Who lived in Carthage. Carthage. History of the Phoenicians in North Africa. Colonies of ancient Carthage

Carthage is an ancient city, the name of which is probably known to everyone. This is a rare occurrence in history. Many cities are gone, and their names, their history and significance were gradually forgotten. Carthage was included in the list of exceptions to this rule.

Carthage is a Phoenician (also called Punic) city-state that existed in ancient times in northern Africa, on the territory of modern Tunisia. The date of the founding of Carthage is indicated exactly - 814 BC. NS. Founded by colonists from the Phoenician city of Tire, led by Queen Elissa (Dido), who fled from Tire after her brother Pygmalion, king of Tire, killed her husband Sychei in order to take possession of his wealth.

Location of Carthage

Carthage was founded on a promontory with outlets to the north and south. The location of the city made it the leader of the Mediterranean sea trade. All ships crossing the sea inevitably passed between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia. The length of the massive city walls was 37 kilometers, and the height in some places reached 12 meters.

Most of the walls were located on the coast, which made the city impregnable from the sea. The city had a huge cemetery, places of worship, markets, a municipality, towers, and a theater. It has been divided into four identical residential areas. Around the middle of the city there was a high citadel called Birsa. It was one of the largest cities in Hellenistic times.

The ships entered the trading harbor through a narrow passage. Up to 220 vessels could be pulled out simultaneously for loading and unloading ashore. A military harbor and an arsenal were located behind the commercial harbor.

The population in the city is unknown.

Carthage, conveniently located in the center of the Mediterranean Sea, at the crossroads of trade and sea routes, gradually began to strengthen and grow rich.

Initially, it was a small city, not unlike other Phoenician colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The city's economy was mainly based on intermediary trade

The craft was underdeveloped and practically did not differ from the oriental one in its main technical and aesthetic characteristics.

There was no farming, and there was little land for farming.

The masters of Carthage did not succeed in creating works of art. Their works did not have any specific features that differ from the general Phoenician ones.

Religion of Carthage

The Carthaginians, like other Mediterranean peoples, envisioned the universe as divided into three worlds, one above the other. Perhaps this is the same world serpent that the Ugaritans called Latana, and the ancient Jews called Leviathan.

The earth was thought to lie between two oceans. The sun rising from the eastern ocean, bypassing the earth, plunged into the western ocean, which was considered the sea of ​​darkness and the abode of the dead. The souls of the dead could get there on ships or on horseback on dolphins.

The sky was the seat of the Carthaginian gods. Since the Carthaginians were immigrants from the Phoenician city of Tire, they worshiped the gods of Canaan, but not all. And the Canaanite gods changed their appearance on new soil, absorbing the features of local gods.

Tyr's foes

Only one feature of the new city stands out, which influenced its future fate: the founders of the city were representatives of the opposition group, which was defeated in Tire. Therefore, Carthage from the very beginning did not enter the Tyrian state, but took an independent position, although it retained spiritual ties with its mother country.

The political system of Carthage was originally a monarchy. However, she hardly existed longer than the life of Elissa-Dido, the sister of the Tyrian king, who led the resettlement and became the queen of the newly founded city. The sources do not report anything about the children of the queen, and the context of Justin directly indicates their absence. With the end of the royal family, a republic was established in Carthage.

As the city grew rich, its inhabitants and city authorities increased the land holdings around the city, seizing land or renting it from local tribes.

Power in Carthage was in the hands of the trade and craft oligarchy. The governing body is the Senate, which was in charge of finances, foreign policy, the declaration of war and peace, and also carried out the general conduct of the war. Executive power was vested in two elected Suffet magistrates. Obviously, these were senators, and their duties were exclusively civil, not involving control over the army. Together with the commanders of the army, they were elected by the people's assembly.

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In the VII-VI centuries. BC. the Carthaginians began an active offensive policy in North Africa.

Carthaginian colonies were established along the sea coast towards the Pillars of Hercules (the Strait of Gibraltar in our opinion), as well as behind them on the Atlantic coast. By the end of the 7th century. BC. there were Carthaginian colonies on the Atlantic coast of modern Morocco (Such is Like near the present city of Al-Araish (Laroche). An unnamed settlement (Carian wall?) near the city of al-Suweira (Mogador) was also found.).

The emergence of aggressive ambitions. Wars of Carthage

In the middle of the VI century. BC. The Carthaginians, under the leadership of Malchus, waged a war against the Libyans and, apparently, as a result of the victory, they achieved exemption from paying rent for the city land, which they had previously had to pay regularly to one of the local tribes. At the end of the VI century. BC. the long-term struggle with Cyrene, a Greek colony in North Africa, to establish the border between the two states was completed. The border was significantly moved away from Carthage to the east, towards Cyrene.

In the same centuries, Carthage was also fortified on the Iberian Peninsula, where the Phoenician colonies, led by Hades (now Cadiz), had even before that waged a stubborn struggle against Tartess for trade routes to the British Isles, which were rich in tin. Tire and Carthage provided all kinds of support to the people of Hades. Having defeated Tartess on land, they blockaded him and seized part of his territory. In the middle of the VII century. BC NS. Carthage founded his own colony of Ebess (now Ibiza) in the Balearic Islands, off the coast of Spain. Carthage also captured these islands from Tartessa.

In the second half of the 7th century. BC. the Carthaginians decided to gain a foothold on the peninsula. Hades took such a step by Carthage as a threat to his monopoly position in the international trade in non-ferrous metals and put up stubborn resistance to Carthage. But the Carthaginians took Hades by storm and destroyed its walls. After that, under the rule of Carthage, undoubtedly, other Phoenician colonies on the Iberian Peninsula were also found.

The further advance of the Carthaginians in this area was stopped by the Greek (Phocaean) colonization of the Mediterranean coast of the peninsula. Around 600 BC NS. Phocians inflicted a number of serious defeats on the Carthaginian fleet and stopped the spread of Carthaginian influence in Spain. The founding of the Fokean colony on the island of Corsica interrupted the Carthaginian-Etruscan relations for a long time.

Trade policy

Carthage may well be called a trading state, since in its policy it was guided by commercial considerations. Many of his colonies and trading settlements were undoubtedly founded in order to expand trade.

It is known about some expeditions undertaken by the Carthaginian rulers, the reason for which was also the desire for wider trade relations. So in the treaty concluded by Carthage in 508 BC. with the Roman Republic, which had just emerged after the expulsion of the Etruscan kings from Rome, it was envisaged that Roman ships could not sail into the western part of the sea, but they could use the harbor of Carthage.

In the event of a forced landing elsewhere in Punic territory, they asked for official protection from the authorities and, after repairing the ship and replenishing food supplies, they immediately sailed away. Carthage agreed to recognize the borders of Rome and respect its people as well as its allies. The Carthaginians entered into agreements and, if necessary, made concessions.

They also resorted to force to prevent rivals from entering the waters of the western Mediterranean, which they considered as their fiefdom, with the exception of the coast of Gaul and the adjacent shores of Spain and Italy. They also fought against piracy. Carthage, did not show due attention to the minting of the coin.

Apparently, there was no own coin here until the 4th century. BC, when silver coins were issued, which, if the surviving specimens are considered typical, varied significantly in weight and quality. Perhaps the Carthaginians preferred to use the reliable silver coin of Athens and other states, and most of the transactions were made through direct exchange of goods.

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Carthage before the Punic Wars

In the VI century BC. NS. the Greeks founded the colony of Massalia and made an alliance with Tartess. Initially, the Punyans were defeated, but Magon I carried out a reform of the army, an alliance was concluded with the Etruscans, and in 537 BC. NS. in the battle of Alalia, the Greeks were defeated.

The Carthaginian-Etruscan coalition significantly changed the political situation in the Western Mediterranean. After the Battle of Alalia, off the coast of Corsica, the rule of the Greeks (Phocians) on the Mediterranean routes was destroyed. After that, Carthage launched a new attack on Sardinia, where colonies were established on the coast and numerous small Punian settlements in the interior of the island.

The victory at Alalia isolated Tartess politically and militarily, and in the late 30s - early 20s of the 6th century. BC NS. Carthaginian invaders literally wiped out Tartessus from the face of the earth, so that the searches of archaeologists trying to find its location have not yet yielded satisfactory results.

Trade remained the main source of wealth for Carthage. Carthaginian merchants traded in Egypt, Italy, Spain, the Black and Red Seas - and agriculture based on the widespread use of slave labor.

There was a regulation of trade - Carthage sought to monopolize trade; for this purpose, all subjects were obliged to trade only through the mediation of Carthaginian merchants. During the Greco-Persian wars, Carthage was allied with Persia, together with the Etruscans, an attempt was made to completely capture Sicily. But after the defeat at the Battle of Gimer (480 BC) by the coalition of Greek city-states, the struggle was suspended for several decades.

The main enemy of the Punyans was Syracuse, the war continued at intervals of almost a hundred years (394-306 BC) and ended with the almost complete conquest of Sicily by the Punyans.

Rome goes to Carthage

In the III century BC. NS. Carthage's interests came into conflict with the strengthened Roman Republic. Relations began to deteriorate. It first appeared on final stage wars between Rome and Tarentum. But in 264 BC. NS. started First Punic War... It was conducted mainly in Sicily and at sea. The Romans captured Sicily, but this was affected by the almost complete absence of a fleet from Rome. Only by 260 BC. NS. the Romans created a fleet and, using boarding tactics, won a naval victory at Cape Mila.

