ("Hare Remise", 1891; "Winter Day", 1894, etc.). The ideal of the late Leskov is not a revolutionary, but an educator, the bearer of the gospel ideals of goodness and justice.

The language of N. Leskov is remarkable. The writer's narrative style is distinguished by a virtuoso mastery of the folk language (the use of folk sayings, a rich vocabulary of fictitious words, barbarisms and neologisms). Leskov's lively, "fabulous" manner reveals the image through its speech characteristics. The writer was able to create a fusion of literary and folk language.

Lisyansky Yury Fedorovich(1773-1837). Russian navigator, captain of the 1st rank (1809). The commander of the ship "Neva" as part of the first Russian round-the-world expedition I.F. Krusenstern (1803-1805). Of the 1095 days of the expedition, 720 days the Neva passed on its own. At the same time, a record sea passage was completed - 13923 miles of non-stop navigation without calling at the port in 140 days. Lisyansky discovered one of the Hawaiian Islands, explored about. Kodiak (off the coast of Alaska) and the Alexander Archipelago.

Lobachevsky Nikolay Ivanovich(1792-1856). Mathematician. All his activities are connected with Kazan University. In it, he studied (1807-1811), became a teacher (from 1814 - an adjunct, from 1816 an extraordinary, and from 1822 - an ordinary professor). He taught mathematics, physics and astronomy, headed the university library for 10 years, was elected dean of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics (1820-1825), and from 1827 he was rector of the university for 19 years. During the period of Lobachevsky's rectorship, Kazan University received a whole complex of auxiliary buildings (an observatory, a library, a physics office, a clinic, a chemical laboratory), and developed publishing activities.

The main merit of N.I. Lobachevsky - the creation of a new geometry - a scientific theory rich in content and having applications both in mathematics and physics. Lobachevsky's geometry is also called hyperbolic non-Euclidean geometry (as opposed to Riemann's elliptic geometry). Lobachevsky outlined the foundations of his theory in February 1826, but the essay itself “A Concise Presentation of the Principles of Geometry with a Rigorous Proof of the Parallel Theorem” was included in the work “On the Principles of Geometry” and published in 1829. This was the first publication in the world literature on non-Euclidean geometry. His work was subsequently published in 1835-1838, and in 1840 his book "Geometric Studies" (in German) was published in Germany.

Contemporaries did not understand the scientific ideas of Lobachevsky. Only after the death of Lobachevsky, who died unrecognized, the works of a number of mathematicians of the 60s - 80s. 19th century revealed the significance of the research of the creators of non-Euclidean geometry in the first half of the century - N. Lobachevsky, J. Bolyai (Hungary), K. Gauss (Germany).

At the end of his life, Lobachevsky was deprived of his rectorship, lost his son, and experienced financial difficulties. Already blind, he continued his scientific work, dictating his last book Pan-geometry a year before his death.

Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilievich(1711-1765). The genius of Russian science, the first Russian natural scientist of world importance, historian, poet, artist.

The son of a Pomor peasant in the Arkhangelsk province. In 1731-1735. studied at the Moscow Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, and in 1736-1741. was in Germany, where he studied physics, chemistry and metallurgy. Upon his return to Russia, he became an adjunct of the Academy of Sciences in the physics class, and in August 1745 he became the first Russian to be elected to the post of professor of chemistry. In 1746, Lomonosov was the first to give public lectures on physics in Russian. At his insistence, the first chemical laboratory in Russia was founded in Russia (1748), and then the Moscow University was organized (1755).

Since 1748, Lomonosov was mainly engaged in chemistry, speaking out against the theory of caloric that dominated the science of his time, to which he opposed his molecular-kinetic theory. In a letter to L. Euler (June 5, 1748), Lomonosov formulated the general principle of the conservation of matter and motion. Lomonosov's chemistry was based on the achievements of physics. In 1752-1753. he taught the course "Introduction to True Physical Chemistry". M. Lomonosov paid much attention to the research of atmospheric electricity. He also developed a number of instruments for physical research (viscometer, refractometer).

In addition to physics and chemistry, Lomonosov also studied astronomy and geophysics. In 1761 he discovered the atmosphere of Venus. He also carried out studies of terrestrial gravity. Lomonosov's contribution to geology and mineralogy is great. Lomonosov proved the organic origin of soil, peat, coal, oil and amber. He is the author of the works "A word about the birth of metals from the shaking of the Earth" (1757), "On the layers of the earth" (1763). Lomonosov paid considerable attention to metallurgy. In 1763, he published the manual "The First Foundations of Metallurgy or Mining".

Since 1758, M. Lomonosov has been in charge of the Geographical Department of the Academy of Sciences. He studied sea ice, developed their classification, wrote works on the significance of the Northern Sea Route, proposed a number of new instruments and methods for determining the latitude and longitude of a place. In 1761, Lomonosov wrote a treatise "On the Preservation and Reproduction of the Russian People", in which he proposed a number of measures aimed at increasing the population of Russia.

Since 1751, systematic studies of Russian history by M. Lomonosov began. He criticized the Norman theory. Lomonosov is the author of "A Brief Russian Chronicler with Genealogy" (1760) and "Ancient Russian History..." (published in 1766). M. Lomonosov also wrote fundamental works in the field of philology - "Russian Grammar" (1757), "Foreword on the Usefulness of Church Books in the Russian Language" (1758). In the latter he developed the theory of genres and styles. Lomonosov's Peru also owns the "Short Guide to Eloquence" (1748).

In literary and artistic work, Lomonosov acted as a supporter of classicism and at the same time a reformer of Russian versification. He substantiated the syllabic-tonic system of versification in the Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry (1739, published in 1778). Lomonosov is the creator of the Russian ode. He gave this genre a civilian sound (ode "On the Capture of Khotyn" - 1739, published in 1751). Lomonosov owns the tragedy "Tamira and Selim" (1750) and "Demofont" (1752), the unfinished epic poem "Peter the Great".

For many years, M. Lomonosov developed a technology for producing colored glass, built a factory near St. Petersburg for this purpose. Colored glass was used by him to create mosaics, in the development of art of which Lomonosov made a significant contribution. He created the monumental mosaic "Poltava battle". For mosaic work Lomonosov in 1763 was elected a member of the Russian Academy of Arts.

Maxim the Greek (1475-1556). Writer, publicist. In the world Maxim Trivolis. From the family of a Greek official, he studied in Italy. He took monasticism. In 1518, at the request of Vasily III, he arrived in Russia to correct translations of church books. A broad education, a brilliant mind, diligence allowed him to occupy a privileged position in the high circles of the Russian clergy. But later, Maxim the Greek began to interfere in politics, took the side of non-possessors, therefore, at church councils in 1525, 1531. was convicted, imprisoned and released only in 1551. He spent the rest of his life in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, where he died. Most of the works of Maxim the Greek are directed against monastic land ownership and usury. In his opinion, the tsar should act in harmony with the church, with the boyars. In international affairs, Maxim Grek recommended decisiveness, but advised avoiding complications. The political views of Maxim Grek had a great influence on the Chosen Rada.

Macarius (1481/82-1563). Metropolitan of Moscow (since 1542) and politician. (In the world of Makar Leontiev). He was close to Vasily III, under him he served as metropolitan in Novgorod. He actively contributed to the establishment of the power of Ivan IV. Under the influence of Macarius and with his participation, Ivan IV in 1547 assumed the title of tsar. Macarius was one of the inspirers of the Kazan campaigns. He was a supporter of a strong church: at the Stoglavy Cathedral in 1551, he opposed government attempts to limit the rights of the church. With his participation, the "Power book", "The personal annalistic code" were compiled. Macarius tried to compile a complete collection of all the "books that are found in the Russian land": the lives of the saints, the Holy Scriptures with the interpretation of the Gospel, the books of John Chrysostom, Basil the Great and many others - a total of 12 handwritten volumes, more than 13 thousand sheets of large format. He owns many journalistic works, permeated with the main idea: the need to strengthen the autocracy, strengthening the role of the church in the state. Macarius contributed to the opening of the first Russian printing house in Moscow on December 31, 1563.

