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Maxwell james clerk biography. James Clerk Maxwell biography brief

19.01.2022

James Maxwell was born on June 13, 1831 in the capital of Scotland, the city of Edinburgh, in the family of a lawyer and hereditary nobleman John Clerk Maxwell. James spent his childhood on the family estate in South Scotland. His mother died early, and the boy was raised by his father. It was he who instilled in James a love of technical sciences. In 1841 he entered the Edinburgh Academy. Then, in 1847, he studied at the University of Edinburgh for three years. Here Maxwell studies and develops the theory of elasticity, puts scientific experiments. In 1850 - 1854. studied at the University of Cambridge, where he graduated with a bachelor's degree.

After completing his studies, James remains to teach at Cambridge. At this time, he begins work on the theory of colors, which later formed the basis of color photography. Maxwell also becomes interested in electricity and the magnetic effect.

In 1856, James Maxwell became professor at Marischal College in Aberdeen, Scotland, where he worked until 1860. In June 1858, Maxwell married the daughter of the principal of the college. Working in Aberdeen, James is working on a treatise On the Stability of the Movement of the Rings of Saturn (1859), recognized and approved by the scientific community. At the same time, Maxwell was developing the kinetic theory of gases, which formed the basis of modern statistical mechanics, and later, in 1866, he discovered the law of molecular velocity distribution, named after him.

In 1860 - 1865. James Maxwell was Professor in the Department of Natural Philosophy at King's College (London). in 1864, his article "The Dynamic Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" was published, which became Maxwell's main work and predetermined the direction of his further research. The scientist was engaged in the problems of electromagnetism until the end of his life.

In 1871, Maxwell returned to the University of Cambridge, where he headed the first laboratory for physical experiments, named after the English scientist Henry Cavendish - the Cavendish Laboratory. There he taught physics and participated in equipping the laboratory.

In 1873, the scientist finally finishes work on the two-volume work Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, which has become a truly encyclopedic legacy in the field of physics.

The great scientist died on November 5, 1879 from cancer and was buried near the family estate, in the Scottish village of Parton.

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James Maxwell (1831-1879).

James Clerk Maxwell was born in Edinburgh on June 13, 1831. Shortly after the birth of the boy, his parents took him to their estate Glenlar. Since that time, the "lair in a narrow gorge" has firmly entered the life of Maxwell. Here his parents lived and died, here he himself lived and was buried for a long time.

When James was eight years old, misfortune came to the house: his mother became seriously ill and soon died. Now the only educator of James was his father, to whom he retained a feeling of tender affection and friendship for the rest of his life. John Maxwell was not only the father and educator of his son, but also his most faithful friend.

Soon the time came when the boy had to start studying. At first, teachers were invited to the house. But the Scottish home teachers were just as rude and ignorant as their English counterparts, described with such sarcasm and hatred by Dickens. Therefore, it was decided to send James to a new school, which bore the loud name of the Edinburgh Academy.

The boy gradually became involved in school life. He became more interested in the lessons. He especially liked geometry. She remained one of Maxwell's strongest hobbies for the rest of his life. Geometric images and models played a huge role in his scientific work. Maxwell's scientific path began with her.

Maxwell graduated from the academy in one of the first graduations. At parting with the beloved school, he composed the anthem of the Edinburgh Academy, which was sung in unison and with enthusiasm by its pupils. Now the doors of the University of Edinburgh were flung open before him.

As a student, Maxwell carried out serious research on the theory of elasticity, which was highly appreciated by specialists. And now he was faced with the question of the prospect of his further studies at Cambridge.

Founded in 1284, St. Peter's (Peterhouse), and the most famous is the College of St. Trinity College (Trinity College), founded in 1546. The glory of this college was created by his famous pupil Isaac Newton. Peterhouse and Trinity College were successively the Cambridge sojourn of the young Maxwell. After a short stay at Peterhouse, Maxwell transferred to Trinity College.

The volume of Maxwell's knowledge, the power of his intellect and independence of thought allowed him to achieve a high place in his release. He took second place.

The young bachelor was left at Trinity College as a teacher. But he was concerned about scientific problems. In addition to his old fascination with geometry and the problem of colors, which he began to study as early as 1852, Maxwell became interested in electricity.

On February 20, 1854, Maxwell informs Thomson of his intention to "attack electricity". The result of the "attack" was the essay "On Faraday's Lines of Force" - the first of Maxwell's three main works devoted to the study of the electromagnetic field. The word "field" first appeared in that same letter to Thomson, but neither in this nor in a later work on lines of force. Maxwell does not use it. This concept reappears only in 1864 in the work "Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field".

In the autumn of 1856 Maxwell took up the post of professor of natural philosophy at Marischal College, Aberdeen. The department of natural philosophy, that is, the department of physics in Aberdeen, did not exist before Maxwell, and the young professor had to organize educational and scientific work in physics.

Staying in Aberdeen was marked by an important event in Maxwell's personal life: he married the daughter of the head of Marishal College Daniel Dewar, Katherine Mary Dewar. This event took place in 1858. From that time until the end of their lives, the Maxwells walked their life path hand in hand.

In 1857-1859, the scientist carried out his calculations of the movement of Saturn's rings. He showed that the liquid ring during rotation will be destroyed by the waves arising in it and will break into separate satellites. Maxwell considered the motion of a finite number of such satellites. The most difficult mathematical research brought him the Adams Prize and fame as a first-class mathematician. The prized essay was published in 1859 by the University of Cambridge.

