The meaning of the First World War is brief. The meaning of the first world war in brief The total nature of the war

Thirty-eight of the fifty sovereign states that existed at that time were involved in the First World War to one degree or another. It was simply not possible to control such a large-scale theater of military operations, so the path to signing a peace agreement was rather long and difficult.

Hundred-day offensive of the Entente

The final stage of the long and bloody First World War was the hundred-day offensive. This large-scale military operation of the armed forces of the Entente against the German army ended with the defeat of the enemy and the signing of the Compiegne Armistice, which ended the war. The decisive offensive was attended by Belgian, Australian, British, French, American, Canadian troops, and Canadian soldiers distinguished themselves.

The German offensive ended in the summer of 1918. Enemy troops reached the banks of the Marne River, but (as before, in 1914) suffered a serious defeat. The allies began to actively develop a plan for the defeat of the German army. The day of the end of World War I was approaching. Marshal Foch concluded that the most opportune moment for a major offensive had finally arrived. The number of the American contingent in France by the summer of 1918 was increased to 1.2 million, which made it possible to neutralize the numerical superiority of the German army. British troops received reinforcements from Palestine.

The area on the Somme River became the site of the main blow. Here was the border between British and French troops. The flat terrain allowed for tank battles, and the great advantage of the allies was the presence of a significant mass of tanks. In addition, this area was covered by a weakened German army. The order of the offensive was clearly planned, and the plan to break through the defense was methodical. All preparations were carried out secretly, with the use of measures to mislead the enemy.

In the year of the end of World War I, the German army was already sufficiently weakened, which made it possible to successfully conduct offensive operations. In August, the allies began fire on communication centers, rear objects, observation and command posts, and positions of the second German army. At the same time, a tank attack was organized. Such a surprise was fully successful. The Amiens operation came as a surprise to the German command, and the conditions of the battle for the enemy were complicated by thick fog and massive explosions of shells.

In just one day of the offensive, German troops lost in killed and captured up to 27 thousand people, about four hundred guns, a significant amount of various property. Allied aircraft shot down 62 aircraft. The offensive continued on August 9 and 10. By this time, the Germans had managed to reorganize to conduct defense, so that the advance was developing at a slower pace, French and British tanks were suffering losses. By August 12, German troops were driven out to Albert, Brae, Sean, west of Roy. The next day, the offensive stopped, as the troops of Great Britain and France completed their task, bringing the end of World War 1 closer.

The front line was reduced by twenty-four kilometers as a result of the Saint-Miel operation. In four days of the active offensive of the Allies, the German troops lost approximately 16 thousand prisoners, more than four hundred guns, the losses of the American army did not exceed 7 thousand people. The Saint Miel operation was the first independent American offensive. Despite the fact that success was achieved, during the operation, the shortcomings of the training of soldiers and the lack of the necessary experience of the US command were revealed. In fact, the offensive began when the Germans had already managed to withdraw some of the troops from the territory.

Wilson's fourteen points

At the beginning of January 1918, the date of the end of World War I, the draft of the future peace treaty was already ready. The document was developed by the President of the States W. Wilson. The treaty provided for the withdrawal of the German armies from Belgium and Russia, the reduction of armaments, the proclamation of Poland's independence, and the creation of the League of Nations. This program was reluctantly approved by the US allies, but later became the basis of the Versailles Peace. "Fourteen Points" became an alternative to the Peace Decree, which was developed by Vladimir Lenin and was not acceptable to Western states.

The day of the end of World War I was approaching, so the need to develop a document that would regulate relations between countries after the end of hostilities was an important issue. proposed open peace negotiations, after which there will be no secret agreements. It was supposed to make shipping free, eliminate all economic barriers, establish equality in trade for all states, reduce national armaments to a minimum that is reasonable and compatible with domestic security, and resolve colonial disputes in an absolutely impartial manner.

Fourteen items included Russia in the question. All Russian territories by the end of World War I must be liberated. Russia was guaranteed the right to make an independent decision on national policy and the path of political development. The country must be ensured admission to the League of Nations in the form of government that it independently chooses. As for Belgium, complete liberation and restoration was envisaged, without attempts to limit sovereignty.

November revolution in Germany

Just before the end of World War I, a revolution thundered in Germany, which was caused by the crisis of the Kaiser's regime. The beginning of revolutionary action is considered the uprising of sailors in Kiel on November 4, 1918, the culmination - the proclamation of a new political system on November 9, the end day (formally) - November 11, when Friedrich Ebert signed the Weimar Constitution. The monarchy was overthrown. The revolution led to the establishment of parliamentary democracy.

First Truce of Compiegne

The end date of World War I was approaching. Since the end of October 1918, there has been an active exchange of peace notes with the United States, and the high command of Germany sought to obtain the best terms of the armistice. The agreement between Germany and the Entente on the cessation of hostilities was signed on November 11. The end of World War 1 was officially documented in the French Picardy region, in the Compiegne Forest. The final results of the conflict were summed up by the Versailles Peace Treaty.