Makarov Stepan Osipovich(1848/49-1904). Naval commander and scientist, vice admiral. Served in the Pacific and Baltic fleets. While serving on the armored boat Rusalka, he began research into the problem of the unsinkability of ships, which has retained its significance to this day. Member of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-78. In 1877, he first used the Whitehead torpedo in combat. Carried out hydrological work in the Bosphorus. Wrote the work "On the exchange of waters of the Black and Mediterranean Seas" (1885), awarded the prize of the Academy of Sciences. From August 1886 to May 1889 on the corvette "Vityaz" he made a round-the-world trip. The results of his observations also received an award from the Academy of Sciences and a gold medal from the Geographical Society. From 1840 Makarov was rear admiral, from 1891 he was chief inspector of naval artillery. In 1896, his idea of ​​creating a powerful icebreaker for Arctic research was embodied in the Ermak icebreaker, built under the leadership of Makarov, and in 1899 and 1901. he himself went on this ship to the Arctic. February 1, 1904 Makarov was appointed commander of the Pacific Fleet, February 24 arrived in Port Arthur. He prepared the fleet for active operations against the Japanese, but died along with most of the crew on the battleship Petropavlovsk, which was blown up by a mine.

Mendeleev Dmitry Ivanovich(1834-1907). Chemist, teacher and public figure. Born in the family of the director of the Tobolsk gymnasium. In 1855 he graduated from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of the Main Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg with a gold medal. In 1856 he defended his master's, and in 1865 - his doctoral dissertation. In 1861, he published the textbook Organic Chemistry, which was awarded the Demidov Prize by the Academy of Sciences. In 1876 he was elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences. In 1865-1890. - Professor of St. Petersburg University. Author of more than 500 printed scientific papers on chemistry, physics, metrology, economics, meteorology, issues of public education, etc. In 1892, Mendeleev was appointed scientific custodian of the Depot of exemplary weights and weights, which he transformed into the Main Chamber of Weights and Measures, of which he remained the director until the end of life.

The main scientific merit of D.I. Mendeleev - the discovery of the periodic law of chemical elements in 1869. Based on the table of chemical elements compiled by Mendeleev, he predicted the existence of several still unknown elements that were soon discovered - gallium, germanium, scandium. The periodic law has long been universally recognized as one of the fundamental laws of natural science.

Mendeleev is the author of the book Fundamentals of Chemistry, which was reprinted many times and translated into a number of languages ​​(Russian edition in 1869-1872, English and German in 1891, and French in 1895). His study of solutions is a significant contribution to chemistry (the monograph "Investigation of aqueous solutions by specific gravity", 1887, containing huge experimental material). D. Mendeleev proposed an industrial method for the fractional separation of oil, invented a type of smokeless powder (“pyrocollodium”, 1890) and organized its production.

DI. Mendeleev actively participated in the industrial development of Russia. He paid special attention to the oil, coal, metallurgical and chemical industries. He did a lot for the formation of the Baku and Donbass industrial regions, was the initiator of the construction of oil pipelines. In agriculture, he promoted the use of mineral fertilizers and irrigation. Author of the book "To the Knowledge of Russia" (1906), which summed up the reflections on the development of the country's productive forces.

Mussorgsky Modest Petrovich(1839-1881). Great composer, member of the Mighty Handful association. From a noble family. He began to study music from the age of 6. In 1849 he entered the Peter and Paul School (St. Petersburg), and in 1852-1856. studied at the School of Guards Ensigns.

Since 1858, having retired from military service, he devoted himself to composition. In the late 1850s - early 1860s. wrote a number of romances and instrumental works. In 1863-1866. worked on the opera "Salambo" (based on the novel by G. Flaubert, not finished). He turned to the actual topic of Russian life. He created songs and romances to the words of N. Nekrasov and T. Shevchenko.

The symphonic painting "Night on Bald Mountain" (1867) is distinguished by the richness and richness of sound colors. The greatest creation of M. Mussorgsky was the opera "Boris Godunov" (based on the tragedy of Pushkin). The first version of the opera (1869) was not accepted for staging, and only in 1874, with large cuts, Boris Godunov was staged at the St. Petersburg Mariinsky Theatre. In the 1870s M. Mussorgsky worked on the "folk musical drama" "Khovanshchina" and the comic opera "Sorochinsky Fair" (based on the novel by Gogol). The operas were not finished until the composer's death. "Khovanshchina" was completed by Rimsky-Korsakov, and "Sorochinskaya Fair" - by A. Lyadov and C. Cui.

Mussorgsky's music is an original, expressive musical language, characterized by a sharp characteristic, subtlety, and a variety of psychological shades. The composer showed himself as a brilliant playwright. In Mussorgsky's musical dramas, dynamic and colorful mass scenes are combined with a variety of individual characteristics, the psychological depth of individual images.

Novikov Nikolay Ivanovich(1744-1818). Enlightener, writer, journalist, book publisher, bookseller.

Born into a noble family near the town of Bronnitsy (Moscow province). In 1755-1760. studied at the noble gymnasium at Moscow University, then served in the Izmailovsky regiment. In 1767-1769 - an employee of the Commission for the compilation of the "New Code" (Code of Russian Laws).

Beginning in 1770, N. Novikov became the publisher of satirical magazines in which he published his works. Novikov's magazines - "Drone", "Riddle", "Painter", "Purse" denounced the feudal lords and officials, polemicized with the magazine "Vsakaaya Vsyachina" published by Catherine II. The magazine "The Painter" was especially successful, where Novikov's anti-serf works were published.

N. Novikov gave a lot of energy to publishing. His merit is the publication of monuments of Russian history - "Ancient Russian Vivliofika" (1773-1775), the book "The Experience of the Historical Dictionary of Russian Writers". Novikov published the first Russian philosophical journal "Morning Light" (1777-1780) and the country's first journal of critical bibliography "St. Petersburg Scientific Vedomosti" (1777).

In 1779, N. Novikov moved to Moscow and rented a university printing house for 10 years. Subsequently, he created the "Printing Company", which had 2 printing houses, organized book trade in 16 cities of Russia. Novikov's company published books on various branches of knowledge, textbooks. (About a third of all books published in Russia in the 1780s were published by Novikov).

In 1792, N. Novikov was arrested and without trial imprisoned for 15 years in the Shlisselburg Fortress. Under Paul I, he was released, but without the right to continue publishing. He died at his family estate.

Ostrovsky Alexander Nikolaevich(1823-1886). Great playwright. Son of an official. Educated at the 1st Moscow Gymnasium (1835-1840) and at the Faculty of Law of Moscow University, which he did not graduate from. In 1843 -1851. served in Moscow courts.

The first publications were in 1847. The comedy “Our people - let's settle” published in 1850 brought fame. (The comedy was banned until 1861 for staging.) Ostrovsky published early plays in the Moskvityanin magazine, a Slavophile organ. His plays appeared, created under the influence of the ideology of the Slavophiles: “Do not get into your sleigh” (1852), “Poverty is not a vice” (1853), “Do not live as you want” (1854). Starting with the comedy Do Not Get into Your Sleigh, A. Ostrovsky’s plays quickly conquer the Moscow stage, becoming the basis of the Russian theater repertoire (for more than 30 years, each season in the Moscow Maly and St. Petersburg Alexandrinsky theaters has been marked by the production of his new play).

In the second half of the 1850s. Ostrovsky strengthens social criticism in his plays, draws closer to the Sovremennik magazine. Great is the drama of the conflicts in the comedies Hangover at a Foreign Feast (1855), Profitable Place (1856), and the drama Thunderstorm (1859). The images of Katerina and representatives of the "dark kingdom" became the pinnacles of A. Ostrovsky's dramaturgy.

In the 1860s the playwright continues to write highly talented plays - both dramas ("Abyss", 1865), and satirical comedies ("Enough Simplicity for Every Wise Man", 1868; "Mad Money" 1869), historical plays from the era of the Time of Troubles. Almost all of Ostrovsky's dramatic works of the 1870s - early 1880s. published in the journal Otechestvennye Zapiski.

In the last years of his work, A. Ostrovsky created socio-psychological dramas about the fate of sensitive women in a world of cynicism and self-interest (“Dowry”, 1878; “Talents and Admirers”, 1882; “The Last Victim”, etc.). Ostrovsky's 47 plays have created an extensive and unfading repertoire for the Russian stage.

Ostrogradsky Mikhail Vasilievich(1801-1861). Mathematician and mechanic. He studied at Kharkov University (1816-1820). Professor of officer classes of the Naval Cadet Corps (since 1828), the Institute of the Corps of Railway Engineers (since 1830), the Main Artillery School (since 1841). Academician (1830).

The main works relate to mathematical analysis, theoretical mechanics, mathematical physics. Solved an important scientific problem on the propagation of waves on the surface of a liquid in a pool (1826). In works on physics he received differential equations of heat propagation. I found a formula for converting an integral over a volume into an integral over a surface (Ostrogradsky's formula - 1828). He built a general theory of impact (1854). Of great importance were the works of Ostrogradsky on the theory of the motion of spherical projectiles in the air and the elucidation of the effect of a shot on the gun carriage.