In 256 BC. NS. the Romans moved fighting to Africa, defeating the fleet, and then the land army of the Carthaginians. But the consul Attilius Regulus did not use the advantage gained, and a year later the Punian army under the command of the Spartan mercenary Xanthippus inflicted a complete defeat on the Romans. Only in 251 BC. NS. in the Battle of Panorma (Sicily), the Romans won a great victory, capturing 120 elephants. Two years later, the Carthaginians won a great naval victory and there was a lull.

Hamilcar Barca

In 247 BC. NS. Hamilcar Barca became the commander-in-chief of Carthage, thanks to his outstanding abilities, success in Sicily began to lean towards the Punians, but in 241 BC. NS. Rome, having gathered strength, was able to put up a new fleet and army. Carthage could no longer resist them and after the defeat was forced to make peace, ceding Sicily to Rome, and pay an indemnity of 3200 talents for 10 years. After the defeat, Hamilcar resigned, power passed to his political opponents, who were headed by Gannon.

Ineffective governance led to the strengthening of the democratic opposition led by Hamilcar. The People's Assembly endowed him with the powers of the commander-in-chief. In 236 BC. e., having conquered the entire African coast, he moved the fighting to Spain.

He fought there for 9 years until he fell in battle. After his death, the army chose his son-in-law as commander-in-chief. Hasdrubala... For 16 years, most of Spain was conquered and firmly attached to the metropolis. Silver mines brought very large incomes, a strong army was created in the battles. Overall, Carthage has become much stronger than it was even before the loss of Sicily.

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Hannibal Barca

After Hasdrubal's death, the army chose Hannibal - the son of Hamilcar - as commander-in-chief. All his children - Magona, Hasdrubal and Hannibal - Hamil Ykar was brought up in a spirit of hatred of Rome, therefore, having gained control over the army, Hannibal began to look for a pretext for war. In 218 BC. NS. he captured Sagunta - a Spanish city and an ally of Rome - the war began.

Unexpectedly for the enemy, Hannibal led his army around the Alps into Italy. There he won a number of victories - at Titinus, Trebia and Lake Trasimene. A dictator was appointed in Rome, but in 216 BC. NS. near the city of Cannes, Hannibal inflicted a crushing defeat on the Romans, which resulted in the transfer to the side of Carthage of a significant part of Italy, and the second most important city - Capua.

With the death of Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal, who led him significant reinforcements, the position of Carthage became very complicated.

Hannibal's hikes

Rome soon responded with military action in Africa. Having entered into an alliance with the Numidian king Massinissa, Scipio inflicted a series of defeats on the Punians. Hannibal was summoned to his homeland. In 202 BC. NS. in the battle of Zama, commanding a poorly trained army, he was defeated, and the Carthaginians decided to make peace.

Under its terms, they were forced to give Rome to Spain and all the islands, maintain only 10 warships and pay 10,000 talents of indemnity. Moreover, they had no right fight anyone without the permission of Rome.

After the end of the war, Hannon, Gisgon and Hasdrubal Gad, hostile to Hannibal, the leaders of the aristocratic parties tried to convict Hannibal, but, supported by the population, he managed to retain power. In 196 BC. NS. Rome defeated Macedonia in the war, which was an ally of Carthage.

Fall of Carthage

Even after losing two wars, Carthage was able to quickly recover and soon again became one of the richest cities. In Rome, trade had long since become an essential branch of the economy; the competition from Carthage hindered its development. His rapid recovery was also of great concern. The king of the Numidians, Massinissa, constantly attacked the Carthaginian possessions; realizing that Rome always supports the opponents of Carthage, he moved on to direct seizures.

All complaints from the Carthaginians were ignored and decided in favor of Numidia. Finally, the Punyans were forced to give him a direct military rebuff. Rome immediately filed claims for the outbreak of hostilities without permission. The Roman army arrived at Carthage. The frightened Carthaginians asked for peace, the consul Lucius Censorinus demanded that all weapons be given, then he demanded that Carthage be destroyed and that a new city be founded far from the sea.

After asking for a month to think it over, the Punyans prepared for war. This is how it began III Punic War... The city was fortified, so it was possible to capture it only after 3 years of a difficult siege and heavy hostilities. Carthage was completely destroyed, of the 500,000 population, 50,000 were taken prisoner and became slaves. Carthage literature destroyed, with the exception of a treatise on agriculture written by Magon. On the territory of Carthage, a Roman province was created, ruled by a governor from Utica.

Compared to many famous cities of antiquity, Punic Carthage is not so rich in finds, since in 146 BC. the Romans methodically destroyed the city. And then they created in its place their own, Roman Carthage, founded on the same place in 44 BC. In Roman Carthage, intensive construction was carried out, which destroyed the traces of the great city. But the place is not empty even now, Carthage exists.

Carthage arose several centuries earlier than the small Gallic settlement of Lutetia, which later became Paris. It existed already at the time when the Etruscans appeared in the north of the Apennine Peninsula - teachers of the Romans in art, navigation and crafts. Carthage was already a city when a furrow was made around the Palatine Hill with a bronze plow, thereby completing the ritual of founding the Eternal City.

As the beginning of any of the cities, the history of which goes back centuries, the founding of Carthage is also associated with legend. 814 BC NS. - the ships of the Phoenician queen Elissa docked near Utica, a Phoenician settlement in North Africa.

They were met by the leader of the nearby Berber tribes. The local population had no desire to let a whole detachment arriving from overseas into a permanent settlement. However, to the request of Elissa to allow them to settle there, the leader answered with consent. But with one condition: the territory that the aliens can occupy must be covered with the skin of only one bull.

The Phoenician queen was not at all embarrassed and ordered her people to cut this skin into thin strips, which were then laid out on the ground in a closed line - tip to tip. As a result, it came out quite big square, which was enough for the foundation of a whole settlement, named Birsa - "Skin". The Phoenicians themselves called it "Karthadasht -" New City "," New Capital ". After that, this name was transformed into Carthage, Cartagena, in Russian it sounds like Carthage.

After a brilliant operation with the skin of a bull, the Phoenician queen took another heroic step. Then the leader of one of the local tribes wooed her to strengthen the alliance with the alien Phoenicians. After all, Carthage grew up and began to gain respect in the area. But Elissa refused female happiness, chose a different fate. In the name of establishing a new city-state, in the name of raising the Phoenician people and for the gods to consecrate Carthage with their attention and strengthen the royal power, the queen ordered to make a big fire. For the gods, as she said, ordered her to perform the rite of sacrifice ...

And when a huge fire broke out, Elissa threw herself into the hot flames. The ashes of the first queen - the founder of Carthage - lay in the ground, on which the walls of a powerful state soon rose, which survived centuries of prosperity and died, like the Phoenician queen Elissa, in a fiery agony.

This legend has no scientific confirmation yet, and the most ancient finds, which were obtained as a result of archaeological excavations, date back to the 7th century BC. NS.

The Phoenicians brought knowledge, craft traditions, a higher level of culture to these lands and quickly established themselves as skillful and skilled workers. Along with the Egyptians, they mastered the production of glass, succeeded in weaving and pottery, as well as in leather dressing, patterned embroidery, and the manufacture of items from bronze and silver. Their products were prized all over the Mediterranean. Economic life Carthage was built as a rule on trade, agriculture and fishing. It was in those days that olive groves and orchards were planted along the shores of present-day Tunisia, and the plains were plowed up. Even the Romans marveled at the agrarian knowledge of the Carthaginians.

The industrious and skillful inhabitants of Carthage dug artesian wells, built dams and stone cisterns for water, cultivated wheat, cultivated gardens and vineyards, erected multi-storey buildings, invented various mechanisms, watched the stars, wrote books ...

Their glass was known throughout the ancient world, possibly even in to a greater extent than Venetian in the Middle Ages. The colorful purple fabrics of the Carthaginians, the secrets of which were carefully hidden, were incredibly prized.

The cultural impact of the Phoenicians was also of great importance. They invented the alphabet - the same alphabet of 22 letters, which served as the basis for the writing of many peoples: for the Greek writing, and for Latin, and for our writing.

Already 200 years after the city was founded, the Carthaginian state becomes prosperous and powerful. The Carthaginians established trading posts in the Balearic Islands, they captured Corsica, and eventually began to take control of Sardinia. By the 5th century BC. NS. Carthage has already established itself as one of the largest empires in the Mediterranean. This empire covered a significant territory of the present Maghreb, had its possessions in Spain and Sicily; the fleet of Carthage through Gibraltar began to enter the Atlantic Ocean, reaching England, Ireland and even the shores of Cameroon.

He had no equal in the entire Mediterranean. Polybius wrote that the Carthaginian galleys were built in such a way “that they could move in any direction with the greatest ease ... If the enemy, fiercely attacking, pressed such ships, they retreated without endangering themselves: after all, light ships are not afraid of the open sea. If the enemy persisted in pursuit, the galleys turned around and, maneuvering in front of the formation of enemy ships or enveloping it from the flanks, again and again went to the ram. Under the protection of such galleys, heavily laden Carthaginian sailing ships could go out to sea without fear.