Circumstances of signing

At the end of September 1918, the German command informed the Kaiser, who was at the headquarters in Belgium, that the position of Germany was hopeless. There were no guarantees that the front would hold out even another day. The Kaiser was advised to accept the terms of the President of the United States and carry out reforms in the government in order to hope for better terms. This will allow shifting the responsibility for Germany's defeat onto the democratic parties and parliament, so as not to tarnish the imperial government.

Armistice negotiations began in October 1918. Later it turned out that the Germans were not ready to consider the abdication of the Kaiser, which was demanded by Woodrow Wilson. The negotiations were delayed, although it was absolutely clear that the end of World War I was nearing. The signing eventually took place at 5:10 am on November 11 in the carriage of Marshal F. Foch in the Compiegne Forest. The German delegation was received by Marshal Von and British Admiral R. Wimiss. The truce went into effect at eleven o'clock in the morning. On this occasion, one hundred and one volley was fired.

Basic terms of the armistice

According to the signed agreement, hostilities ceased within six hours from the time of signing, the immediate evacuation of German troops from Belgium, France, Alsace-Lorraine, Luxembourg began, which was to be fully completed within fifteen days. This was followed by the evacuation of German troops from the territory on the western bank of the Rhine River and within a radius of thirty kilometers from the bridges on the right bank (with the further occupation of the liberated territories by the Allies and the United States).

All German troops were to be evacuated from the eastern front in position as of August 1, 1914 (July 28, 1914 - the date of the start of World War 1), and the end of the withdrawal of troops was replaced by the occupation of US territories and the allies. The naval blockade of Germany by Great Britain remained in force. All submarines and modern ships in Germany were interned (internment - forced detention or other restriction of freedom of movement). The enemy command had to hand over in good condition 1,700 aircraft, 5,000 locomotives, 150,000 carriages, 5,000 guns, 25,000 machine guns and 3,000 mortars.

Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty

Under the terms of the peace, Germany was to abandon the Brest-Litovsk Treaty with the Bolshevik government. This treaty ensured the withdrawal of the RSFSR from the First World War. At the first stage, the Bolsheviks persuaded the Western states to conclude a general peace and even received a formal consent. But the Soviet side dragged out negotiations to agitate for a general revolution, while the German government insisted on recognizing the right to occupy Poland, parts of Belarus and the Baltic states.

The fact of the conclusion of the treaty caused a sharp reaction both among the opposition in Russia and in the international arena, which led to an aggravation of the Civil War. The agreement did not lead to the cessation of hostilities in Transcaucasia and Eastern Europe, but divided the "clash of empires", which was finally documented by the end of World War I.

Political implications

The dates of the beginning and the end of World War I outline an important period in modern history. As a result of hostilities, Europe ended its existence as the center of the colonial world. The four largest empires collapsed, namely the German, Ottoman, Russian and Austro-Hungarian. The spread of communism took place on the territory of the Russian Empire and Mongolia, and the United States advanced to a leading position in international politics.

After the end of the First World War, several new sovereign states appeared: Lithuania, Poland, Latvia, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Finland, the State of Slovenian Serbs and Croats. Socio-economic processes at the turn of the century slowed down, but contradictions on the ethnic and class basis, interstate contradictions became more acute. The international legal order has changed significantly.

Economic implications

The consequences of the war turned out to be catastrophic for the economies of most countries. War losses amounted to $ 208 billion and twelve times the gold reserves of European states. A third of Europe's national wealth was simply destroyed. Only two countries increased their wealth during the war years - Japan and the United States. The United States finally established itself as the leader of economic development in the world, and Japan established a monopoly in Southeast Asia.

The wealth of the United States has increased over the years of hostilities in Europe by 40%. America was concentrated half of the world's gold reserves, and the value of production increased from 24 to 62 billion dollars. The status of a neutral country allowed the United States to supply war materials, raw materials and food to the belligerent parties. The volume of trade with other countries has doubled, and the value of exports has tripled. The country has eliminated almost half of its own debt and became a creditor totaling $ 15 billion.

Germany's total spending amounted to 150 billion in local currency, and the national debt increased from five to one hundred and sixty billion marks. By the end of World War I (compared with 1913), production volumes decreased by 43%, agricultural production - by 35 to 50%. In 1916, famine began, because due to the blockade by the Entente countries, only a third of the necessary food was supplied to Germany. According to the Versailles Treaty, after the end of the armed confrontation, Germany had to pay an indemnity in the amount of 132 billion gold marks.

Destruction and loss of life

During the war, about 10 million soldiers died, including about a million missing, up to 21 million were injured. The greatest losses were suffered by the German Empire (1.8 million), 1.7 million citizens died in the Russian Empire, 1.4 million in France, 1.2 million in Austria-Hungary, 0.95 million in Great Britain. Thirty-four states with a population of about 67% of the world's population took part. As a percentage of the total number of civilians, the most significant losses were suffered by Serbia (6% of citizens died), France (3.4%), Romania (3.3%) and Germany (3%).

Paris Peace Conference

The Paris Conference solved the main problems of rebuilding the world after the end of the First (1) World War. Treaties were signed with Austria, Germany, Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria. During the negotiations, the Big Four (the leaders of France, the United States, Great Britain and Italy) held one hundred and forty-five meetings (in an informal setting) and made all the decisions that were later ratified by other participating countries (a total of 27 states participated). None of the governments that at that time claimed the status of legal authority in the Russian Empire were invited to the conference.