Perov Vasily Grigorievich(1833-1882). Painter. He studied at the Arzamas school of painting by A.V. Stupin (1846-1849; intermittently) and at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture (1853-1861). Founding member of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions. In the early 60s. Perov created a number of accusatory genre paintings: he spoke in detail about simple everyday events, enhancing and sharpening the social characteristics of the characters (“Rural religious procession at Easter” (1861), “Tea drinking in Mytishchi” (1862), etc.). The works of the Parisian period are marked by a growing interest in human individuality, a craving for tonal color ("The Blind Musician", 1864) In the 2nd half of the 1860s. Critical trends in Perov's work are realized in works imbued with sympathy and compassion for the poor, disadvantaged people. Among them: "Seeing the Dead" (1865), "Troika" (1866), "The Drowned Woman" (1867), "The Last Tavern at the Outpost" (1868).

Perov created a number of paintings in the genre close to the portrait, in which he sought to convey the individual qualities of people from the people, their ability to think and feel deeply (“Fomushka the Owl”, 1868, “The Wanderer”, 1870).

In the early 70s. Perov worked on portraits of representatives of the intelligentsia, emphasizing their creativity. Perov's portraits are characterized by an objective attitude to the model, the accuracy of social characteristics, the unity of composition, posture and gesture with the psychological state of a person (portraits: A.N. Ostrovsky, 1871, V.I. Dahl and F.M. Dostoevsky - both 1872 ).

Soon Perov experienced an ideological crisis (in 1877 he broke with the Wanderers): from accusatory genre themes, he moved mainly to everyday writing "hunting" scenes ("Birdman", 1870, "Hunters at Rest" and "Fisherman" - both 1871) , as well as to historical painting, having suffered a number of creative failures in it (“The Court of Pugachev”, 1875). He taught at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture (1871-82).

Peter I Alekseevich(1672-1725), Russian tsar since 1682 (ruled since 1689), Russian emperor (from 1721 Peter the Great), from the Romanov dynasty.

He carried out numerous reforms in various areas of public life - the creation of collegiums, the Senate, the Synod, the abolition of the patriarchate, the formation of state control and political investigation bodies, the construction of a new capital of Russia - St. Petersburg. Peter I - the creator of the Russian regular army and navy, a major commander and diplomat. He achieved victory in the protracted Northern War with Sweden (1700-1721), annexed the Baltic lands to Russia.

The role of Peter I in the history of the material and spiritual culture of Russia is great. In order to strengthen the economy, he created manufactories, shipyards, metallurgical, mining, weapons factories. Peter himself was a major shipbuilder of the early 18th century. On the initiative of Peter the Great, many educational institutions were opened in Russia, the Academy of Sciences was created, the civil alphabet was adopted, the first museum in the country, a botanical garden, etc. were founded. He contributed to the transformation of the life of the Russian nobility (the introduction of European clothing, the opening of assemblies, etc.). Many Russian people were educated in the West under Peter I. In an effort to use the experience of Western European countries in the development of industry, trade, military affairs, Peter the Great contributed to the familiarization of Russia with the symbolic system of Western civilization. As a result, the harmonious development of Russian culture was disrupted.

Pirogov Nikolay Ivanovich(1810-1881). Scientist, doctor, teacher and public figure. Born in the family of a small employee. In 1828 he graduated from the medical faculty of Moscow University, in 1836-1840. - Professor of Theoretical and Practical Surgery at Dorpat University. In 1841-1856. professor of the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy. Corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (since 1847). Member of the Sevastopol defense of 1855. Trustee of the Odessa (1856-1858) and Kiev (1858-1861) educational districts.

Pirogov is one of the founders of surgery as a scientific discipline. The main works are “Surgical Anatomy of the Arterial Trunks and Fascia” (1837), “Topographic Anatomy” (1859), “On Plastic Surgery in General and on Rhinoplasty in Particular” (1835), “The Beginnings of a General Military Field surgery" (1866). He laid the foundation for topographic anatomy and operative surgery, came up with the idea of ​​plastic surgery (for the first time in the world he put forward the idea of ​​bone grafting). He was the first to propose rectal anesthesia, used ether anesthesia in the clinic, and was the first in the world to use (in 1847) anesthesia in military field surgery.

N. Pirogov - the founder of military field surgery. He put forward a position on the war as a "traumatic epidemic", on the unity of treatment and evacuation, on sorting the wounded. He traveled as a consultant to the theater of operations during the Franco-Prussian (1870-1871) and Russian-Turkish (1877-1878) wars. He developed and put into practice methods of limb immobilization (starch, plaster bandage), he was the first to apply a bandage in the field (1854), during the defense of Sevastopol (1855) he attracted women (sisters of mercy) to care for the wounded at the front. After the death of Pirogov, the Society of Russian Doctors was founded in memory of N.I. Pirogov, who regularly convened the Pirogov Congresses (12 regular and 3 extraordinary).

As a teacher, N. Pirogov fought against class prejudices in the field of education and upbringing, advocated the autonomy of universities, and strove for the implementation of general primary education.

Plekhanov Georgy Valentinovich(1857-1918). Theorist and propagandist of Marxism, founder of the social democratic movement in Russia, a major researcher in the field of philosophy, sociology, aesthetics, religion, as well as history and economics.

G. Plekhanov - the founder of the Marxist group "Emancipation of Labor" (1883). Conducted polemics with the populists in the books "Socialism and the Political Struggle", "Our Differences".

In 1901-1905. - one of the leaders of the created V.I. Lenin newspaper "Iskra"; later opposed Bolshevism. In the philosophical and sociological works "On the Development of a Monistic View of History" (1895), "Essay on the History of Materialism" (1896), "On the Question of the Role of Personality in History" (1898), he developed a materialistic understanding of history, applied the dialectical method to knowledge of social life. He rejected the concept of "heroes - history makers", believing that "the people, the whole nation should be the hero of history." In the field of aesthetics, he stood on the positions of realism, considering art as a specific form of reflection of social life, a way of artistic exploration of reality.

G. Plekhanov's Peru owns the History of Russian Social Thought.

Polenov Vasily Dmitrievich(1844-1927). Painter. Active member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (1893), People's Artist of the RSFSR (1926).

Studied at the Academy of Arts (1863-1871), from 1878 - Wanderer. From the end of the 1870s. the landscape began to occupy a large place in his work. Polenov skillfully conveyed quiet poetry and discreet beauty of Russian nature, achieved freshness of color, compositional completeness and clarity of drawing. The most famous are: "Moscow Yard" and "Grandmother's Garden" - both 1878; "Overgrown Pond", 1879. In 1886-1887. the painting "Christ and the Sinner" was created - a canvas dedicated to moral problems. The pinnacle of V. Polenov's work is the painting "Golden Autumn" (1893). He worked a lot in the field of theatrical and decorative painting.

Pushkin, Alexander Sergeyevich(1799-1837) - the genius of Russian literature, the creator of the modern Russian literary language, the founder of Russian classics.

He was educated at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum (1811-1817), a member of the Arzamas literary society and the Green Lamp circle. In verses 1817-1820. Pushkin's talent and love for freedom were manifested ("Liberty", "Village", "To Chaadaev", etc.). In 1820, the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" was published, which became a turning point in Russian poetry. In May 1820 Pushkin was sent to the south of Russia. The time of the "southern exile" is the heyday of romanticism in the poet's work. Among the "southern poems" by A. Pushkin are "Prisoner of the Caucasus" (1821), "The Fountain of Bakhchisaray" (1823), "Gypsies" (1824). In these poems, along with the perfection of the verse, a philosophical approach to the problems of freedom, personality, love was manifested.

In July 1824, Pushkin was expelled for unreliability from the service and sent to the family estate - the village of Mikhailovskoye. Here the poet creates the central chapters of the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" (work on it began in May 1823), the cycle "Imitation of the Koran", the satirical poem "Count Nulin". At the same time, Pushkin wrote masterpieces of his lyrics - the poems "The Desire of Glory", "The Burnt Letter", "K" ("I remember a wonderful moment"), "The forest drops its crimson dress." A mature view of history was manifested in the tragedy Boris Godunov (1825), which laid the foundations for Pushkin's understanding of realism and nationality.

In September 1826, the new Emperor Nicholas I returned Pushkin from exile. A new period in the life and work of the poet begins. New works are being created in prose - the novel "Arap of Peter the Great" (1827) and in verse - "Stans" (1826), the poem "Poltava" (1828). Pushkin makes a trip to the Caucasus (1829), collaborates in A. Delvig's Literary Gazette.