Everything went well for the city. At that time, the influence of Greece, that constant enemy of Carthage, was greatly diminished. The rulers of the city supported their power by an alliance with the Etruscans: this alliance was a kind of shield, which blocked the Greeks' way to the trade oases of the Mediterranean. In the east, things were also going well for Carthage, but at that time Rome turned into a strong Mediterranean power.

It is known how the rivalry between Carthage and Rome ended. Sworn enemy of the famous city of Marcus Porcius Cato at the end of each speech in the Roman Senate, no matter what was said, he repeated: "But all the same, I believe that!"

Cato himself visited Carthage as part of the Roman embassy at the end of the 2nd century BC. NS. A noisy, prosperous city appeared before him. Major trade deals were concluded there, coins of different states settled in the chests of the exchangers, the mines regularly supplied silver, copper and lead, ships left the stocks.

Cato also visited the provinces, where he was able to see lush fields, lush vineyards, orchards and olive groves. The estates of the Carthaginian nobility were in no way inferior to the Roman ones, and sometimes even surpassed them in luxury and splendor of decoration.

The senator returned to Rome in the darkest mood. As he set out, he hoped to see signs of the decline of Carthage, the eternal and nemesis of Rome. For more than a century there has been a struggle between the two most powerful powers of the Mediterranean for the possession of colonies, convenient harbors, for domination of the sea.

This struggle went on with varying success, but the Romans were able to permanently oust the Carthaginians from Sicily and Andalusia. As a result of the African victories of Emilian Scipio, Carthage paid Rome an indemnity of 10 thousand talents, gave his entire fleet, war elephants and all the Numidian lands. Such crushing defeats should have bled the state, but Carthage was reborn and got stronger, which means that it will again pose a threat to Rome ...

So the senator thought, and only dreams of impending vengeance dispersed his gloomy thoughts.

For three years, the legions of Emilian Scipio besieged Carthage, and no matter how desperately its inhabitants resisted, they could not block the path of the Roman army. The battle for the city lasted six days, and then it was taken by storm. For 10 days Carthage was given over to plunder, and then razed to the ground. Heavy Roman plows plowed what was left of its streets and squares.

Salt was thrown into the ground so that the Carthaginian fields and gardens would no longer bear fruit. The surviving inhabitants, 55 thousand people, were sold into slavery. According to legend, Emilian Scipio, whose troops took Carthage by storm, wept as he watched the capital of a powerful state die.

The winners took away gold, silver, jewelry, products from Ivory, carpets - everything that has accumulated over the centuries in temples, sanctuaries, palaces and houses. Almost all books and chronicles were destroyed in the fires. The Romans transferred the famous library of Carthage to their allies - the Numidian princes, and since that time it has disappeared without a trace. Only a treatise on agriculture by the Carthaginian Magon has survived.

But the greedy robbers who ravaged the city and razed it to the ground did not rest on this. It seemed to them that the Carthaginians, whose wealth was legendary, had hidden their jewels before the last battle. And for many more years, treasure seekers prowled the dead city.

24 years after the destruction of Carthage, the Romans began to rebuild a new city in its place according to their own models - with wide streets and squares, with white-stone palaces, temples and public buildings. Everything that could somehow survive the defeat of Carthage was now used in the construction of a new city, which was being revived in the Roman style.

In less than a few decades, Carthage, which had risen from the ashes, turned in beauty and importance into the second city of the state. All historians who described Carthage during the Roman period spoke of it as a city in which "luxury and pleasure reign".

But Roman rule was not eternal either. By the middle of the 5th century, the city fell under the rule of Byzantium, and after a century and a half, the first military units of the Arabs came here. By retaliatory strikes, the Byzantines again reclaimed the city, but only for three years, and then it remained forever in the hands of the new conquerors.

The Berber tribes greeted the arrival of the Arabs calmly and did not interfere with the spread of Islam. Arab schools were opened in all cities and even small villages, literature, medicine, theology, astronomy, architecture, folk crafts began to develop ...

During Arab rule, when dynasties at war with each other were replaced very often, Carthage is relegated to the background. Once again destroyed, it could no longer rise, turning into a symbol of majestic immortality. The people and the ruthless time did not leave anything from the former greatness of Carthage - the city that ruled over half of the ancient world. Neither the German lighthouse, nor the stone from the fortress wall, nor the temple of the god Eshmun, on the steps of which the defenders of the great ancient city fought to the last.

Now on the site of the legendary city - a quiet suburb of Tunisia. A small peninsula cuts into the horseshoe-shaped harbor of the former military fort. Here you can see fragments of columns and blocks of yellow stone - all that remains of the palace of the admiral of the Carthaginian fleet. Historians believe that the palace was erected so that the admiral could always see the ships he commanded. And yet only a pile of stones (presumably from the acropolis) and the foundation of the temple of the gods Tanit and Baal testify that Carthage was in fact a real place on earth. And turn the wheel of history differently, Carthage instead of Rome could become the ruler of the ancient world.

Since the middle of the twentieth century, excavations have been conducted there, and it turned out that not far from Birsa, a whole quarter of Carthage was preserved under a layer of ash. To this day, all our knowledge of the great city is mostly evidence of its enemies. And therefore the testimonies of Carthage itself are now acquiring more and more importance. Tourists from all over the world come here to stand on this ancient land and experience her great past. Carthage is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List, and therefore it must be preserved ...

An interesting legend is associated with the founding of Carthage. At the end of the 9th century BC. NS. Dido, widow of the Phoenician king Shechei, fled Fez after her brother Pygmalion killed her husband. She decided to buy a piece of land from a local tribe for a precious stone. The right to choose a place remained with the queen, but she could only take as much land as the skin of a bull would cover. Dido decided on a trick and cut the skin into small belts. Having made a circle out of them, she managed to take possession of a fairly large piece of land. The tribe had to agree - an agreement is an agreement. In memory of this, the citadel of Bierce was founded, whose name means "skin". However, the exact year of the founding of Carthage is unknown, experts call it as 825-823 BC. e., and 814-813 BC. NS.

Possession of Carthage in its heyday. (wikipedia.org)

The city had an incredibly advantageous location and had access to the sea in the south and north. Very quickly, Carthage became the leader of the maritime trade in the Mediterranean. There were even two harbors specially dug in the city - for the military and for the merchant ships.

The power of the city of Carthage

In the VIII century BC. NS. the situation in the region changed - Phenicia was captured by the Assyrians, which caused a large influx of Phoenicians into Carthage. Soon the size of the city increased so much that Carthage himself was able to begin the colonization of the coast. At the turn of the VII-VI centuries BC. NS. Greek colonization began, and in order to resist it, the Phoenician states began to unite. The union of Carthage and Utica became the basis of the united state. Carthage gradually acquired its power - the population increased, agriculture developed, trade flourished, Carthaginian merchants traded in Egypt, Italy, the Black and Red Seas, Carthage practically monopolized commodity circulation, obliging its subjects to trade only through the mediation of Carthaginian merchants.

Ships at the city walls. (wikipedia.org)

Power in Carthage was concentrated in the hands of the aristocracy. There were two warring parties: agrarian and commercial and industrial. The first advocated the expansion of possessions in Africa and were against expansion in other regions, which the rest of the aristocrats advocated, relying on the urban population. The highest authority was the council of elders, which was headed at first by 10, and later by 30 people. The heads of the executive branch were two Suffets. Like the Roman consuls, they were elected annually and served as commanders-in-chief of the army and navy. Carthage had a senate of 300 senators elected for life, but real power was concentrated in the hands of a committee of 30. The popular assembly also played an important role, but in fact it was only approached in the event of a conflict between the Senate and the Suffets. The Council of Judges carried out proceedings against officials after the expiration of their term of office and dealt with control and trial.

Thanks to its commercial power, Carthage was rich and could afford powerful army consisting of mercenaries. The basis of the infantry was made up of Spanish, Greek, Gallic, African mercenaries, while the aristocrats formed the heavily armed cavalry - the "sacred detachment". The cavalry was formed from Numidians and Iberians. The army was distinguished by high technical equipment - catapults, ballistae, etc.

Carthage. (wikipedia.org)

The society of Carthage was also heterogeneous and was divided into several groups along ethnic lines. The Libyans were in the most difficult situation - they were taxed, forcibly recruited into the army, and political and administrative rights were also limited. Often, uprisings broke out on the territory of Libya. The Phoenicians were scattered throughout the Western Mediterranean, but they all shared a common belief. The Carthaginians inherited the Canaanite religion from their ancestors, and Baal Hammon and the goddess Tanit, identified with the Greek Astrata, became the main deities in the state. A notorious feature of their belief was the sacrifice of children. The Carthaginians believed that only the sacrifice of a child could pacify and appease Baal Hammon. According to legend, during one of the attacks of the city, residents sacrificed more than 200 children from noble families.