Celebrating Armistice Day

The day of the signing of the armistice in the Compiegne forest, which ended the armed clashes, is a national holiday in most of the states of the former Entente. The centenary of the end of World War I was celebrated in 2018. In Great Britain, the victims were remembered with a minute of silence; the commemoration ceremony took place in the French capital at the Arc de Triomphe. The ceremony was attended by the leaders of more than 70 states.

• Political significance
• Economic significance
• Military significance
• Demogrophic significance
• Public
• New ideologies

The First World War itself and its results, in short, were of great historical importance for the subsequent development of not only European states, but the whole world. First, it forever changed the world order that existed before it. And secondly, its outcome became one of the prerequisites for the emergence of a second world armed conflict.

Politics

The war was of the greatest importance for the further political interaction of the countries.
After the war, the political map of the world has changed quite a lot. Four large empires disappeared from it at once, which played a significant role in world politics. Instead of 22 European states at the end of the military confrontation, there were 30 countries on the continent. New state formations appeared in the Middle East (instead of the Ottoman Empire, which ended its days). At the same time, in many countries the form of government and political structure have changed. If before the start of the war there were 19 monarchical states and only three republican states on the European map, then after its end the first became 14, but the number of the second increased immediately to 16.
The new Versailles-Washington system had a huge impact on further international relations; At the same time, the interests of the newly formed states, as well as the countries that suffered defeat in the war, were completely ignored. And even, on the contrary, the young states had to become obedient puppets in the struggle against the Russian Bolshevik system and the German desire for revenge.
In a word, the new system was completely unjust, unbalanced, and, consequently, ineffective and could not lead to anything other than a new large-scale war.

Economy

Even with a brief examination, it becomes clear, but the First World War was of no less importance for the economies of all countries that took part in it.
As a result of the hostilities, large territories of the countries lay in ruins, settlements and infrastructure were destroyed. The arms race has led to a bias of the economy in many industrialized countries towards the military industry, to the detriment of other areas.
At the same time, the changes affected not only the largest powers, which spent colossal sums on rearmament, but also their colonies, where production was transferred, and from where more and more resources were supplied.
As a result of the war, many countries abandoned the gold standard, which led to a crisis in the monetary system.
Almost the only country that benefited from the First World War is the United States. Observing neutrality in the early years of the war, the states accepted and carried out orders from the belligerents, which led to their significant enrichment.
However, despite all the negative aspects in the development of the economy, it is worth noting that the war gave an impetus to the development of new technologies, and not only in the production of weapons.

Demography

The human losses of this prolonged bloody conflict were estimated in the millions. Moreover, they did not end with the last shot. Many died due to their wounds and the outbreak of the Spanish flu ("Spanish flu") pandemic in the post-war years. The countries of Europe were literally drained of blood.

Social development

In short, the First World War was also of considerable importance for the development of society. While men fought on numerous fronts, women worked in workshops and industries, including those that were considered exclusively male. This is largely reflected in the formation of women's views and rethinking their place in society. Therefore, the post-war years were marked by mass emancipation.
Also, the war played a huge role in strengthening the revolutionary movement and, as a consequence, in improving the position of the working class. In some countries, the workers sought to realize their rights through a change of government, in others, the government and the monopolists themselves made concessions.

New ideologies

Perhaps one of the most significant results of the First World War was that it made possible the emergence of new ideologies, such as fascism, and gave a chance to strengthen and rise to a new level for the old, for example, socialism.
Subsequently, many researchers have repeatedly argued that it is precisely such large-scale and protracted conflicts that contribute to the establishment of totalitarian regimes.
Thus, we can say that the world after the end of the war was completely different from the one that entered it four years earlier.

The First World War (1914-1918) was of great importance for the subsequent development of world history. The main result of the First World War was the collapse of the four largest empires of the Old World - Russian, Ottoman, German and Auto-Hungarian. A new round of development of civilization began in the world.

Results of the First World War for Russia

Already a year before the end of hostilities, Russia for internal reasons withdrew from the Entente and concluded with Germany the shameful Peace of Brest-Litovsk. The revolution carried out by the Bolsheviks changed the course of history for Russia, which now will never get access to the Mediterranean Sea.

The First World War had not yet ended, as the Civil War flared up in the territories of the former Russian Empire until 1922.

Rice. 1. Map of the Civil War in Russia.

The new government embarked on a course of building communism through socialism, which led to international diplomatic isolation.

Let us examine the points, what were the consequences of participation in the First World War:

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• The outbreak of the Civil War killed more than 10 million people and maimed even more people.
• During the Civil War, more than 2 million people emigrated abroad.
• Russia concluded the shameful Peace of Brest-Litovsk, through which it lost vast territories in the west.
• Foreign intervention inflicted heavy damage on the border regions of the former empire.
• The formed USSR fell into diplomatic isolation due to its opposition to capitalism, which took a course towards building socialism and proclaimed the idea of ​​a world revolution, which turned the entire world community, including its former allies, away from itself.
• The USSR was not admitted to the League of Nations for many years, which happened only in 1933.
• Russia forever lost the chance to take possession of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles.
• The USSR, formed on the territory of the Russian Empire, abandoned the historical continuity of the empire's heritage, which served as a reason to exclude it from the number of the victorious countries. The Soviet Union did not receive any dividends after the victory over Germany.
• The enormous economic damage inflicted on the country from 1914 to 1922 took several decades to recover.