In the autumn of 1830, in his Nizhny Novgorod estate Boldino, A. Pushkin experienced the flowering of his creative powers (about 50 works of various genres were created in 3 months). Here, “Eugene Onegin” was basically completed, the cycle “Belkin's Tale” (“Shot”, “Snowstorm”, “The Undertaker”, “The Stationmaster”, “The Young Lady Peasant Woman”) was written, the so-called. "Little Tragedies" ("The Miserly Knight", "Mozart and Salieri", "The Stone Guest", "Feast During the Plague"). About 30 poems appeared in Boldin (including "Elegy", "Spell", "For the shores of the distant homeland", "Demons", etc.).

In 1831 Pushkin marries and moves to St. Petersburg. He carefully studies the history of Russia, having gained access to the archives, he is working on the novel "Dubrovsky". In 1833 he traveled to the places of the Pugachev uprising - the Volga region and the Urals. On the way back to Boldin, Pushkin wrote "The History of Pugachev", the poem "The Bronze Horseman", the story "The Queen of Spades", the poem "Autumn", the cycle "Songs of the Western Slavs".

Since 1834, the last period of A. Pushkin's work begins. He is working on the "History of Peter", begins to publish the journal "Contemporary" (since 1836). Work is nearing completion on The Captain's Daughter, a historical novel about the uprising led by E. Pugachev. Pushkin writes the philosophical story Egyptian Nights (1835), a number of new poetic masterpieces (“It's time, my friend, it's time ...”, “... I visited again”, “From Pindemonti”, “I erected a monument to myself ... " and etc.). In verses 1834-1836. philosophical reflections, sadness, thoughts about death and immortality prevail.

In January 1837 A.S. Pushkin was mortally wounded in a duel.

Radishchev Alexander Nikolaevich(1749-1802). Writer and philosopher. The son of a wealthy landowner. He was educated at the Corps of Pages (1762-1766) and the University of Leipzig (1767-1771). From 1773 he served as chief auditor (legal adviser) of the headquarters of the Finnish division (St. Petersburg), in 1775 he retired, and from 1777 he was again in the service of the Commerce Collegium. Since 1780 - assistant manager, and since 1790 - manager of the St. Petersburg customs.

In 1771-1773. Radishchev performed a number of translations. At the turn of the 1770s and 1780s. acts as an independent author (the unfinished allegorical oratorio "Creation of the World" (1779), "The Tale of Lomonosov" (1780), "Letter to a Friend Living in Tobolsk" (1782) and the ode "Liberty"). From the mid 1780s. A. Radishchev started work on his main book - "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow." In the book, he strongly condemned autocracy and serfdom. Having condemned the ideology of enlightenment, he leads the reader to the conclusion that a revolution is necessary. The book was published in May 1790, and on June 30 Radishchev was arrested. The court sentenced him to death, replaced by exile for 10 years in the Ilim prison of Siberia with deprivation of ranks and nobility. In exile, Radishchev created a philosophical treatise "On Man, on His Mortality and Immortality" (1792-1795), and a number of other works.

Under Paul I, Radishchev was transferred to one of his father's estates - s. Nemtsovo of the Kaluga province (1797), and Alexander I completely amnestied him. In 1801, Radishchev was appointed to serve in the Law Drafting Commission. Working on draft legislative acts, he put forward ideas for the destruction of class privileges, which did not find understanding in the administration. In September 1802, A. Radishchev poisoned himself.

Repin Ilya Efimovich(1844-1930). Great painter. Born in the family of a military settler. He studied at the Drawing School of the Society for the Encouragement of Artists and at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (1864-1871), was a scholarship holder in Italy and France (1873-1876). Since 1878 he has been a member of the Association of Traveling Exhibitions. Active member of the Academy of Arts (1893).

In his work, he revealed the social contradictions of post-reform Russia (the painting "The Religious Procession in the Kursk Province"). He created images of revolutionaries-raznochintsev (“Refusal of confession”, “Arrest of a propagandist”, “They did not wait” 1879-1884). In the 1870s - 1880s. Repin created the best portraits (V.V. Stasov, A.F. Pisemsky, M.P. Mussorgsky, N.I. Pirogov, P.A. Strepetova, L.N. Tolstoy). They reveal the inner world of outstanding figures of Russian culture. Outstanding canvases were also created by Repin in the genre of historical painting (Princess Sofya, 1979; Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan, 1885; Cossacks writing a letter to the Turkish Sultan, 1878-1891). One of the pinnacles of Repin's work was the monumental group portrait "The Ceremonial Meeting of the State Council" (1901-1903).

In 1894-1907. Repin taught at the Academy of Arts, becoming the teacher of I.I. Brodsky, I.E. Grabar, B.M. Kustodieva and others. He lived in the estate "Penates" in Kuokkala (Finland). After 1917, in connection with the secession of Finland, he ended up abroad.

Rimsky-Korsakov Nikolai Andreevich(1844-1908). Composer, teacher, conductor, public figure, music writer. From nobles. He was educated in the St. Petersburg Naval Corps, after which (1862) he took part in sailing on the Almaz clipper ship (Europe, North and South America). In 1861 he became a member of the musical and creative community "The Mighty Handful". Under the leadership of M.A. Balakirev, who had a great creative influence on Rimsky-Korsakov, created the 1st symphony (1862-1865, 2nd edition 1874). In the 60s. wrote a number of romances (about 20), symphonic works, incl. the musical picture "Sadko" (1867, final version 1892), 2nd symphony ("Antar", 1868, later called a suite, final version 1897); the opera The Maid of Pskov (based on the drama by L.A. Mey, 1872, final version 1894). From the 70s. Rimsky-Korsakov's musical activity expanded significantly: he was a professor at the St. Petersburg Conservatory (since 1871), an inspector of brass bands of the naval department (1873-1884), director of the Free Music School (1874-1881), assistant manager of the Court Singing Chapel (1883- 1894). He compiled a collection of "100 Russian Folk Songs" (1876, published in 1877), harmonized Russian songs collected by T.I. Filippov (“40 songs”, published 1882).

Passion for the beauty and poetry of folk rituals was reflected in the operas "May Night" (after N.V. Gogol, 1878) and especially in "The Snow Maiden" (after A.N. Ostrovsky, 1881) - one of the most inspired and poetic works of Rimsky-Korsakov , as well as in the later operas Mlada (1890), The Night Before Christmas (after Gogol, 1895). In the 80s. created most of the symphonic works, incl. Tale (1880), Symphonietta on Russian Themes (1885), Spanish Capriccio (1887), Scheherazade Suite (1888), Bright Holiday Overture (1888). In the 2nd half of the 90s. the work of Rimsky-Korsakov acquired exceptional intensity and diversity. After the epic opera Sadko (1896), Rimsky-Korsakov focuses on the inner world of man.

Rimsky-Korsakov wrote music for the operas: Mozart and Salieri, Boyar Vera Sheloga (prologue to the opera The Maid of Pskov, 1898), The Tsar's Bride (1898). The opera The Tale of Tsar Saltan (after Pushkin, 1900), with its theatricality and stylized elements of popular popular print, and the majestic, patriotic legendary opera The Tale of the Invisible City of Kitezh and the Maiden Fevronia (1904) are masterpieces of Russian music. Two fairy-tale operas are noted for their socio-political orientation: "Kashchei the Immortal" (1901), with its idea of ​​liberation from oppression, and "The Golden Cockerel" (after Pushkin, 1907), a satire on despotism.

The work of Rimsky-Korsakov is deeply original and at the same time develops classical traditions. The harmony of the worldview, subtle artistry, perfect craftsmanship and strong reliance on the folk basis make him related to M.I. Glinka.

Rozanov Vasily Vasilievich(1856-1919). Philosopher and writer. He developed the theme of the opposition of Christ and the world, paganism and Christianity, which, in his opinion, expresses the attitude of hopelessness and death. Spiritual rebirth must take place on the basis of a correctly understood new Christianity, whose ideals will certainly triumph not only in the other world, but also here on earth. Culture, art, family, personality can only be understood within the framework of a new religious worldview as a manifestation of the "God-human process", as the embodiment of the divine in man and human history. Rozanov also tried to build his philosophy of life on the deification of the clan, family (“Family as Religion”, 1903), sex. Major works: "On Understanding", 1886; "Family issue in Russia", 1903; "In the world of the obscure and unresolved", 1904; "Near the Church Walls", 2 vol., 1906; "Dark face. Metaphysics of Christianity", 1911; "Moonlight people. Metaphysics of Christianity", 1911; "Fallen Leaves", 1913-1915; "Religion and Culture", 1912; "From Eastern Motifs", 1916.