Ancient Carthage's victories

Already by the 3rd century BC. NS. Carthage subdued southern Spain, the coast of North Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica. It was a powerful commercial and cultural center, which undoubtedly hindered the strengthening of the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean. In the end, the situation escalated so much that it inevitably led to war in 264 BC. NS. The first Punic War was fought primarily in Sicily and at sea. The Romans captured Sicily and gradually transferred the fighting to Africa, managing to win several victories. However, thanks to the command of the Spartan mercenary, the Punyans were able to defeat the Romans. The war went on with varying success for each of the parties, until Rome, rallying forces, defeated Carthage. The Phoenicians made peace, gave Sicily to the Romans and pledged to pay an indemnity in the next 10 years.

Battle of Zama. (wikipedia.org)

Carthage could not forgive defeat, and Rome could not come to terms with the fact that a powerful enemy was quickly recovering from the war. Carthage was looking for a new pretext for war and the case turned up. Commander-in-Chief Hannibal in 218 BC NS. attacked the Spanish city of Sagunta, friendly to Rome. Rome declared war on Carthage. At first, the Punyans won and even managed to defeat the Romans at Cannes, which was a heavy defeat for the empire. However, Carthage soon lost the initiative and Rome launched an offensive. The last battle was the Battle of Zama. After that, Carthage asked for peace and lost all his possessions outside Africa.

The defeat of Carthage in the struggle for Hegemony

Although Rome became the strongest state in the western Mediterranean, the war for hegemony in the region was not over. Carthage again managed to quickly recover and restore the status of one of the richest cities. Rome, which suffered several military defeats during the previous confrontations, finally became firmly convinced that "Carthage must be destroyed", and began to look for a new reason for a third war. It was the military conflict of the Punyans with the Numidian king, who constantly attacked and seized the Carthaginian possessions. When the Numidians fought back, Rome led an army to the walls of the city. The Carthaginians asked for peace, agreeing to every conceivable condition. They gave up all their weapons and only after that the Romans announced the main demand of the Senate - the destruction of the city, the eviction of all residents from it. The townspeople could found a new city, but no closer than 10 miles from the coast. Thus, Carthage would not have been able to revive its trading power. The Carthaginians asked for time to think over the conditions and began to prepare for war. The city was well fortified and courageously resisted the Romans for three years, but eventually fell in 146 BC. NS. Of the 500,000 inhabitants, 50,000 were enslaved by the Romans, the city was completely destroyed, its literature was almost completely burned, and a Roman province was created on the territory of Carthage with a governor from Utica.

CARTHAGE
an ancient city (near modern Tunisia) and a state that existed in the 7-2 centuries. BC. in the western Mediterranean. Carthage (which means "new city" in Phoenician) was founded by immigrants from Phoenician Tire (the traditional date of founding is 814 BC, in fact it was founded a little later, possibly around 750 BC). The Romans called him Carthago, the Greeks - Carhedon. According to legend, Carthage was founded by the queen Elissa (Dido), who fled from Tire after her brother Pygmalion, king of Tire, killed her husband Sychei in order to take possession of his wealth. Throughout the history of Carthage, the city's inhabitants have been renowned for their business acumen. According to the legend about the founding of the city, Dido, who was allowed to occupy as much land as a bull's hide, took possession of a large plot by cutting the hide into narrow belts. That is why the citadel erected on this place bore the name Birsa (which means "skin"). Carthage was not the oldest of the Phoenician colonies. Long before him, Utica was founded a little further north (the traditional date is about 1100 BC). Probably about the same time, Gadrumet and Leptis were founded, located on the east coast of Tunisia to the south, Hippon on the north coast, and Lix on the Atlantic coast of modern Morocco. Long before the founding of the Phoenician colonies, ships sailed from Egypt, Mycenaean Greece and Crete. The political and military setbacks of these powers from around 1200 BC. provided the Phoenicians with freedom of action in the Mediterranean and an opportunity to acquire skills in navigation and trade. 1100 to 800 BC the Phoenicians actually dominated the sea, where only rare Greek ships dared to go. The Phoenicians explored lands in the west up to the Atlantic coast of Africa and Europe, which later came in handy for Carthage.