Rice. 2. Territories of Soviet Russia on the basis of the Brest Peace.

While in exile, the Russian army of Baron Wrangel did not lose hope for many years to return to Russia and continue the struggle against Bolshevism. The White Guards fought against the Bolsheviks during the revolution in Bulgaria, in Bizerte (Tunisia) the White Guard fleet was on alert for more than ten years, and the Russian army, being in Gallipoli (Turkey) and the same Bizerte, every day arranged reviews and demonstrated high combat readiness ... Not a single state was able to disarm the White émigré military formations. They did it themselves, when there was no hope of returning to Russia to continue the struggle.

Briefly about the results of the First World War

The result of the victory of the Entente was the solution of the main tasks that the victorious countries set for themselves. The United States entered the course of the war in 1917, choosing for itself the policy of entering world wars at the very last moment in order to receive maximum dividends as one of the main participants and positioning itself as a state that decided the outcome of the war.

Rice. 3. Territorial changes in Europe after the war.

In total, after the conclusion of the Versailles Peace Treaty with Germany, the following territorial changes took place in the world:

• Britain received new colonies in Southwest Africa, Iraq, Palestine, Togo and Cameroon, Northeastern New Guinea and a number of small islands;
• Belgium - Rwanda, Burundi and other small areas in Africa;
• Western Thrace was handed over to Greece;
• Denmark - North Schleswig;
• Italy expanded at the expense of Tyrol and Istria;
• Romania received Transylvania, Bukovina, Bessarabia;
• France took control of the desired Alsace and Lorraine, as well as Syria, Lebanon and most of Cameroon;
• Japan - German islands in the Pacific Ocean;
• Yugoslavia was formed on the territory of the former Austria-Hungary;

In addition, the Bosphorus, Dardanelles and the Rhine region were demilitarized. Germany and Austria became republics, like many nation states on the territory of the former Russian Empire.

The military results of the war include the acceleration of the development of new weapons and warfare tactics. The First World War gave the world submarines, tanks, gas attacks and a gas mask, a flamethrower, anti-aircraft guns. New types of artillery appeared and rapid-fire weapons were modernized. The role of engineering troops increased and the participation of cavalry decreased.

Around the world mourned the enormous loss of life - more than 10 million people in the military and more than 12 million civilians.

The prolonged First World War caused enormous damage to the economies of countries that had been working for the needs of the front for 4 years. During this time, the role of the military-industrial complex and state planning of the economy increased, a network of paved roads developed and dual-use products appeared.

What have we learned?

The war that ended forever changed the world order and the political map. However, not all of the lessons she taught were accepted by the victors, which would later lead to World War II.

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Allies (Entente): France, Great Britain, Russia, Japan, Serbia, USA, Italy (participated in the war on the side of the Entente since 1915).

Friends of the Entente (supported the Entente in the war): Montenegro, Belgium, Greece, Brazil, China, Afghanistan, Cuba, Nicaragua, Siam, Haiti, Liberia, Panama, Honduras, Costa Rica.

Question about the causes of the First World War is one of the most discussed in world historiography since the beginning of the war in August 1914.

The outbreak of the war was facilitated by the widespread strengthening of nationalist sentiments. France was hatching plans to return the lost territories of Alsace and Lorraine. Italy, even being in alliance with Austria-Hungary, dreamed of returning its lands of Trentino, Trieste and Fiume. The Poles saw in the war an opportunity to recreate a state destroyed by the divisions of the 18th century. Many peoples inhabiting Austria-Hungary aspired to national independence. Russia was convinced that it would not be able to develop without limiting German competition, protecting the Slavs from Austria-Hungary and expanding its influence in the Balkans. In Berlin, the future was associated with the defeat of France and Great Britain and the unification of the countries of Central Europe under the leadership of Germany. In London, it was believed that the people of Great Britain would live in peace only by crushing the main enemy - Germany.

In addition, international tensions were exacerbated by a series of diplomatic crises - the Franco-German clash in Morocco in 1905-1906; the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by the Austrians in 1908-1909; The Balkan Wars in 1912-1913.

The immediate cause of the war was the Sarajevo murder June 28, 1914 Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand nineteen-year-old Serbian student Gavrila Princip, who was a member of the secret organization "Young Bosnia", fighting for the unification of all South Slavic peoples in one state.

July 23, 1914 Austria-Hungary, having enlisted the support of Germany, presented Serbia with an ultimatum and demanded that its military formations be admitted to Serbian territory in order, together with Serbian forces, to suppress hostile actions.