Rublev Andrei (c. 1360 - c. 1430). Russian painter.

Biographical information about the great artist of medieval Russia is very scarce. He was brought up in a secular environment, in adulthood he took monastic vows. The worldview of Andrei Rublev was formed in the atmosphere of spiritual upsurge of the late XIV - early XV centuries. with his deep interest in religious issues. The artistic style of Rublev was formed on the basis of the traditions of the art of Muscovite Russia.

Rublev's works embody not only a deep religious feeling, but also an understanding of the spiritual beauty and moral strength of man. Icons of the Zvenigorod rank (“Archangel Michael”, “Apostle Paul”, “Savior”) are the pride of medieval Russian iconography. Laconic smooth contours, a wide manner of writing are close to the methods of monumental painting. Rublev's best icon - "Trinity" was created at the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries. The traditional biblical story is filled with philosophical content. The harmony of all elements is an artistic expression of the basic idea of ​​Christianity.

In 1405, Andrei Rublev, together with Feofan the Greek and Prokhor from Gorodets, painted the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, and in 1408, together with Daniil Cherny, the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir and created icons for its three-tiered iconostasis. In 1425-1427. painted the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and painted the icons of its iconostasis.

The work of Andrei Rublev is the pinnacle of ancient Russian painting, a treasure of world culture.

Savitsky Konstantin Apollonovich(1844-1905). Painter. He studied at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts in 1862-1873. member of the Association of Traveling Exhibitions in 1878. He taught at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture (1891-1897) and the Penza Art School (from 1897 until his death), of which he was director.

The author of genre paintings of accusatory orientation, in which he was able to convey the psychology of the masses. The most famous canvases: "Repair work on the railway", 1874, "Meeting the icon", 1878; "To the War", 1880-1888; "Dispute on the boundary", 1897. He also created etchings and lithographs.

Savrasov Alexey Kondratievich(1830-1897). Landscape painter. Studied in 1844-1854. at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, where in 1857-1882. led the landscape class. One of the founders of the Association of Traveling Exhibitions.

The landscapes of A. Savrasov are distinguished by lyrical immediacy, skillful transfer of the deep sincerity of Russian nature. Savrasov's most famous paintings are Elk Island in Sokolniki (1869), Rooks Have Arrived (1871), Country Road (1873). He had a great influence on Russian landscape painters of the late XIX - early XX centuries (K. Korovin, I. Levitan, etc.).

Seraphim of Sarov(1759-1833) in the world Moshnin Prokhor Sidorovich. An Orthodox ascetic, hieromonk of the Sarov Hermitage, canonized in 1903. In 1778 he was admitted to the monastic brotherhood of the Sarov Hermitage. Since 1794, he chooses the path of seclusion, and then silence, becomes a recluse. After leaving the seclusion in 1813, many lay people, as well as the sisters of the Diveye community, founded in 1788, 12 versts from the Sarov desert, became his spiritual children. From 1825, Seraphim spent his days in a forest cell not far from the monastery. Here he met with spiritual children. Despite the hardships of life, he maintained an enlightened and peaceful state of mind. Hesychast, in the strictest asceticism devoted himself to God. The teaching and image of St. Seraphim of Sarov honored Donskoy, later Sergius would become the godfather of his children). The place of the Grand Duke's confessor opened the way for Sergius to broad political activity. In 1374, he takes part in a large congress of Russian princes in Pereslavl, where the princes agreed on a joint struggle against Mamai, and later blesses Dmitry Donskoy for this struggle; in 1378-1379 solves questions about the structure of the Russian church and monastic life. Sergius introduced a cenobitic charter, destroying the previously existing separate residence of monks; he and his students did a great job of organizing and building Russian monasteries. Sergius of Radonezh in the 80s. settles conflicts between Moscow and other principalities (Ryazan, Nizhny Novgorod). Contemporaries highly valued Sergius of Radonezh.

I.A. Ilyin, C. de Vailly. In 1766 he moved to Rome. He returned to St. Petersburg in 1768. Since 1772, he played a leading role in the Commission on the stone structure of St. Petersburg and Moscow, was engaged in the planning of cities (Voronezh, Pskov, Nikolaev, Yekaterinoslav). Outside Advisor. Designed a lot for the book. G.A. Potemkin. From 1769 - adjunct professor, from 1785 - professor, from 1794 adjunct rector of architecture at the Academy of Arts. Since 1800, he headed the commission for the construction of the Kazan Cathedral.

One of the leading classical masters of the late 18th century. Notable for the severity of his style, his work had a huge impact on the development of the classic school. Thus, the Taurida Palace became a model of manor construction in Russia.

Main works: in St. Petersburg - the Tauride Palace, the Trinity Cathedral and the Gate Church of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra; a number of manor houses in the vicinity of St. Petersburg, of which the houses in Taitsy and Skvoritsy have been preserved, the palace in Pella (not preserved); palaces in Bogoroditsk, Bobriky and Nikolsky-Gagarin near Moscow. Bogoroditsky Cathedral in Kazan; magistrate in Nikolaev.

Surikov Vasily Ivanovich(1848-1916). Historical painter. Born in a Cossack family. Studied at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (1869-1875) under P.P. Chistyakov. Full member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (1893). From 1877 he lived in Moscow, systematically made trips to Siberia, was on the Don (1893), on the Volga (1901-1903), in the Crimea (1913). Visited Germany, France, Austria (1883-1884), Switzerland (1897), Italy (1900), Spain (1910). Member of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions (since 1881).

Surikov passionately loved Russian antiquity: referring to the difficult turning points in the history of Russia, he sought in the past of the people to find an answer to the exciting questions of our time. In the 1880s Surikov created his most significant works - monumental historical paintings: "Morning of the Streltsy Execution" (1881), "Menshikov in Berezov" (1883), "Boyar Morozova" (1887). With the depth and objectivity of an insightful historian, Surikov revealed in them the tragic contradictions of history, the logic of its movement, the trials that hardened the character of the people, the struggle of historical forces in the time of Peter the Great, in the era of split, in the years of popular movements. The main character in his paintings is the struggling, suffering, triumphant mass of the people, infinitely diverse, rich in bright types. After the death of his wife in 1888, Surikov fell into an acute depression and left painting. Having overcome a difficult state of mind after a trip to Siberia (1889-1890), he created the canvas “The Capture of a Snowy Town” (1891), depicting the image of a people full of daring and fun. In the painting “The Conquest of Siberia by Yermak” (1895), the artist’s thought is revealed in the bold prowess of the Cossack army, in the peculiar beauty of human types, clothes, and jewelry of the Siberian tribes. The painting "Suvorov's Crossing the Alps" (1899) sings of the courage of Russian soldiers. During the years of reaction, he worked (1909-1910) on the painting "Stepan Razin". The patriotic, truthful work of Surikov, for the first time with such force showing the people as the driving force of history, has become a new stage in world historical painting.

Tolstoy Lev Nikolaevich, Count (1828-1910). Great Russian writer. He was educated at home, in 1844-1847. studied at Kazan University. In 1851-1853. participates in hostilities in the Caucasus, and then in the Crimean War (on the Danube and in Sevastopol). Military impressions gave L. Tolstoy material for the stories "Raid" (1853), "Cutting the Forest" (1855), artistic essays "Sevastopol in the month of December", "Sevastopol in May", "Sevastopol in August 1855" (published in the journal "Contemporary" in 1855-1856), the story "Cossacks" (1853-1863). The novels "Childhood" (the first printed work published in Sovremennik in 1852), "Adolescence", "Youth" (1852-1857) belong to the early period of Tolstoy's work.

In the late 1850s L. Tolstoy survived a spiritual crisis, from which he found a way out in rapprochement with the people, in caring for their needs. In 1859-1862. he devotes a lot of energy to the school for peasant children he founded in Yasnaya Polyana, during the peasant reform he acts as a peace mediator in the Krapivensky district, defending the interests of the peasants liberated from serfdom.

The heyday of the artistic genius of Leo Tolstoy is the 1860s. He lives and works in Yasnaya Polyana. Since 1860 he has been writing the novel "Decembrists" (the idea was abandoned), and since 1863 - "War and Peace". Work on the main novel by L. Tolstoy went on until 1869 (published since 1865). "War and Peace" is a work that combines the depth of a psychological novel with the scope of an epic novel. The images of the novel, its concept - glorified Tolstoy, made his creation the pinnacle of world literature.