CITY AND POWER
Carthage owned fertile lands in the interior of the mainland, he had a profitable geographical position, which favored trade, and in addition made it possible to control the waters between Africa and Sicily, preventing foreign ships from sailing further west. Compared to many famous cities of antiquity, Punic (from the Latin punicus or poenicus - Phoenician) Carthage is not so rich in finds, since in 146 BC. the Romans methodically destroyed the city, and in Roman Carthage, founded on the same site in 44 BC, intensive construction was carried out. On the basis of the scant evidence of ancient authors and their often obscure topographic indications, we know that the city of Carthage was surrounded by powerful walls approx. 30 km. Its population is unknown. The citadel was greatly fortified. The city had a market square, a council building, a court and temples. The quarter called Megara was full of vegetable gardens, orchards, and winding canals. The ships entered the trading harbor through a narrow passage. For loading and unloading ashore, it was possible to pull out simultaneously up to 220 ships (ancient ships should, if possible, be kept on land). A military harbor and an arsenal were located behind the commercial harbor.
System of government. According to its state structure, Carthage was an oligarchy. Despite the fact that at home, in Phenicia, power belonged to the kings and the founder of Carthage, according to legend, was the queen Dido, we know almost nothing about the royal power here. The ancient authors, who for the most part admired the structure of Carthage, compared it with the political system of Sparta and Rome. Power here belonged to the Senate, which was in charge of finances, foreign policy, the declaration of war and peace, and also carried out the general conduct of the war. The executive power was entrusted to two elected magistrates-Suffets (the Romans called them sufetes, this is the same office as "shofetim", that is, judges, in the Old Testament). Obviously, these were senators, and their duties were exclusively civil, not involving control over the army. Together with the commanders of the army, they were elected by the people's assembly. The same posts were established in the cities under the rule of Carthage. Although many aristocrats owned vast agricultural land, land ownership was not the only basis for achieving high social status. Trade was considered a very respectable occupation, and the wealth obtained in this way was treated with respect. Nevertheless, some aristocrats from time to time actively opposed the dominance of merchants, such as, for example, Hannon the Great in the 3rd century. BC.
Regions and cities. The agricultural areas in mainland Africa - the area inhabited by the Carthaginians proper - roughly correspond to the territory of modern Tunisia, although other lands fell under the rule of the city. When the ancient writers speak of the numerous cities that were in the possession of Carthage, they undoubtedly mean ordinary villages. However, there were also real Phoenician colonies - Utica, Leptis, Gadrumet and others. Information about the relations of Carthage with these cities and some Phoenician settlements in Africa or elsewhere is scarce. The cities of the Tunisian coast showed independence in their politics only in 149 BC, when it became obvious that Rome intended to destroy Carthage. Some of them then submitted to Rome. In general, Carthage was able (probably after 500 BC) to choose a political line, which was joined by the rest of the Phoenician cities both in Africa and on the other side of the Mediterranean. The Carthaginian state was very extensive. In Africa, its easternmost city was located more than 300 km east of Ei (present-day Tripoli). The ruins of a number of ancient Phoenician and Carthaginian cities have been discovered between it and the Atlantic Ocean. Around 500 BC or a little later the navigator Gannon led an expedition that founded several colonies on the Atlantic coast of Africa. He ventured far to the south and left a description of gorillas, tom-toms and other African sights rarely mentioned by ancient authors. The colonies and trading posts were for the most part located at a distance of about one day of sailing from each other. They were usually found on islands near the coast, on headlands, in river estuaries, or in those places on the mainland from which it was easy to get to the sea. For example, Leptis, located not far from modern Tripoli, in the Roman era served as the final seaside point of the great caravan route from the interior regions, from where merchants carried slaves and golden sand. This trade probably began early in the history of Carthage. The state included Malta and two neighboring islands. Carthage fought for centuries with the Sicilian Greeks, under its rule were Lilybey and other reliably fortified ports in the west of Sicily, as well as, in different periods, and other areas on the territory of the island (it happened that in his hands was almost all of Sicily, except for Syracuse). Gradually, Carthage established control over the fertile regions of Sardinia, while the inhabitants of the mountainous regions of the island remained unconquered. Foreign merchants were denied access to the island. At the beginning of the 5th century. BC. the Carthaginians began to master Corsica. Carthaginian colonies and trading settlements also existed on the southern coast of Spain, while the Greeks settled on the eastern coast. Since arriving here in 237 BC. Hamilcar Barca and before Hannibal's campaign in Italy, great strides were made in subduing the interior regions of Spain. Apparently, when creating its own power scattered across different territories, Carthage did not set other goals than establishing control over them in order to obtain the maximum possible profit.
CARPHAGENIAN CIVILIZATION
Agriculture. The Carthaginians were skilled farmers. Wheat and barley were the most important cereals. Some grain probably came from Sicily and Sardinia. Medium quality wine was produced for sale. Fragments of ceramic containers found during archaeological excavations in Carthage indicate that the Carthaginians imported wines of higher quality from Greece or from the island of Rhodes. The Carthaginians were famous for their excessive addiction to wine, even special laws against drunkenness were adopted, for example, prohibiting the use of wine by soldiers. In North Africa, olive oil was produced in large quantities, albeit of low quality. Figs, pomegranates, almonds, date palms grew here, and ancient authors have mentions of such vegetables as cabbage, peas and artichokes. In Carthage, horses, mules, cows, sheep and goats were bred. The Numidians, who lived to the west, in the territory of modern Algeria, preferred thoroughbred horses and were famous as riders. Apparently, the Carthaginians, who had strong trade ties with the Numidians, bought horses from them. Later, gourmets of imperial Rome highly prized poultry from Africa. Unlike republican Rome, small farmers in Carthage did not form the backbone of society. Most of the African possessions of Carthage were divided between the wealthy Carthaginians, in whose large estates the economy was conducted on scientific basis... A certain Magon, who probably lived in the 3rd c. BC, wrote a manual for farming. After the fall of Carthage, the Roman Senate, wishing to attract wealthy people to restore production in some of its lands, ordered the translation of this manual into Latin. Passages from the work cited in Roman sources indicate that Mago used Greek manuals on agriculture, but tried to adapt them to local conditions. He wrote about large farms and dealt with all aspects of agricultural production. Probably, local residents - Berbers, and sometimes groups of slaves led by overseers, worked as tenants, or sharecroppers. The emphasis was mainly on cash crops, vegetable oil and wine, but the nature of the area inevitably implied specialization: more hilly areas were set aside for orchards, vineyards or pastures. There were also medium-sized peasant farms.
Craft. Carthaginian artisans specialized in the production of cheap products, mostly replicating Egyptian, Phoenician and Greek designs and intended for sale in the western Mediterranean, where Carthage conquered all markets. The manufacture of luxury goods, such as the bright purple paint commonly known as Tyrian purple, is known in the later Roman period in North Africa, but it can be said to have existed before the fall of Carthage. Crimson, a sea snail containing this dye, was best harvested in the fall and winter, during seasons not suitable for seafaring. Permanent settlements were established in Morocco and on the island of Djerba, in the best places for obtaining murex. In accordance with Eastern traditions, the state was a slave owner who used slave labor in arsenals, in shipyards or in construction. Archaeologists have not found data that would indicate the presence of large private craft enterprises, whose products would be distributed on the western market closed to outsiders, while there are many small workshops. It is often very difficult to distinguish among the finds of Carthaginian products from items imported from Phenicia or Greece. Artisans successfully reproduced simple items, and it seems that the Carthaginians were not too eager to make anything other than copies. Some Punic craftsmen were very skilled, especially in carpentry and metalwork. A Carthaginian carpenter could use cedar wood for work, the properties of which were known from ancient times by the masters of Ancient Phenicia, who worked with Lebanese cedar. Due to the constant need for ships, both carpenters and metalworkers were invariably distinguished by a high level of craftsmanship. There is evidence of their skill in the processing of iron and bronze. The amount of jewelry found during excavations is small, but it seems that these people were not inclined to place expensive objects in tombs to please the souls of the departed. The largest of the handicraft industries, apparently, was the manufacture of ceramics. The remains of workshops and pottery kilns were found, filled with items that were intended for firing. Every Punic settlement in Africa produced pottery, which is found everywhere in the areas that were part of the realm of Carthage - in Malta, Sicily, Sardinia and in Spain. Carthaginian ceramics from time to time are also found on the coast of France and Northern Italy - where the Greeks from Massalia (present-day) occupied a dominant position in trade. Marseilles) and where the Carthaginians were probably still allowed to trade. Archaeological finds paint a picture of the stable production of simple pottery not only in Carthage itself, but also in many other Punic cities. These are bowls, vases, dishes, cups, pot-bellied jugs for various purposes, called amphoras, water jugs and lamps. Research shows that their production existed from ancient times until the death of Carthage in 146 BC. Early products mostly reproduced Phoenician samples, which in turn were often copies of Egyptian ones. It looks like in the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. The Carthaginians especially valued Greek products, which was manifested in the imitation of Greek ceramics and sculpture and the presence of a large number of Greek products of this period in materials from excavations in Carthage.
Trade policy. The Carthaginians were particularly successful in trade. Carthage may well be called a trading state, since in its policy it was largely guided by commercial considerations. Many of his colonies and trading settlements were undoubtedly founded in order to expand trade. It is known about some expeditions undertaken by the Carthaginian rulers, the reason for which was also the desire for wider trade relations. In the treaty concluded by Carthage in 508 BC. with the Roman Republic, which had just emerged after the expulsion of the Etruscan kings from Rome, it was envisaged that Roman ships could not sail into the western part of the sea, but they could use the harbor of Carthage. In the event of a forced landing elsewhere in Punic territory, they asked for official protection from the authorities and, after repairing the ship and replenishing food supplies, they immediately sailed away. Carthage agreed to recognize the borders of Rome and respect its people as well as its allies. The Carthaginians entered into agreements and, if necessary, made concessions. They also resorted to force to prevent rivals from entering the waters of the western Mediterranean, which they considered as their fiefdom, with the exception of the coast of Gaul and the adjacent shores of Spain and Italy. They also fought against piracy. The authorities maintained the complex structures of Carthage's commercial harbor, as well as its naval harbor, which, apparently, was open to ships of foreign ships, but few seafarers entered it. It is striking that a trading state like Carthage did not pay due attention to the minting of the coin. Apparently, there was no own coin here until the 4th century. BC, when silver coins were issued, which, if the surviving specimens are considered typical, varied significantly in weight and quality. Perhaps the Carthaginians preferred to use the reliable silver coin of Athens and other states, and most of the transactions were made through direct exchange of goods.