Serbia's response to the ultimatum did not satisfy Austria-Hungary, and July 28, 1914 she declared war on Serbia. Russia, having received assurances of support from France, openly opposed Austria-Hungary and July 30, 1914 announced a general mobilization. Germany, taking advantage of this opportunity, announced August 1, 1914 war on Russia, and August 3, 1914- France. After the German invasion August 4, 1914 in Belgium Great Britain declared war on Germany.

The First World War consisted of five campaigns. During first campaign in 1914 Germany invaded Belgium and northern France, but was defeated at the Battle of the Marne. Russia captured parts of East Prussia and Galicia (East Prussian operation and Battle of Galicia), but was then defeated by a German and Austro-Hungarian counteroffensive.

Campaign of 1915 connected with the entry into the war of Italy, the failure of the German plan to withdraw Russia from the war and bloody fruitless battles on the Western Front.

Campaign of 1916 associated with the entry into the war of Romania and the conduct of a grueling positional war on all fronts.

Campaign of 1917 associated with the entry into the war of the United States, the revolutionary withdrawal of Russia from the war and a number of successive offensive operations on the Western Front (Operation Nivelle, operations in the Messines area, on Ypres, near Verdun, at Cambrai).

Campaign of 1918 characterized by a transition from positional defense to a general offensive by the armed forces of the Entente. From the second half of 1918, the Allies prepared and launched retaliatory offensive operations (Amiens, Saint-Miiel, Marne), during which they eliminated the results of the German offensive, and in September 1918 went over to a general offensive. By November 1, 1918, the allies liberated the territory of Serbia, Albania, Montenegro, entered the territory of Bulgaria after the armistice and invaded the territory of Austria-Hungary. On September 29, 1918, Bulgaria concluded an armistice with the allies, on October 30, 1918 - Turkey, on November 3, 1918 - Austria-Hungary, November 11, 1918 - Germany.

June 28, 1919 at the Paris Peace Conference was signed Treaty of Versailles with Germany, which officially ended the First World War of 1914-1918.

On September 10, 1919, the Saint-Germain Peace Treaty was signed with Austria; November 27, 1919 - Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria; June 4, 1920 - Trianon Peace Treaty with Hungary; August 20, 1920 - Peace Treaty of Sevres with Turkey.

In total, World War I lasted 1,568 days. It was attended by 38 states, in which 70% of the world's population lived. The armed struggle was fought on fronts with a total length of 2500-4000 km. The total losses of all the warring countries amounted to about 9.5 million killed and 20 million wounded. At the same time, the losses of the Entente amounted to about 6 million people killed, the losses of the Central Powers were about 4 million people killed.

During the First World War, for the first time in history, tanks, aircraft, submarines, anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns, mortars, grenade launchers, bomb throwers, flamethrowers, super-heavy artillery, hand grenades, chemical and smoke shells, and toxic substances were used. New types of artillery appeared: anti-aircraft, anti-tank, infantry escort. Aviation became an independent branch of the military, which began to be subdivided into reconnaissance, fighter and bomber. Tank troops, chemical troops, air defense troops, and naval aviation emerged. The role of engineering troops increased and the role of cavalry decreased.

The results of the First World War were the elimination of four empires: German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman, and the latter two were divided, and Germany and Russia were cut territorially. As a result, new independent states appeared on the map of Europe: Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Yugoslavia, Finland.

The material was prepared on the basis of information from open sources

Fin de siècle (French - "end of the century")- phenomena that took place in the history of European culture at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries

According to the British historian Eric Hobsbawm, the meaningful 19th century begins in 1789, that is, with the Great French Revolution, and ends in 1913. In turn, the XX century - not a calendar, but a historical XX century - begins in 1914, with the First World War, and lasts until 1991, when global changes took place in the world, primarily the unification of Germany in 1990 and the collapse of the USSR in 1991 -m. This chronology allowed Hobsbawm, and after him and many other historians to talk about the "long XIX century" and "short XX century."

Thus, the First World War is a kind of prologue to the short twentieth century. It was here that the key themes of the century were identified: social divisions, geopolitical contradictions, ideological struggle, economic confrontation. This is despite the fact that at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, it seemed to many that the wars in Europe had sunk into oblivion. If there are collisions, it is only on the periphery, in the colonies. The development of science and technology, the refined culture of the Fin de siècle, in the opinion of many contemporaries, did not foresee a "bloody massacre" that cost millions of lives and buried four great empires. This is the first war in the world with a total character: all social strata of the population, all spheres of life were affected. There was nothing left that was not involved in this war.

Crown Prince of Prussia Wilhelm // europeana1914-1918

The alignment of forces

The main participants: the Entente countries, which included the Russian Empire, the French Republic and Great Britain, and the central powers represented by Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.

Vae victis

(Russian "woe to the vanquished") Latin catch phrase, which implies that the conditions are always dictated by the winners

The question arises: what united each of these countries? What were the goals pursued by each of the parties to the conflict? These questions are all the more important because after the signing of the Versailles Peace Treaty on June 28, 1919, all responsibility for unleashing the war will fall on Germany (Article 231). Of course, all this can be justified on the basis of the universal principle of Vae victis. But is Germany the only one to blame for this war? Was it only she and her allies who wanted this war? Of course not.

Germany wanted war just as much as France and Great Britain wanted it. Slightly less interested in this were Russia, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, which turned out to be the weakest links in this conflict.