The main work of L. Tolstoy in the 1870s. - the novel "Anna Karenina" (1873-1877, published - 1876-1877). This is an acutely problematic work in which the protest against public hypocrisy is strong. The refined mastery of Tolstoy manifested itself in the characters of the heroes of the novel.

By the end of the 1870s. the worldview of Leo Tolstoy is being formed - the so-called. "tolstoy". It was expressed in his works "Confession" (1879-1880), "What is my faith?" (1882-1884). Tolstoy criticizes the teachings of the Orthodox Church, tries to create his own religion. He claims to "renew" and "purify" Christianity (works "Study of dogmatic theology" (1879-1880), "Combination and translation of the four gospels" (1880-1881), etc.). Sharp criticism of modern civilization was given by L. Tolstoy in his journalistic works “So what should we do?” (1882), "Slavery of our time" (1899-1900).

L. Tolstoy also shows interest in dramaturgy. The drama "The Power of Darkness" and the comedy "The Fruits of Enlightenment" (1886-1890) were a great success. Themes of love, life and death and in the 1880s. - central to Tolstoy's prose. The novella The Death of Ivan Ilyich (1884-1886), The Kreutzer Sonata (1887-1899), The Devil (1890) became masterpieces. In the 1890s The main artistic work of L. Tolstoy was the novel "Resurrection" (1899). Artistically exploring the fate of people from the people, the writer paints a picture of lawlessness and oppression, calls for spiritual awakening, "resurrection". Sharp criticism of church rites in the novel led to the excommunication of L. Tolstoy by the Holy Synod from the Orthodox Church (1901).

In the same years, L. Tolstoy created works published posthumously (in 1911-1912) - “Father Sergius”, “Hadji Murad”, “After the Ball”, “False Coupon”, “Living Corpse”. The story "Hadji Murad" denounces the despotism of Shamil and Nicholas I, and in the play "The Living Corpse" attention is focused on the problem of a person's "departure" from his family and from the environment in which it has become "ashamed" to live.

In the last years of his life, L. Tolstoy published publicistic articles against militarism and the death penalty (“I cannot be silent”, etc.). The departure, death and funeral of L. Tolstoy in 1910 became a great social event.

Turgenev Ivan Sergeevich(1818-1883). Great Russian writer. Mother - V.P. Lutovinova; father - S.N. Turgenev, officer, participant in the Patriotic War of 1812. Turgenev spent his childhood on his mother's estate - p. Spasskoye-Lutovinovo, Oryol province. In 1833 he entered Moscow University, a year later he moved to St. Petersburg University to the verbal department of the Faculty of Philosophy (graduating in 1837). By the series of the 30s. include the early poetic experiments of I. Turgenev. In 1838, Turgenev's first poems "Evening" and "To the Venus of Medicius" were published in the Sovremennik magazine. In 1842, Turgenev passed the exam for a master's degree in philosophy at St. Petersburg University and traveled to Germany. Upon his return, he served in the Ministry of the Interior as an official for special assignments (1842-1844).

In 1843, Turgenev's poem Parasha was published, highly appreciated by Belinsky; after her, the poems "Conversation" (1845), "Andrey" (1846) and "Landowner" (1846) were published. In the prose works of these years - Andrei Kolosov (1844), Three Portraits (1846), Bretter (1847) - Turgenev continued to develop the problem of personality and society put forward by romanticism.

In Turgenev's dramatic works - the genre scenes Lack of Money (1846), Breakfast at the Leader's (1849, published 1856), The Bachelor (1849) and the social drama The Freeloader (1848, staged in 1849, published in 1857) - in the image of the “little man”, the traditions of N.V. Gogol. In the plays “Where it is thin, it breaks there” (1848), “Provincial Woman” (1851), “A Month in the Country” (1850, published in 1855), Turgenev’s characteristic dissatisfaction with the inaction of the noble intelligentsia, a foretaste of a new raznochinets hero, are expressed.

The cycle of essays "Notes of a Hunter" (1847-1852) is the most significant work of the young Turgenev. It had a great influence on the development of Russian literature and brought world fame to the author. The book was translated into many European languages ​​and already in the 50s, being actually banned in Russia, it went through many editions in Germany, France, and England. In the center of the essays is a serf, smart, talented, but powerless. Turgenev discovered a sharp contrast between the "dead souls" of the landowners and the high spiritual qualities of the peasants, which arose in communion with the majestic, beautiful nature.

In 1856, the novel "Rudin" appeared in Sovremennik - a kind of result of Turgenev's thoughts about the leading hero of our time. Turgenev's point of view on the "superfluous person" in "Rudin" is ambivalent: while recognizing the significance of Rudin's "word" in awakening the consciousness of people in the 1940s, he notes the insufficiency of propaganda of lofty ideas in the conditions of Russian life in the 1950s.

In the novel "The Nest of Nobles" (1859), the question of the historical fate of Russia is sharply raised. The hero of the novel, Lavretsky, is closer to people's life, better understands the needs of the people. He considers it his duty to alleviate the fate of the peasants.

Turgenev in the novel "On the Eve" (1860) expressed the idea of ​​the need for a creative and heroic nature. In the image of the commoner Bulgarian Insarov, the writer brought out a person with an integral character, all the moral forces of which are focused on the desire to liberate his homeland.

In the novel "Fathers and Sons" (1862), Turgenev continued the artistic comprehension of the "new man". The novel is not just about the change of generations, but about the struggle of ideological trends (idealism and materialism), about the inevitable and irreconcilable clash of old and new socio-political forces.

After "Fathers and Sons" for the writer came a period of doubt and disappointment. The stories "Ghosts" (1864), "Enough" (1865) appear, full of sad reflections and pessimistic moods. In the center of the novel "Smoke" (1867) is the problem of the life of Russia shaken by the reform. The novel was sharply satirical and anti-Slavophile in nature. The novel "Nov" - (1877) - a novel about the populist movement. I.S. Turgenev is a master of Russian prose. His work is characterized by the refined art of psychological analysis.

Tyutchev Fedor Ivanovich(1803-1873). Russian poet. He belonged to an old noble family. In 1819-1821. studied at the verbal department of Moscow University. Upon completion of the course, he was enrolled in the service of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs. He was at the Russian diplomatic missions in Munich (1822-1837) and Turin (1837-1839). In 1836 A.S. Pushkin, delighted with Tyutchev's poems delivered to him from Germany, published them in Sovremennik. Returning to Russia (1844), Tyutchev from 1848 held the position of senior censor of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and from 1858 until the end of his life he headed the Foreign Censorship Committee.

As a poet, Tyutchev developed at the turn of the 20-30s. The masterpieces of his lyrics belong to this time: “Insomnia”, “Summer Evening”, “Vision”, “The Last Cataclysm”, “As the Ocean Embraces the Globe”, “Cicero”, “Spring Waters”, “Autumn Evening”. Imbued with a passionate, intense thought and at the same time a keen sense of the tragedy of life, Tyutchev's lyrics artistically expressed the complexity and inconsistency of reality. In 1854, the first collection of his poems was published, which was recognized by his contemporaries. 40s - 50s 19th century - the heyday of the poetic talent of F.I. Tyutchev. In himself, the poet feels a "terrible split", which, in his opinion, is a distinctive property of a person of the 19th century. (“Our Age”, 1851, “O my prophetic soul!”, 1855, etc.).

Tyutchev's lyrics are saturated with anxiety. The world, nature, man appear in his poems in a constant clash of opposing forces.

In the 50-60s. the best works of Tyutchev's love lyrics are created, stunning with psychological truth in revealing human experiences.

The penetrating lyricist and poet-thinker F.I. Tyutchev was a master of Russian verse, who gave the traditional meters an unusual rhythmic variety, and was not afraid of unusual expressive combinations.

Fedorov Ivan (Fedorov-Moskvitin) (c. 1510-1583). Founder of book printing in Russia and Ukraine. He was a deacon of the Church of St. Nicholas Gostunsky in the Moscow Kremlin. Probably in the 50s. 16th century worked in the so-called anonymous printing house in Moscow. In 1564, together with Peter Mstislavets, he published The Apostle, known as the first Russian printed edition (however, 9 books had been printed even before that). "Apostle" is skillfully ornamented. Ivan Fedorov created the so-called early printed style, and developed the font on the basis of the Moscow semi-statutory letter of the middle of the 16th century.

In 1566, due to the persecution of the Josephite church, Ivan Fedorov moved to Lithuania, worked in Zabludovo, then in Lvov, Ostrog, published the "Hours", "Primer", "New Testament", "Ostrog Bible" - the first complete Slavic Bible. I. Fedorov was a versatile master who owned many crafts: he invented a multi-barreled mortar, cast cannons.