Goods and trade routes. Specific data on Carthage's trade items is surprisingly sparse, although evidence of its trade interests is plentiful. Typical of such evidence is the story of Herodotus about how trade took place on the west coast of Africa. The Carthaginians disembarked at a certain place and laid out the goods, after which they retired to their ships. Then the locals appeared and put a certain amount of gold next to the goods. If there was enough of it, the Carthaginians took the gold and sailed away. Otherwise, they left it untouched and returned to the ships, and the natives brought more gold. What kind of goods they were is not mentioned in the story. Apparently, the Carthaginians brought simple pottery for sale or exchange to those western regions where they were monopolists, and also traded in amulets, jewelry, simple metal utensils and simple glassware. Some of them were produced in Carthage, some in the Punic colonies. According to several accounts, Punic traders offered wine, women, and clothing to the natives of the Balearic Islands in exchange for slaves. It can be assumed that they were engaged in extensive purchases of goods in other craft centers - Egypt, Phenicia, Greece, southern Italy - and transported them to those areas where they enjoyed a monopoly. Punic traders were famous in the harbors of these craft centers. Finds of non-Carthaginian items during archaeological excavations of western settlements suggest that they were brought there on Punic ships. Some mentions in Roman literature indicate that the Carthaginians imported various valuable goods to Italy, where ivory was highly valued from Africa. During the empire, a huge number of wild animals were delivered from Roman North Africa for the device of games. Figs and honey are also mentioned. It is believed that Carthaginian ships sailed across the Atlantic Ocean for tin from Cornwall. The Carthaginians themselves produced bronze and may have brought some of the tin to other places where it was required for similar production. Through their colonies in Spain, they sought to obtain silver and lead, which could be exchanged for the goods they brought. The ropes for the Punic warships were made from the esparto herb native to Spain and North Africa. An important trade item, due to its high price, was the purple dye made from crimson. In many localities, traders purchased hides and skins and found markets to sell them. As in more later times, in the ports of Leptis and Ei, and also to the west of Gigtis, caravans must have arrived from the south. They carried ostrich feathers and eggs popular in antiquity, which served as decorations or bowls. In Carthage, they were painted with fierce faces and used, it is said, as masks to scare away demons. Ivory and slaves were also brought with caravans. But the most important cargo was golden sand from the Gold Coast or from Guinea. Some of the best goods the Carthaginians imported for their own consumption. Some of the pottery found in Carthage was brought from Greece or from Campania in southern Italy, where it was produced by visiting Greeks. The characteristic handles from Rhodes amphorae found during the excavations of Carthage show that wine was brought here from Rhodes. Surprisingly, high-quality Attic ceramics are not found here.
Language, art and religion. We know almost nothing about the culture of the Carthaginians. The only lengthy texts that have come down to us in their language are contained in the play by Plautus Puniyets, where one of the characters, Gannon, delivers a monologue, apparently in the original Punic dialect, followed by a significant portion of it in Latin. In addition, a lot of Gannon's remarks are scattered over the play, also with a translation into Latin. Unfortunately, scribes who did not understand the text distorted it. In addition, the Carthaginian language is known only by geographical names, technical terms, proper names and individual words given by Greek and Latin authors. In interpreting these passages, the similarity between Punic and Hebrew is very helpful. The Carthaginians did not have their own artistic traditions. Apparently, in everything that can be attributed to the sphere of art, this people limited themselves to copying other people's ideas and techniques. In ceramics, jewelry and sculpture, they were content with imitation, and sometimes copied not the best examples. As far as literature is concerned, we have no data on their creation of any other works besides purely practical ones, such as the manual on agriculture of Mago, and one or two smaller compiled texts in Greek. We are not aware of the presence in Carthage of anything that could be called "fine literature." Carthage had an official priesthood, temples and its own religious calendar. The main deities were Baal (Baal) - the Semitic god known from the Old Testament, and the goddess Tanit (Tinnit), the heavenly queen. Virgil in the Aeneid called Juno a goddess who favored the Carthaginians, since he identified her with Tanith. The religion of the Carthaginians is characterized by human sacrifice, especially widely practiced during periods of disaster. The main thing in this religion is the belief in the effectiveness of the cult practice for communication with the invisible world. In light of this, it is especially surprising that in the 4th and 3rd centuries. BC. the Carthaginians actively joined the mystical Greek cult of Demeter and Persephone; in any case, the material traces of this cult are quite numerous.
RELATIONS WITH OTHER PEOPLES
The oldest rivals of the Carthaginians were the Phoenician colonies in Africa, Utica and Gadrumet. It is unclear when and how they had to submit to Carthage: there is no written evidence of any wars.
Union with the Etruscans. The Etruscans of northern Italy were both allies and trade rivals of Carthage. These enterprising sailors, traders and pirates dominated the 6th century. BC. over a large part of Italy. The main area of ​​their settlement was located directly north of Rome. They also owned Rome and the lands to the south - right up to the border where they came into conflict with the Greeks of southern Italy. Having entered into an alliance with the Etruscans, the Carthaginians in 535 BC. won a major naval victory over the Phocians, the Greeks, who occupied Corsica. The Etruscans occupied Corsica and held the island for about two generations. In 509 BC. the Romans drove them out of Rome and Latium. Soon after, the Greeks of southern Italy, with the support of the Sicilian Greeks, increased pressure on the Etruscans and in 474 BC. put an end to their power at sea, inflicting a crushing defeat on them near Qom in the Gulf of Naples. The Carthaginians moved to Corsica, already having a foothold in Sardinia.
Fight for Sicily. Even before the great defeat of the Etruscans, Carthage had a chance to measure strength with the Sicilian Greeks. The Punic cities in the west of Sicily, founded at least not later than Carthage, were forced to submit to him, like the cities of Africa. The rise of two powerful Greek tyrants, Gelon in Syracuse and Ferona in Akragante, clearly foreshadowed the Carthaginians that the Greeks would launch a powerful offensive against them to drive them out of Sicily, just as happened with the Etruscans in southern Italy. The Carthaginians accepted the challenge and for three years actively prepared for the conquest of all of eastern Sicily. They acted in concert with the Persians, who were preparing an invasion of Greece itself. According to a later tradition (undoubtedly wrong), the defeat of the Persians at Salamis and the equally decisive defeat of the Carthaginians in the land battle of Gimera in Sicily took place in 480 BC. in the same day. Confirming the worst fears of the Carthaginians, Feron and Gelon put forward an irresistible force. It took a long time before the Carthaginians again launched an offensive in Sicily. After successfully repelling the invasion of the Athenians (415-413 BC), defeating them completely, they sought to subdue other Greek cities in Sicily. Then these cities began to turn to Carthage for help, who did not hesitate to take advantage of this and sent a huge army to the island. The Carthaginians were close to capturing the entire eastern part of Sicily. At this moment, the famous Dionysius I came to power in Syracuse, who founded the power of Syracuse on a cruel tyranny and fought against the Carthaginians with varying success for forty years. At the end of hostilities in 367 BC. The Carthaginians again had to come to terms with the impossibility of establishing full control over the island. The lawlessness and inhumanity perpetrated by Dionysius were partly compensated for by the help he provided to the Sicilian Greeks in their struggle against Carthage. The persistent Carthaginians made another attempt to subjugate eastern Sicily during the tyranny of Dionysius the Younger, who became his father's successor. However, this again did not achieve the goal, and in 338 BC, after several years of hostilities, which did not allow speaking about the advantage of either side, peace was concluded. There is an opinion that Alexander the Great saw his ultimate goal in establishing dominion over the West as well. After Alexander's return from a great campaign to India, shortly before his death, the Carthaginians, like other peoples, sent an embassy to him, trying to find out his intentions. Perhaps the untimely death of Alexander in 323 BC. saved Carthage from many troubles. In 311 BC. the Carthaginians made another attempt to occupy the eastern part of Sicily. The new tyrant Agathocles ruled in Syracuse. The Carthaginians had already laid siege to him in Syracuse and, it seemed, had the opportunity to capture this main stronghold of the Greeks, but Agathocles with an army sailed from the harbor and attacked the Carthaginian possessions in Africa, posing a threat to Carthage itself. From that moment until the death of Agathocles in 289 BC. the usual war continued with varying degrees of success. In 278 BC. the Greeks went on the offensive. The famous Greek general Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, arrived in Italy to fight against the Romans on the side of the South Italian Greeks. Having won two victories over the Romans with great damage to himself ("Pyrrhic victory"), he crossed over to Sicily. There he pushed the Carthaginians back and almost cleared the island of them, but in 276 BC. with his characteristic fatal inconstancy, he abandoned further struggle and returned to Italy, from where he was soon expelled by the Romans.
Wars with Rome. The Carthaginians could hardly have foreseen that their city was destined to perish as a result of a series of military conflicts with Rome, known as the Punic Wars. The reason for the war was the episode with the Mamertines, the Italic mercenaries who were in the service of Agathocles. In 288 BC. part of them captured the Sicilian city of Messana (modern Messina), and when in 264 BC. Hieron II, ruler of Syracuse, began to overpower them, they asked for help from Carthage and at the same time from Rome. For a variety of reasons, the Romans responded to the request and came into conflict with the Carthaginians. The war lasted 24 years (264-241 BC). The Romans landed troops in Sicily and at first achieved some success, but the army that landed in Africa under the command of Regulus was defeated near Carthage. After repeated failures caused by storms at sea, as well as a number of defeats on land (the army of the Carthaginians in Sicily was commanded by Hamilcar Barca), the Romans in 241 BC. won a naval battle near the Aegadian Islands, near the western coast of Sicily. The war brought huge losses and losses to both sides, while Carthage finally lost Sicily, and soon lost Sardinia and Corsica. In 240 BC. A dangerous uprising of the Carthaginian mercenaries, dissatisfied with the delay in money, broke out, which was suppressed only in 238 BC. In 237 BC, just four years after the end of the first war, Hamilcar Barca traveled to Spain and began the conquest of the interior. The Roman embassy, ​​which appeared with a question about his intentions, he replied that he was looking for a way to pay Rome an indemnity as soon as possible. The riches of Spain - vegetable and animal world, minerals, not to mention its inhabitants, - could quickly compensate the Carthaginians for the loss of Sicily. However, a conflict erupted again between the two powers, this time due to unrelenting pressure from Rome. In 218 BC. Hannibal, the great Carthaginian general, traveled overland from Spain through the Alps to Italy and defeated the Roman army, winning several brilliant victories, the most important of which took place in 216 BC. at the battle of Cannes. However, Rome did not ask for peace. On the contrary, he recruited new troops and, after several years of confrontation in Italy, moved the fighting to North Africa, where he achieved victory at the Battle of Zama (202 BC). Carthage lost Spain and finally lost the position of a state capable of challenging Rome. However, the Romans feared the revival of Carthage. They say that Cato the Elder ended every speech in the Senate with the words "Delenda est Carthago" - "Carthage must be destroyed." In 149 BC. the exorbitant demands of Rome forced the weakened but still wealthy North African state to enter the third war. After three years of heroic resistance, the city fell. The Romans razed it to the ground, sold the surviving inhabitants into slavery, and sprinkled salt on the soil. However, five centuries later, the Punic language was still spoken in some rural areas of North Africa, and many of the people who lived there probably had Punic blood in their veins. Carthage was rebuilt in 44 BC. and turned into one of the major cities of the Roman Empire, but the Carthaginian state ceased to exist.
ROMAN CARPHAGEN
Julius Caesar, who had a practical fold, ordered the founding of a new Carthage, since he considered it senseless to leave such an advantageous place in many respects unused. In 44 BC, 102 years after the death, the city began a new life. From the very beginning, it flourished as the administrative center and port of an area rich in agricultural production. This period in the history of Carthage lasted for almost 750 years. Carthage became the main city of the Roman provinces in North Africa and the third (after Rome and Alexandria) city in the empire. It served as the seat of the proconsul of the province of Africa, which, in the eyes of the Romans, more or less coincided with the ancient Carthaginian territory. The administration of the imperial land holdings, which constituted a significant part of the province, was also located here. Many famous Romans are associated with Carthage and its surroundings. The writer and philosopher Apuleius studied in Carthage in his youth, and later achieved such fame there thanks to his Greek and Latin speeches that statues were erected in his honor. A native of North Africa was Marcus Cornelius Fronton, mentor to Emperor Marcus Aurelius, as well as Emperor Septimius Sever. The ancient Punic religion survived in a romanized form, and the goddess Tanit was worshiped as Juno of Heaven, and the image of Baal merged with Cronus (Saturn). Nevertheless, it was North Africa that became the stronghold of the Christian faith, and Carthage gained fame in the early history of Christianity and was the site of a number of important church councils. In the 3rd century. Cyprian was the Carthaginian bishop, and Tertullian spent most of his life here. The city was considered one of the largest centers of Latin scholarship in the empire; St. Augustine, in his Confessions, gives us several vivid sketches of the life of students who attended the rhetorical school of Carthage at the end of the 4th century. However, Carthage remained only a large urban center and did not have political significance... Are we listening to stories about the public executions of Christians, are we reading about Tertullian's violent attacks on noble Carthaginian women who came to church in magnificent worldly attire, or do we come across mentions of some outstanding personalities who found themselves in Carthage at important moments in history, above the level of a large provincial city it never rises again. For some time there was the capital of the Vandals (429-533 AD), who, like pirates once, set sail from the harbor that dominated the Mediterranean straits. Then this area was conquered by the Byzantines, who held it until in 697 Carthage fell under the onslaught of the Arabs.