World War I // British Library

5 billion francs

This amount of indemnity was paid by France after the defeat in the Franco-Prussian War.

Interests of the participating countries

In 1871, the triumphal unification of Germany took place in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles. The second empire was formed. The proclamation took place against the backdrop of the Franco-Prussian War, when France suffered a catastrophic defeat. This became a national shame: not only was Napoleon III, the emperor of all French, was captured almost immediately, but only ruins of the second empire in France remained. The Paris Commune emerges, another revolution, as is often the case in France.

The war ends with France accepting the defeat inflicted on her by Germany, signing the Frankfurt Treaty of 1871, according to which Alsace and Lorraine are alienated in favor of Germany and become imperial territories.

Third French Republic

(fr. Troisième République) - the political regime that existed in France from September 1870 to June 1940

In addition, France undertakes to pay Germany an indemnity of 5 billion francs. To a large extent, this money went to the development of the German economy, which later, by the 1890s, led to its unprecedented rise. But the matter is not even in the financial side of the issue, but in the national humiliation that the French experienced. And more than one generation will remember him from 1871 until 1914.

It was then that the ideas of revanchism arise, which unite the entire Third Republic, born in the crucibles of the Franco-Prussian War. It becomes unimportant who you are: a socialist, a monarchist, a centrist - everyone is united by the idea of ​​revenge on Germany and the return of Alsace and Lorraine.

Russo-Turkish war

the war of 1877 - 178, caused by the rise of the national identity of the Slavic population in the Balkans

Britannia

Britain was concerned about Germany's economic dominance in Europe and the world. By the 1890s, Germany ranked first in terms of GDP in Europe, pushing Britain back into second place. The British government cannot accept this fact, given that for many centuries Britain has been the "workshop of the world", the most economically developed country. Now Britain wants a kind of vengeance, but economic.

Russia

For Russia, the key topic was the question of the Slavs, that is, of the Slavic peoples living in the Balkans. The ideas of Pan-Slavism, which gained momentum in the 1860s, lead to the Russian-Turkish War in the 1870s, this idea remains in the 1880s and 1890s, and so it passes into the 20th century, and is finally embodied by 1915. The main idea was the return of Constantinople, to put a cross over Hagia Sophia. In addition, the return of Constantinople was supposed to solve all the problems with the straits, with the transition from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. This was one of the main geopolitical goals of Russia. And plus to everything, of course, to push the Germans out of the Balkans.

As we can see, several interests of the main participating countries intersect here. Thus, in considering this issue, the political level, the geopolitical, the economic, and the cultural are equally important. Do not forget that during a war, at least in its first years, culture becomes a basic part of ideology. The anthropological level is no less important. War affects a person from different sides, and he begins to exist in this war. Another question, was he ready for this war? Did he imagine what kind of war it would be? People who went through the First World War, who lived in the conditions of this war, after its end, became completely different. Not a trace will remain of the beautiful Europe. Everything will change: social relations, internal politics, social policy. No country will be the same as it was in 1913.

World War I // wikipedia.org

Franz Ferdinand - Archduke of Austria

Formal reason for conflict

The formal reason for the start of the war was the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. Archduke, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary Franz Ferdinand and his wife were shot dead in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. The killer turned out to be a terrorist from the Serbian nationalist organization Mlada Bosna. The Sarajevo murder caused an unprecedented scandal, in which all the main participants in the conflict were involved and to some extent interested.

Austria-Hungary protests Serbia and asks to conduct an investigation with the participation of the Austrian police in order to identify terrorist organizations directed against Austria-Hungary. Parallel to this are intense diplomatic secret consultations between Serbia and the Russian Empire on the one hand and between Austria-Hungary and the German Empire on the other.

Was there a way out of the current impasse or not? It turned out that no. On July 23, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia, giving it 48 hours to respond. In turn, Serbia agreed to all conditions, except one related to the fact that the secret services of Austria-Hungary will begin to make arrests and take out terrorists and suspicious persons to Austria-Hungary without notifying the Serbian side. Austria, backed by German support, declares war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. In response to this, the Russian Empire declares mobilization, to which the German Empire declares its protest and demands to stop the mobilization, in case of non-termination, the German side reserves the right to start its own mobilization. On July 31, a general mobilization was announced in the Russian Empire. In response, on August 1, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia. The war has begun. France joins it on August 3, Great Britain on August 4, and all the main participants begin hostilities.

July 31, 1914

mobilization of Russian soldiers to participate in the First World War

It is important to note that when announcing mobilization, no one talks about their own selfish interests. All are claiming the lofty ideals behind this war. For example, assistance to the fraternal Slavic peoples, assistance to the fraternal Germanic peoples and the empire. Accordingly, France and Russia are bound by allied treaties, this is allied assistance. This also includes Britain. It is interesting to note that already in September 1914, another protocol was signed between the Entente countries, that is, between Great Britain, Russia and France - a declaration not to conclude a separate peace. The same document will be signed by the Entente countries in November 1915. Thus, we can say that among the allies there were suspicions and significant fears in matters of trust in each other: suddenly someone breaks down and concludes a separate peace with the enemy side.