Fedorov Nikolai Fyodorovich(1828-1903). Religious thinker, philosopher. In the essay "Philosophy of the Common Cause" (vols. 1-2, 1906-1913), published after Fedorov's death by his students and followers, he proposed an original system - cosmism - subordinated to the idea of ​​"patrophication" (resurrection of ancestors - "fathers"), which meant the re-creation of all living generations, their transformation and return to God. He saw their "resurrection" in the possibility of regulating the blind forces of nature by means of developing science and technology, mastering their achievements. This, according to Fedorov, could lead to universal brotherhood and kinship (“unification of sons for the resurrection of fathers”), to overcoming any enmity, the gap between thought and deed, “scientists” and “unlearned”, city and countryside, wealth and poverty ; in addition, prerequisites would be created for the cessation of all wars and militaristic aspirations. He considered the Christian idea of ​​personal salvation to be opposite to the cause of universal salvation and therefore immoral. Recognition came to him after his death, at the beginning of the 20th century, during a period of craze for mysticism.

Florensky Pavel Alexandrovich(1882-1937). Religious philosopher, scientist, priest and theologian. In 1911 he accepted the priesthood, until the closure of the Moscow Theological Academy in 1919 he edited the journal The Theological Bulletin. In 1933 he was arrested. The central issues of his main work, The Pillar and Ground of the Truth (1914), are the concept of total unity and the doctrine of Sophia, which comes from Solovyov, as well as the rationale for Orthodox dogma, especially the trinity, asceticism and veneration of icons. Religious and philosophical issues were subsequently widely combined with Florensky's research in various fields of knowledge - linguistics, the theory of spatial arts, mathematics, and physics. Here he tried to combine the truths of science with religious faith, believing that the only way to “grasp” truth can be revelation. Major works: "The Meaning of Idealism", 1914; "Near Khomyakov", 1916; "The first steps of philosophy", 1917; "Iconostasis", 1918; Imaginary in Geometry, 1922. In 1937 he was shot at Solovki.

Frank Semyon Ludwigovich(1877-1950). Religious philosopher and psychologist. Professor at Saratov and Moscow Universities until 1922, when he was exiled along with a large group of philosophers, writers and public figures from Soviet Russia. Until 1937 he lived in Berlin, where he taught at the University of Berlin, was a member of the Religious and Philosophical Academy organized by N.A. Berdyaev, participated in the publication of the journal "The Way". From 1937 he lived in Paris, and then until his death - in London. Back in 1905-1909. he edited the Polar Star magazine, and then participated in the publication of the Milestones collection, where he published the article "The Ethics of Nihilism" - a sharp rejection of rigoristic moralism and the soulless perception of the world by the revolutionary intelligentsia.

In his philosophical views, Frank supported and developed the idea of ​​unity in the spirit of V.S. Solovyov, tried to reconcile rational thinking with religious faith on the way to overcome the inconsistency of the divine value of everything that exists, the imperfection of the world and the construction of Christian theodicy and ethics. Throughout his life, the philosopher affirmed as the highest value "all-embracing love as the perception and recognition of the value of all concrete living things." Major works: Friedrich Nietzsche and the Ethics of Love for the Far, 1902; "Philosophy and Life", St. Petersburg, 1910; "The Subject of Knowledge", 1915; "The Soul of Man", 1918; "Essay on the methodology of the social sciences". M., 1922; "Living Knowledge". Berlin, 1923; "Crash of idols". 1924; "Spiritual foundations of society", 1930; "Incomprehensible". Paris, 1939; Reality and Man. Metaphysics of human existence. Paris, 1956; "God is with us". Paris, 1964.

Tchaikovsky Pyotr Ilyich(1840-1893). Great composer. The son of a mining engineer at the Kamsko-Votkinsky plant in the Vyatka province. In 1850-1859. studied at the School of Law (St. Petersburg), and then (in 1859-1863) served in the Ministry of Justice. In the early 1860s studied at the St. Petersburg Conservatory (graduating in 1865 with honors). In 1866-1878. - Professor of the Moscow Conservatory, author of the textbook "Guide to the practical study of harmony" (1872). Appeared in print as a music critic.

Already in the Moscow period of the life of P. Tchaikovsky, his work flourished (1866-1877). Three symphonies were created, the fantasy overture Romeo and Juliet, the symphonic fantasies The Tempest (1873) and Francesca da Rimini (1876), the opera Voyevoda (1868), The Oprichnik (1872), The Blacksmith Vakula (1874, 2nd edition - "Cherevichki", 1885), ballet "Swan Lake" (1876), music for A. Ostrovsky's play "The Snow Maiden" (1873), piano pieces (including the cycle "The Seasons ") and etc.

In the autumn of 1877, P. Tchaikovsky went abroad, where he devoted himself entirely to composing. During these years, he wrote the operas The Maid of Orleans (1879), Mazepa (1883), Italian Capriccio (1880) and three suites. In 1885 Tchaikovsky returned to his homeland.

Since 1892 P.I. Tchaikovsky lives in Klin (Moscow province). He resumes active musical and social activities. He is elected director of the Moscow branch of the Russian Musical Society. Since 1887, Tchaikovsky has been performing as a conductor.

In 1885-1893. created a number of outstanding works included in the treasury of world music. Among them: the operas The Enchantress (1887), The Queen of Spades (1890), Iolanthe (1891), the ballets The Sleeping Beauty (1889), The Nutcracker (1892), the symphony Manfred (1885) , 5th symphony (1888), 6th "Pathetic" symphony (1893), orchestral suite "Mozartiana" (1887).

Tchaikovsky's music is the pinnacle of Russian musical culture. He is one of the greatest symphonic composers. It is characterized by melodically generous musical speech, lyrical and dramatic expression. His best operas are psychologically deep vocal and symphonic tragedies. Thanks to the introduction of the principles of symphonic dramaturgy, Tchaikovsky's ballets are a new stage in the development of this genre. Tchaikovsky is the author of 104 romances.

Chernyshevsky Nikolai Gavrilovich(1828-1889). Thinker, publicist, writer, literary critic. In 1856-1862. head of the Sovremennik magazine, ideologist of the revolutionary movement of the 1860s. Author of many works on philosophy, sociology, political economy, aesthetics. One of the founders of populism. His ideals are reflected in the novels What Is to Be Done? (1863) and "Prologue" (1869). In the social sciences, a supporter of materialism and anthropologism. He was hostile to both autocracy and liberalism.

In 1862 he was arrested, and in 1864 he was sentenced to 7 years of hard labor. He served hard labor and exile in Eastern Siberia. In 1883 he was transferred to Astrakhan, and then to Saratov, where he died.

Chekhov Anton Pavlovich(1860-1904). Great Russian writer. Born in Taganrog, in the family of a merchant of the third guild. In 1868-1878. studied at the gymnasium, and in 1879-1884. at the Medical Faculty of Moscow University. Engaged in medical practice.

From the end of the 1870s. collaborated in a humorous magazine. Chekhov's first collections of short stories were The Tales of Melpomene (1884) and Motley Tales (1886). In the mid 1880s. moves from purely humorous stories to serious works. There are stories and novels "The Steppe" (1888), "The Seizure", "A Boring Story" (1889). Chekhov's collection At Twilight (1888) was awarded the Pushkin Prize.

In 1890, A. Chekhov made a trip to the island of Sakhalin (at that time - the hard labor zone of Russia). The trip resulted in the essay book "Sakhalin Island" (1894), the stories "In Exile", "Murder". In 1892, the story "Ward No. 6" was published.

Since 1892, Chekhov settled in the Melikhovo estate (Serpukhov district, Moscow province). The time has come for the flowering of A. Chekhov's creativity. He writes the stories "Student" (1894), "Ionych" (1898), "Lady with a Dog" (1899), novels "Three Years" (1895), "A House with a Mezzanine", "My Life" (both - 1896) , "Men" (1897), "In the ravine" (1900). These works are permeated with the writer's desire to reveal the truth of life, they denounce spiritual stagnation. The principle of Chekhov's prose is conciseness, conciseness. The writer approves the manner of restrained, objective narration. Events seem to dissolve in the daily course of life, in psychology.

A.P. Chekhov is a reformer of world dramaturgy. The first plays and vaudevilles were written by him in the second half of the 1880s. ("Ivanov" and others).

In 1896, his play "The Seagull" appears (failed on the stage of the Alexandrinsky Theater). Only in 1898 at the Moscow Art Theater she was a triumph. In 1897, Chekhov's play "Uncle Vanya" was published, in 1901 - "Three Sisters" (rewarded with the Griboedov Prize), in 1904 - "The Cherry Orchard". All these plays were staged at the Moscow Art Theater. In A. Chekhov's plays there is no plot-intrigue, and the center of gravity is shifted to a hidden, internal plot associated with the spiritual world of the characters.