Collier's Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .

(Arabic حضارة قرطاجية; French Carthage; English Ancient Carthage)

UNESCO site

Opening hours: daily, from mid-September to the end of March, 8:30 am to 5:00 pm, and from April to mid-September, from 8:00 am to 7:00 pm.

How to get there: Carthage is located about 14 km from the center of Tunisia. The city railway TGM (Tunis - Gulet - Mars) leads here. Needed at the station Tunis marine, which is located near the clock tower on the central street of Habib Bourguiba, take the train. Travel time to Carthage is approximately 25 minutes. Need to get off at the bus stop Carthage-Hannibal.

Carthage is an ancient city located 14 km from the center of Tunisia. What remains of this city is still impressive - the majestic ruins that have survived for more than a dozen centuries. It was once the greatest city of its time, the largest trade center in the Mediterranean.

The founding of Carthage is associated with the legend of Princess Dido. Dido was the beautiful daughter of King Mattan, her husband was an ambitious Phoenician. Once, her brother Pygmalion, king of Tire, killed her husband Shechei in order to take possession of his wealth. Saving her life, Dido fled from her native Tire to an unknown country in northern Africa. Dido gathered people faithful to her and sailed with them to seek a new kingdom.

Carthage Map

When they came to Carthage, measured the bay, looked at the mountains, saw full-flowing rivers and a place where an impregnable fortress could be erected, they said: "This is where we will build our city." Dido asked the locals to sell her a piece of land. But, according to the law, a foreigner could own land, only the size of a bull's skin. Clever and cunning Dido cut the skin of the bull into the finest strips, tied them up and laid them apart, separating a large fertile area. Having received a large plot of land, Dido ordered to build a city of incredible beauty, which she named Carthage (from the Phoenician "new capital"). So in 814 BC, one of the greatest cities of all times and peoples was born.

The industrious and skillful inhabitants of Carthage dug artesian wells, built dams and stone water tanks, cultivated wheat, planted gardens and vineyards, erected multi-storey buildings, invented all kinds of mechanisms, watched the stars, wrote books. It was the Phoenicians who invented the alphabet of 22 letters, which served as the basis for writing for many peoples.

The city had to be developed somehow. Surrounded by strong rivals, without a large territory, the Phoenicians from Carthage turned to the sea. They were pragmatic people, open to everything new, and endlessly inventive. Carthage was founded on a promontory with entrances to the sea in the north and south. The location of the city made it the leader of the Mediterranean sea trade.

The Phoenicians brought knowledge, craft traditions, and a higher level of culture to this land, thanks to which they quickly established themselves as skillful and skilled workers. They, like the Egyptians, mastered the production of glass, their glass was known throughout the ancient world, perhaps to an even greater extent than Venetian glass in the Middle Ages. The Phoenicians excelled in weaving and pottery, leather dressing, patterned embroidery, and the manufacture of bronze and silver items. The colorful purple fabrics of the Carthaginians, the secrets of which were carefully concealed, were extremely prized. All goods produced in Carthage were highly prized throughout the Mediterranean.

The city of Dido - Carthage flourished. Two large artificial harbors were dug within the city limits: one for the navy, capable of accommodating 220 warships, and the other for commercial trade. Expanding the network of trade routes, the city became multinational, like many strategic points of that time.

The Trojan Aeneas, the king's son, was at that time with his fleet in search of a suitable place for the founding of Rome. After long travels, he landed in Carthage and fell in love with Dido. When he left her, she committed suicide. This dramatic love story later inspired many poets, artists, composers. It is touchingly told by the Roman poet Virgil in his epic "Aeneid".

Carthage grew and strengthened, gradually gaining respect in the area. More and more people wanted to settle in the city. And then a construction boom began here. The Carthaginians were the first to turn the sky over the city into private property, starting to build apartments. The houses were 6 stories high. Buildings were built from limestone - as you know, this is an ideal material for construction. Limestone deposits were located very close to Carthage, therefore, the city grew at a rapid pace.

Like the Egyptians, the Carthaginians carved stone blocks using the simplest means - water and wood. The pressure from the expanding tree broke the stone into almost perfectly shaped blocks. With the help of columns and panel structures, Carthage was rapidly becoming a dynamically developing capital.

Every city, and even more so such as Carthage, needs a source of water. It was in Carthage by 600 BC that a unified water supply system and, most importantly, sewerage appeared. In addition, the city had a huge cemetery, places of worship, markets, a municipality, towers and a theater.

In those turbulent times, safety had to be taken care of. The city was surrounded by massive walls, the length of which was 37 kilometers, and the height in some places reached 12 meters. Most of the walls were located on the coast, and this made the city impregnable from the sea.

The political structure of the city was also quite interesting. The aristocracy was in power. The highest body is the council of elders, headed by 10 (later 30) people. The National Assembly also formally played a significant role, but, in fact, it was rarely addressed.

The Carthaginians inherited the Canaanite religion from their Phoenician ancestors. Perhaps the most notorious feature of this Carthage religion was the sacrifice of children and animals to their gods. The sacrifice of an innocent child as the sacrifice of atonement was believed to be the greatest act of propitiation for the gods. In 310 BC, during the attack on the city, in order to pacify the god Baal Hammon, the Carthaginians sacrificed more than 200 children from noble families. And in 1921, archaeologists found several rows of urns with charred remains of animals and small children.

The entrepreneurial spirit and business acumen of its inhabitants helped Carthage become, admittedly, the richest city. the ancient world... Carthaginian merchants were constantly looking for new markets. The Greek historian Appian wrote about the Carthaginians: "Their power in military terms became equal to the Hellenic, but in terms of wealth it was in second place after the Persian." Carthaginian merchants traded in Egypt, Italy, Spain, the Black and Red Seas. Carthage sought to monopolize trade; for this purpose, all subjects were obliged to trade only through the intermediary of Carthaginian merchants, which brought huge profits.

Around 700-650 BC, Carthage becomes a force to be reckoned with. Everyone knew about it, it was one of the main cities of that era. The Carthaginians established trading posts in the Balearic Islands, captured Corsica, and gradually began to take control of Sardinia. Soon, the Carthaginians sent their ships to the dusty shores of North Africa, conquering the seas and expanding their empire. The new possessions of Carthage were a tasty morsel, which could not but attract other world powers.

For two centuries the city-state of Carthage dominated the Mediterranean, but a rival from the northern coast turned into a war machine of unprecedented power: it was Rome. The pearl of the Mediterranean, Sicily, has become the bone of contention between the two superpowers. Carthage was as if created for trade, but he also needed Sicily, since it was located on one of the largest sea trade routes in the world. The one who controls Sicily had vital trade routes in his hands.

The Romans saw Carthage as a spear aimed at the heart of their growing trading empire. The rivalry between the two superpowers led to a series of wars that went down in history, like the Punic, from latin word, which the Romans called the Phoenicians. And, without a doubt, the outcome of these wars changed the history of mankind forever.

In 247 BC, Hamilcar Barca (Lightning) became the commander-in-chief of Carthage, thanks to his outstanding abilities. He was the first great general of the Carthaginian Empire. Prior to this, the Carthaginian Empire, no doubt, participated in the wars, but for the first time it had such a strong rival in the face of the Roman Empire. The secret of Carthage's military strategy was the unusual structure of their sea ​​ships- quinquerem.

The Quinkvirema is a high-speed, maneuverable vessel, moreover, equipped with a bronze-coated ship's ram. Combat tactics are to ram an enemy ship. On the high seas, these monsters were "death machines." There were 5 rows of rowers on the quinqueirem. These ships were very, very fast, it was very difficult to catch up with the Carthaginian warship.

The standard quinquerema was about 35 meters long and 2 to 3.5 meters wide, and could hold up to 420 sailors. The fully equipped vessel weighed over 100 tons. This ship was rushing towards the enemy with unimaginable speed. Impact, and the hull of the enemy ship bursts at the seams, the ship begins to sink.

The Roman fleet lost a lot of naval battles with Carthage, but, once, the Romans were very lucky - they captured the stranded Carthaginian quinqueirem, disassembled it and made dozens of copies of it. Of course, such ships were not assembled very well, and the wood was used raw, and after a few months the ships simply crumbled. But, this time was enough to win the battle with Carthage.

Carthage outline

On March 10, 241 BC, the two greatest powers met at the Aegadian Islands west of the coast of Sicily to decide who would become the master of the Mediterranean. Thus began one of the greatest naval battles in history. The Carthaginians tried to go on the offensive, but they could not because of the extra cargo on the ships - and it was a strategic disaster. The Romans won the victory, taking almost 30 thousand prisoners. Unable to recuperate, Hamilcar was forced to retreat to Carthage. Hoping to subdue Carthage, Rome obliged him to pay a large tribute.