Propaganda-Karten // wikipedia.org

Schlieffen plan

the strategic plan of the military command of the German Empire, developed at the beginning of the 20th century by Alfred von Schlieffen to achieve a quick victory in the First World War

World War I as a new type of war

Germany waged the war in accordance with the Schlieffen plan, developed by the Prussian Field Marshal and the leader of the German General Staff von Schlieffen. It was supposed to concentrate all forces on the right flank, inflict a lightning strike on France and only after that switch to the Russian front.

So, Schlieffen develops this plan just at the end of the 19th century. As we can see, his tactics were based on blitzkrieg - the application of lightning strikes that stun the enemy, wreak havoc and sow panic among the enemy troops.

Wilhelm II was confident that Germany would have time to defeat France before the general mobilization ended in Russia. After that, it was planned to transfer the main contingent of German troops to the East, that is, to Prussia, and to organize an offensive operation against the Russian Empire. This is exactly what Wilhelm II meant when he declared that he would have breakfast in Paris and dinner in St. Petersburg.

Versailles Treaty

Treaty signed on June 28, 1919 at the Palace of Versailles in France, officially ending World War I.

Forced deviations from this plan began from the very first days of the war. So, German troops moved too slowly through the territory of neutral Belgium. The main blow to France came from Belgium. In this case, Germany grossly violated international agreements and neglected the concept of neutrality. What will then be reflected in the Versailles Peace Treaty, as well as those crimes, primarily the export of cultural property from Belgian cities, and regarded by the world community as nothing more than "German barbarism" and savagery.

To repulse the German offensive, France asked the Russian Empire to hastily launch a counteroffensive in East Prussia in order to pull off part of the troops from the Western Front to the Eastern. Russia successfully carried out this operation, which largely saved France from surrendering Paris.

Kingdom of Poland

Territory in Europe, which was part of the Russian Empire from 1815 to 1917

Retreat in Russia

In 1914, Russia won a number of victories, primarily on the Southwestern Front. In fact, Russia inflicts a crushing defeat on Austria-Hungary, occupies Lviv (then it was the Austrian city of Lemberg), occupies Bukovina, that is, Chernivtsi, Galicia and approaches the Carpathians.

But already in 1915 a great retreat began, tragic for the Russian army. It turned out that there was a catastrophic lack of ammunition, according to the documents, they should have been, but in fact they were not. In 1915, Russian Poland is lost, that is, the Kingdom of Poland (the Vistula region), the conquered Galicia, Vilna, modern western Belarus are lost. The Germans are actually approaching Riga, Courland is left - for the Russian front it will be a disaster. And since 1916 in the army, especially among the soldiers, there is a general weariness from the war. Discontent begins on the Russian front, of course, this will affect the decomposition of the army and will play its tragic role in the revolutionary events of 1917. According to archival documents, we see that the censors through whom the soldiers' letters passed, note the decadent mood, the lack of fighting spirit in the Russian army since 1916. It is interesting that Russian soldiers, who for the most part were peasants, begin to engage in self-mutilation - to shoot themselves in the leg, in the arm, in order to quickly leave the front and end up in their native village.

Anti-Serb uprisings in Sarajevo. 1914 // wikipedia.org

5000 people

Killed by the use of chlorine as a weapon by German troops

The total nature of the war

One of the main tragedies of the war will be the use of poisonous gases in 1915. On the Western Front, chlorine was used for the first time in history by German troops at the Battle of Ypres, and as a result 5,000 people were killed. The First World War is technological, it is a war of engineering systems, inventions, high technologies. This war is going on not only on the ground, it is going on under water. Thus, German submarines inflicted crushing blows on the British fleet. This is a war in the air: aviation was used both as a means of clarifying the position of the enemy (reconnaissance function), and for delivering strikes, that is, bombing.

The First World War is a war where there is no longer much room for valor and courage. Due to the fact that the war already in 1915 assumed a positional character, there were no direct clashes when one could see the enemy's face, look into his eyes. The enemy is not visible here. Death begins to be perceived in a completely different way, because it appears out of nowhere. In this sense, the gas attack is a symbol of this desacralized and demystified death.

"Verdun meat grinder"

Battle of Verdun - fighting on the Western Front from 21 February to 18 December 1916

The First World War is a colossal death toll never seen before. We can recall the so-called "Verdun meat grinder", where there were 750 thousand killed from France and England, from Germany - 450 thousand, that is, the total losses of the parties amounted to more than a million people! History has never known bloodshed of this magnitude. The horror of what is happening, the presence of death from nowhere cause aggression and frustration. That is why, in the end, all this causes such anger, which will result in outbursts of aggression and violence already in peacetime after the First World War. Compared to 1913, there is a growing increase in cases of domestic violence: street fights, domestic violence, industrial conflicts, etc.

In many ways, this allows researchers to talk about the readiness of the population for totalitarianism and violent, repressive practices. Here we can recall, first of all, the experience of Germany, where in 1933 National Socialism was victorious. This is also a kind of continuation of the First World War.