A native of the Novgorod prosperous commercial and industrial environment, he was close to the Novgorod archbishop Macarius, after whose election as metropolitan he moved to Moscow and from 1545 became the archpriest of the court Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin.

During the riots in Moscow caused by a terrible fire and the performance of people against the Glinskys, who were considered the culprits of the fire, “Princess Anna Glinskaya with her children and with her people took out human hearts and immersed them in water, and sprinkled Moscow streets with that water, and from that Moscow burned out," so the people said.

The autocracy of the supreme power, it seemed, was losing its influence over the people, who had lost their patience, at that moment. Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible had previously believed too much in his omnipotence, and therefore behaved insolently and unbridledly, now he fell into extreme cowardice and was completely at a loss. And during these events, a man in sacred clothes, named Sylvester, comes to him. There was something amazing in his speech, he presented the tsar with the sad state of the Moscow land, pointed out the cause of all the misfortunes of the tsar’s vices: “Heavenly punishment has already hung over Ivan Vasilyevich in the form of a popular revolt.” Most likely, the priest struck the ruler with some other miracles and signs, because the always strong and powerful Ivan suddenly began to repent, cry and made a promise from now on to obey his mentor in everything. So from 1547, Sylvester began to exert great influence on the king.

Finding himself the guardian of the king, Sylvester with his friend Alexei Adashev, under the leadership of Ivan the Terrible, selects a circle of people who defend strong state power - autocracy. They were people of noble families: Prince Dmitry Kurlyatov, Prince Andrey Kurbsky, Vorotynsky, Odoevsky, Serebryany, Humpbacked, Sheremetyevs and others. In addition, Sylvester and Adashev began to invite people from the crowd who were not noble, but honest and useful to them, and installed them in various positions, giving them estates and estates. The state thus began to be ruled by a circle of favorites, which Kurbsky calls "The Chosen Rada." Sylvester subjugates the will of the king to such an extent that Ivan does not take a single step without his approval, the priest even interferes in his marital relations. At the same time, the guardians of the ruler tried, as far as possible, to conduct business in such a way that he would not feel the burden of guardianship, and it would seem to him that he was still an autocrat.

But gradually the influence of Sylvester on the king begins to fall. The main enemies of Sylvester were the Zakharins, who armed their sister, Queen Anastasia, against him. “The king, they whispered to Ivan, must be autocratic, command everyone, obey no one; and if he does what others decide, then this means that he is only honored with the honor of a royal representative, but in fact he is no better than a slave. And the prophet said woe to that city, if many possess it. The Russian lords had never obeyed anyone before, but were free to pardon and execute their subjects. It is not at all fitting for a priest to rule and govern; their business is to serve as priests, and not to create human government. To top it off, Ivan was convinced that Sylvester was a sorcerer, had entangled him with the power of magic and kept him in captivity. The supporters of the monk admit that Sylvester deceived the king, appeared in his eyes as a charitable person, invested with an extraordinary power of miracles, that he, in a word, fooled the king with false miracles, and justify his actions only by the fact that all this was done for good purposes. The enemies of Sylvester also presented him to the king as a miracle worker, but only he received power not from God, but from the dark authorities. Sylvester was not tolerated by many for his insight and wanted to remove him. Thus, at the end of 1559, the tsar had some major clash with Sylvester and Adashev, the details of which are not known; it is only known that Sylvester and his friends tried to keep Ivan from traveling to the monasteries and from making pious vows. But after this clash, Sylvester and Adashev themselves found it impossible to remain with the king. Sylvester (probably then already widowed) retired to some remote monastery, and Alexy Adashev went to the army in Livonia. In this case, the participation of Anastasia is almost certain, Sylvester's supporters, regarding his removal, compared him with John Chrysostom, who suffered from the malice of Empress Eudoxia. In August 1560, Tsarina Anastasia died. The enemies of Sylvester began to assure the king that Anastasia was tormented by the dashing people of Sylvester and Adashev with their charms. Friends reported this at once to both; the latter, through the mediation of Metropolitan Macarius, asked for a trial of themselves and permission to come to Moscow for justification. But the enemies did not allow it.

The cathedral condemned Sylvester to imprisonment in Solovki, where he was engaged in the correspondence of books, some of which have survived, the main work of the writer - Domostroy, which contains a number of instructions to his son and all people - religious, moral and economic.

Valerian Zubov (1771 - 1804) - Russian military leader, infantry general. He lived a short life, but full of vicissitudes of fate.

Biography

Valerian Zubov was born into a poor noble family on November 28. - December 9.) 1771. His father managed the estates of Count Nikolai Saltykov, and very dishonorably, he was convicted of theft many times.

Even as a child, Valerian was assigned to the Preobrazhensky Guards Regiment, from where he then transferred to the Horse Guards Regiment. By 1789, Valerian had made a good army career, already being a second lieutenant.

This year, Valerian's older brother Plato became the favorite of Catherine II.

Vasily Poyarkov is one of the discoverers of Siberia. He made a huge contribution to the development of these lands.

In the 17th century, the Russian Empire dreamed of annexing Siberia to its lands. It was a huge and rich territory, where many peoples lived.

Special expeditions were assembled to study and annex the Siberian lands. One of them was headed by Vasily Poyarkov.

Years of life

Accurate information about the years of life of Vasily Poyarkov has not been preserved. Only documentary sources have survived to this day, in which there is information about his activities. They date back to 1610-1667.

Fedot Popov Alekseevich explorer and discoverer.

The name of Semyon Dezhnev is familiar to every person in our country, which is understandable: the man who for the first time in history circumnavigated Chukotka, discovered the strait between Asia and America and America itself from the West, the one in whose honor the extreme eastern point of Russia and the continent of Eurasia in general is named - Cape Dezhnev, is rightfully worthy of blessed memory and respect for descendants.

But against the background of Semyon Dezhnev, those who helped him, who participated in his expedition, and without whose participation Dezhnev's discoveries were impossible, remain undeservedly forgotten.

Ivan Zarutsky took an active part in the events of the Time of Troubles.

Zarutsky has contradictory qualities. He is smart and purposeful, at the same time greedy, ready to "go over the heads" in order to achieve his goal.

The Time of Troubles in Russia began with the death of Ivan the Terrible's son, Fyodor Ioanovich. Impostors come to the government and try to hold on to power with all their might.

Origin of Ivan Martynovich Zarutsky

Ivan Zarutsky was born in 1550. Place of birth - the city of Tarnopol in Western Russia. In early childhood, he is captured by the Crimean Tatars, from where he manages to escape to the Don.

Karion Istomin (1640s - 1717) - Russian writer, teacher and publisher of the 17th century.

He was a hieromonk of the Chudov Monastery in Moscow, for some time he headed the Moscow Printing House - the country's main printing house at that time.

Biography

Karion Istomin is from Kursk a. It is assumed that his parents were of humble origin. The "worldly" name of Istomin, unfortunately, is unknown.

His close relative was Sylvester (Simeon Agafonovich) Medvedev, another Russian writer of those years. Karion was his student, as well as a student of the Likhudov brothers, Greek scientists who worked in Moscow.

Simeon of Polotsk is an outstanding figure of Slavic culture of the 17th century. Well-read and energetic, having studied philosophical sciences, he developed Russian education.

Having studied a number of sciences, the simple monk of Polotsk was noted as a teacher and educator. Achieved success in poetry and dramaturgy.

He was also interested in art, medicine, astrology and more. He preferred to be close to the king and his family instead of a brilliant church career.

Years of life

Samuil Gavrilovich Petrovsky - Sitnyanovich was born on December 12, 1629. Date of death - 25th of August, 1680.

Vladimir Atlasov is one of the Russian explorers, the first explorer of the Kamchatka Peninsula.

Member and leader of the expedition, studied in detail and described the uncharted land. In 1697, on July 23, Kamchatka was included in the list of territories of the Russian state.

Years of life

Born in 1661, in Russian Veliky Ustyug. He died in 1711, February 1 in Nizhnekamchatsk.

Biography

Vladimir was born into a poor family of a Yakut Cossack, Vasily Timofeevich Otlas. He grew up wandering with the same poor across the expanses of the tundra.

Patriarch Filaret is not the most famous historical figure. But its influence on the course of the history of the Russian state and the world is difficult to underestimate.

He is one of those thanks to whom the Time of Troubles ended, and Mikhail Romanov reigned on the Russian throne.