After the defeat, Hamilcar resigned, power passed to his political opponents, led by Gannon. Carthage sent Hamilcar Barca to Spain, where he had to conquer as much of its lands as possible. It took Hamilcar 9 long years to conquer the local peoples, but in 228 BC he was killed in a fight with a rebellious local tribe.

The new commander in chief Gannon had to expand the network of Carthaginian colonies and connections, he also had to found new cities in order to control new territories and have access to their resources. He also made a significant contribution to the development and promotion of the city. Although there is no exact data, archaeologists believe that the famous Carthage Bay was built and improved during the time of Hannon.

The Carthage Bay became a source of power and reliability and a real technical excellence of those times. She became the life-giving artery of the city, a part of Carthage, its heart, its lungs, an essential element for both trade and the navy.

Signs of the former maritime dominion are visible in the elaborately constructed harbors near Tophet. An impressive attraction is the military harbor. A strait 20 meters wide led to the harbor, it could be easily blocked with chains. In the middle of the round bay, an artificial island was erected, on which the buildings of the Admiralty were located. The military harbor was connected with a large commercial port, the entrance to which (later shallowed) was made very ingeniously. No one else had such power, such strength and such speed. When the harbor was opened, the ships flew into the sea, smashed the enemy, who practically did not offer resistance, and burst out into the open sea.

According to legend, the 9-year-old son of Hamilcar, Hannibal, begged to be allowed to see how his father was leading Carthage into the battle for Spain, and once Hamilcar agreed, but on one condition: the son must promise that he will forever hate Rome and defeat this republic. And in 221 BC, he had a chance to do it: at the age of 26, he took command of the Carthaginian army. So, in the history of mankind, the most implacable enemy of the Roman Empire appeared, who won many victories in his life.

Rome controlled the Mediterranean Sea, which means that Hannibal could not reach the enemy by ships. But the desire to keep the oath given to his father - to destroy Rome, was above all, and Hannibal decided to do the impossible: to go overland through the Alps and get into the very heart of the Roman Empire. He needs to lead an army to Italy and fight the Romans on their territory.

This trek began in 218 BC. Hannibal led 50 thousand warriors, 12 thousand horses and 37 elephants, borrowed from African neighbors. By October, having overcome a path of a thousand kilometers, they encountered a serious obstacle - the turbulent Rhone River in France. Here, the ingenuity of the Carthaginians did not disappoint, they built several giant rafts on which the cargo and animals were delivered to the opposite shore in record time. The rafts were 60 meters long and 15 meters wide. While tying the logs, the soldiers covered them with branches and covered them with earth so that the elephants thought they were still on a solid surface.

On August 2, 216 BC, near the city of Cannes in southern Italy, Hannibal met with the Roman army under the command of Terentius Varro in a battle that determined the fate of the two empires. At dawn, Hannibal marched with an army of 50,000, against the 90,000 Romans of Varro. Varro tried to crush the enemy by sending the main forces to the center of Hannibal's front. But, being an excellent strategist, Hannibal ordered the cavalry to surround the Romans from the rear. The Romans, caught in the grip, perished practically on the spot. Only 3.5 thousand managed to escape, 10 thousand were taken prisoner, and 70 thousand remained lying on the battlefield.

This was the greatest defeat for the Romans in the history of their empire. Hannibal was one of the greatest military leaders in human history.

But Hannibal never won a complete victory over the Great Roman Empire. There are battles between the two great powers in Spain, in which the Carthaginians are losing to the Romans.

And in 204 BC Scipio Africanus, asks Rome to allow him to attack Carthage directly. He moves with troops to Africa, and Hannibal is forced to return to his homeland and defend his city. For three years the legions of Scipio besieged Carthage, and no matter how desperately its inhabitants resisted, they could not block the way of the Romans. The battle for the city lasted six days, and then it was taken by storm. Hannibal was completely defeated by Scipio at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC. For ten days Carthage was given over to plunder - the victors took away gold, silver, jewelry, ivory, carpets - everything that had accumulated for centuries in temples, sanctuaries, palaces, houses. The Romans transferred the famous library of Carthage to their allies - the Numidian princes, and since then, it has disappeared without a trace. The greedy robbers who ravaged the city razed it to the ground.

The defeat of Carthage at the end of the Second Punic War forced the empire to accept the terms of the Romans again. Rome again exposes harsh conditions for the conclusion of peace: the Carthaginians must pay Rome an indemnity, also, Carthage loses all its colonies, and its possessions are now limited to the walls of the city. But the worst thing was that Carthage could not wage a single war without the consent of Rome.

But, even after losing two wars, Carthage was able to quickly recover and soon again became one of the richest cities. In 150 BC, the former ally of Carthage, Numidia, began to attack the southern territories of her neighbor. Rome sends a commission to sort out the dispute between Numidia and Carthage, and is headed by Mark Porcius Cato, a Roman senator and great-great-grandfather of Julius Caesar's most implacable enemy.

When Cato arrived in Carthage, a bustling, prosperous city appeared before him, where major trade deals were concluded, coins of various states settled in chests, mines regularly supplied silver, copper and lead, ships left the stocks. Fat fields, lush vineyards, orchards and olive groves appeared before the senator, and the estates of the Carthaginian nobility surpassed the Roman ones in luxury and splendor.

Seeing such a rich and prosperous city, the senator returned home in the most terrible mood. He expected to see signs of the decline of Carthage, but a completely different picture appeared before his eyes. Cato was well aware of both the strategically advantageous position of Carthage and the fact that while Carthage remains an independent unit, its proximity to Sicily and Italy is dangerous. Back in Rome, he addressed the Senate, saying that such prosperity means only one thing: Carthage will soon appear at the gates of Rome with a huge army. His performance ended with the phrase that became legendary throughout the world: “ Carthage must be destroyed».

And Carthage, feeling that he will soon be razed to the ground, takes up arms. The women gave away their hair, from which they twisted ropes for catapults. The Carthaginians released the prisoners, took the old people into the army. After 2 months of feverish work, 6 thousand shields, 18 thousand swords, 30 thousand copies, 120 ships and 60 thousand cannonballs for catapults appeared. Carthage had a serious arsenal of weapons, but the Roman forces were superior.

The most powerful fortifications in the ancient world were the walls of Carthage, and the townspeople counted on them. The fortification system consisted of three walls, the outer one was the most massive, stone and was then considered impregnable. Roman legions were gathering at the walls of the city, and the Carthaginians were in a hurry to build a new line of defense. The city had nowhere to wait for help, hiding behind the fortifications, the townspeople hoped against all odds that the walls would stop the Roman invasion.

Carthage held back the siege of the Romans for 3 years. And although they did not manage to overcome the walls, the Romans broke through from the side of the sea. Residents did not give up even in the last moments, there were battles in the city for every street. During the siege, every tenth inhabitant of Carthage died, the population of the city decreased from 500 thousand to 50. The survivors in the battle were sold as slaves, and they never returned home. For 17 days, Carthage was completely burned. Nothing remained of the city.

24 years after the destruction of Carthage, the Romans rebuilt a new city in its place - with wide streets and squares, with white-stone palaces, temples and public buildings. Not even a few decades have passed, and Carthage, which has risen from the ashes, turns in beauty and significance into the second city of the state.

By the beginning of the 5th century AD, the Roman Empire was in decline, and so was Carthage. And by the middle of the 5th century, the city was under the rule of Byzantium, and after a century and a half the first military units of the Arabs came here. During the period of Arab rule, when dynasties at war with each other were replaced very often, Carthage receded into the background.

Now on the site of the great city - a quiet suburb of Tunisia. In the horseshoe-shaped harbor of the former military fort, fragments of columns and blocks of yellow stone are visible - all that remains of the palace of the admiral of the Carthaginian fleet.
Excavations have been conducted here since the middle of the 20th century. The ruins of Carthage are located in several scattered places, and the most important places The excavations are located on an area 6 kilometers long.Not far from Birsa, a whole quarter of Carthage has been preserved under a layer of ash.

Baths of Antoninus - one of the largest resort complexes of that time, second in size only to the Roman baths of Caracalla and Diocletian. Little remains of the former greatness - mainly underground rooms, load-bearing structures and ceilings. But looking at these ruins one can imagine the scale of these great terms.

The most mysterious place among all the ruins of Carthage is the altar-burial under open air, where, according to the generally accepted version, the Phoenicians sacrificed their firstborn in order to appease the formidable gods. Urns with ashes were placed in several rows, and above them were the funerary steles that can be seen today.

It is worth seeing the Roman amphitheater for 36 thousand spectators, the Maalga water cisterns and the remains of the aqueduct that went to Carthage from the Temple of Water in Zaguana (132 km). And you can get an idea of ​​the residential development of Carthage by visiting the quarter of Roman villas and the Punic quarter of Magon.

At the top of the Birsa hill, from where Carthage began, there is a cathedral in honor of Saint Louis, who died here in the 13th century from the plague, during the Eighth crusade... Nearby is the Carthage Museum with a magnificent collection of artifacts.

Carthage is a country of unlimited possibilities, which appeared more than 2 thousand years ago. Wealth, power and ambition allowed these settlers to build an empire that held the entire Mediterranean in its hands for six hundred years. Very little remains of Carthage. But even this smallness is an impressive testimony to the grandeur and luxury that Carthage had for centuries.

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