That is why there is an opinion that it is impossible to separate the First and Second World Wars. That it was one war that began in 1914 and ended only in 1945. And what happened from 1919 to 1939 was just a truce, because the population was still living with the ideas of war and was ready to fight on.

Map of Germany 1919 // Alisa Serbinenko for PostNauka

Woodrow Wilson - 28th President of the United States (1913-1921)

Aftermath of the First World War

The war, which began on August 1, 1914, continued until November 11, 1918, when an armistice was signed between Germany and the Entente countries. By 1918, the Entente was represented by France and Great Britain. The Russian Empire will leave this union in 1917, when a Bolshevik revolution of the revolutionary type will take place in October. Lenin's first decree will be the Decree on Peace without annexations and indemnities to all the belligerent powers on October 25, 1917. True, none of the belligerent powers will support this decree, except for Soviet Russia.

At the same time, Russia will officially withdraw from the war only on March 3, 1918, when the famous Brest-Litovsk Treaty of 1918 was signed in Brest-Litovsk, according to which Germany and its allies on the one hand and Soviet Russia on the other ceased hostilities against each other. At the same time, Soviet Russia lost part of its territories, primarily it was about Ukraine, Belarus and the entire Baltic region. Nobody even thought about Poland, and, in fact, nobody needed it. The logic of Lenin and Trotsky in this matter was very simple: we are not bargaining for territories, because the world revolution will win anyway. Moreover, in August 1918, an additional agreement to the Brest Peace Treaty will be signed, according to which Russia will undertake to pay indemnities to Germany, and even the first transfer will be made - 93 tons of gold. So, Russia is leaving, which would be a violation of the allied obligations that the tsarist government took upon itself and to which the Provisional Government was loyal.

By 1918, it became obvious for the German leadership to find a way to a compromise with the Entente countries. At the same time, I wanted to lose as little as possible. It was for this purpose that a counteroffensive on the Western Front was proposed in the spring and summer of 1918. The operation was extremely unsuccessful for Germany, which only increased the discontent among the troops and among the civilian population. In addition, there was a revolution in Germany on November 9th. Its instigators were sailors in Kiel, who raised an uprising, not wanting to carry out the orders of the command. On November 11, 1918, the Armistice of Compiegne was signed between Germany and the Entente countries. Note that the truce is signed in Compiegne in the carriage of Marshal Foch not by chance. This will be done at the insistence of the French side, for which it was very important to overcome the complex of defeat in the Franco-Prussian war. France will insist on this place in order for an act of revenge to occur, that is, satisfaction will occur. It must be said that the carriage will surface again already in 1940, when it will again be driven so that Hitler will accept the surrender of France in it.

On June 28, 1919, a peace treaty is signed with Germany. It was a humiliating world for her, she lost all her overseas colonies, part of Schleswig, Silesia and Prussia. Germany was forbidden to have a submarine fleet, develop and have the latest weapons systems. The agreement, however, did not spell out the amount that Germany was supposed to pay as reparations, since France and Britain could not agree among themselves due to France's excessive appetites. It was not profitable for Britain to create such a strong France. Therefore, the amount was not entered in the end. It was finally determined only in 1921. Under the London Agreements of 1921, Germany had to pay 132 billion gold marks.

Germany was declared the sole culprit in unleashing the conflict. And, in fact, all the restrictions and sanctions imposed on it flowed from this. The Versailles Treaty had disastrous consequences for Germany. The Germans felt insulted and humiliated, which led to the rise of nationalist forces. During the 14 difficult years of the Weimar Republic - from 1919 to 1933 - any political force set itself the goal of revising the Treaty of Versailles. First of all, no one recognized the eastern borders. The Germans turned into a divided people, part of which remained in the Reich, in Germany, part in Czechoslovakia (Sudetenland), part in Poland. And in order to feel national unity, the great German people must be reunited. This formed the basis of the political slogans of the National Socialists, Social Democrats, moderate conservatives, and other political forces.

The results of the war for the participating countries and the idea of ​​great powers

For Austria-Hungary, the consequences of defeat in the war turned into a national catastrophe and the collapse of the multinational Habsburg empire. The Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I, who in 68 years of his reign became a kind of symbol of the empire, died in 1916. He was replaced by Charles I, who failed to stop the centrifugal national forces of the empire, which, coupled with military defeats, led to the collapse of Austria-Hungary. In the crucibles of the First World War, four of the greatest empires perished: Russian, Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian and German. In their place, new states will arise: Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. At the same time, grievances and disagreements persisted, as well as territorial claims of the new countries to each other. Hungary was dissatisfied with the borders that were determined to her in accordance with the agreements reached, because Great Hungary should also include Croatia.

It seemed to everyone that the First World War would solve the problems, but it created new ones and deepened old ones.

Bulgaria is dissatisfied with the borders that it got, because Great Bulgaria should include almost all territories up to Constantinople. Serbs also considered themselves to be left out. In Poland, the idea of ​​Greater Poland is becoming widespread - from sea to sea. Probably Czechoslovakia was the only happy exception of all the new Eastern European states, which was pleased with everything. After the First World War, in many European countries, the idea of ​​their own greatness and significance arose, which led to the creation of myths about national exclusivity and their political design in the interwar period.