From the study of the rings of Saturn, it was quite natural to move on to the consideration of the motions of gas molecules. The Aberdeen period of Maxwell's life ended with his speech at the meeting of the British Association in 1859 with a report "On the dynamical theory of gases". This document marked the beginning of Maxwell's many years of fruitful research in the field of the kinetic theory of gases and statistical physics.

Since the department where Maxwell worked was closed, the scientist had to look for a new job. In 1860, Maxwell was elected professor of natural philosophy at King's College London.

The London period was marked by the publication of a large article "Explanations to the Dynamic Theory of Gases", which was published in the leading English physics journal, the Philosophical Journal, in 1860. With this article, Maxwell made a huge contribution to a new branch of theoretical physics - statistical physics. The founders of statistical physics in its classical form are Maxwell, Boltzmann and Gibbs.

The Maxwells spent the summer of 1860 at the Glenlar family estate before the start of the autumn semester in London. However, Maxwell failed to rest and gain strength. He fell ill with smallpox in a severe form. The doctors feared for his life. But the extraordinary courage and patience of Catherine, who was devoted to him, who did everything to get her sick husband out, helped them defeat the terrible disease. Such a difficult test began his life in London. During this period of his life, Maxwell published a large article on colors, as well as the work "Explanations to the dynamic theory of gases." But the main work of his life was devoted to the theory of electricity.

He publishes two major works on the electromagnetic field theory he created: "On Physical Lines of Force" (1861-1862) and "Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" (1864-1865). For ten years, Maxwell has grown into a prominent scientist, the creator of the fundamental theory of electromagnetic phenomena, which, along with mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical physics, has become one of the foundations of classical theoretical physics.

During the same period of his life, Maxwell began work on electrical measurements. He was especially interested in a rational system of electrical units, since the electromagnetic theory of light he created was based only on the coincidence of the ratio of electrostatic and electromagnetic units of electricity with the speed of light. It is quite natural that he became one of the active members of the "Commission of Units" of the British Association. In addition, Maxwell deeply understood the close connection between science and technology, the importance of this union both for the progress of science and for technical progress. Therefore, from the sixties until the end of his life, he tirelessly worked in the field of electrical measurements.

The stressful London life had taken a toll on the health of Maxwell and his wife, and they decided to live on their family estate of Glenlar. This decision became inevitable after Maxwell's serious illness at the end of his summer vacation in 1865, which he spent as usual at his estate. Maxwell left the service in London and lived in Glenlare for five years (from 1866 to 1871), occasionally traveling to Cambridge for examinations, and only in 1867, on the advice of doctors, he traveled to Italy. Being engaged in economic affairs in Glenlar, Maxwell did not leave scientific studies. He worked hard on the main work of his life, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, wrote the book The Theory of Heat, an important work on regulators, a number of articles on the kinetic theory of gases, and participated in meetings of the British Association. Maxwell's creative life in the countryside continued as intensely as in the university city.

In 1871, Maxwell published The Theory of Heat in London. This textbook has been very popular. The scientist wrote that the purpose of his book "The Theory of Heat" was to present the doctrine of heat "in the sequence in which it developed."

Shortly after the publication of The Theory of Heat, Maxwell received an offer to take the newly organized chair of experimental physics at Cambridge. He agreed and on 8 March 1871 was appointed Cavendish Professor at the University of Cambridge.

In 1873, the Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (in two volumes) and the book Matter and Motion were published.

"Matter and Motion" is a small book devoted to the presentation of the fundamentals of mechanics.

"Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism" - the main work of Maxwell and the pinnacle of his scientific work. In it, he summed up the results of many years of work on electromagnetism, which began as early as the beginning of 1854. The preface to the "Treatise" is dated February 1, 1873. Nineteen years Maxwell worked on his fundamental work!

Maxwell reviewed the entire body of knowledge on electricity and magnetism of his time, starting with the basic facts of electrostatics and ending with the electromagnetic theory of light he created. He summed up the struggle between the theories of long-range action and short-range action, which began during Newton's lifetime, devoting the last chapter of his book to consideration of theories of action at a distance. Maxwell did not openly speak out against the theories of electricity that existed before him; he presented the Faraday concept as equal to the mainstream theories, but the whole spirit of his book, his approach to the analysis of electromagnetic phenomena, was so new and unusual that contemporaries refused to understand the book.

In the famous preface to the Treatise, Maxwell characterizes the purpose of his work as follows: to describe the most important of electromagnetic phenomena, to show how they can be measured, and "to trace the mathematical relationships between the measured quantities." He indicates that he will try "as far as possible to shed light on the connection between the mathematical form of this theory and general dynamics, in order to be prepared to a certain extent for the definition of those dynamic laws, among which we should look for illustrations or explanations of electromagnetic phenomena."

Maxwell considers the laws of mechanics to be the basic laws of nature. It is no coincidence that, therefore, as a fundamental premise to his basic equations of electromagnetic theory, he sets out the basic provisions of dynamics. But at the same time, Maxwell understands that the theory of electromagnetic phenomena is a qualitatively new theory, not reducible to mechanics, although mechanics facilitates penetration into this new field of natural phenomena.

Maxwell's main conclusions boil down to the following: an alternating magnetic field excited by a changing current creates an electric field in the surrounding space, which in turn excites a magnetic field, etc. Changing electric and magnetic fields, mutually generating each other, form a single alternating electromagnetic field is an electromagnetic wave.

He derived equations showing that the magnetic field created by a current source propagates from it at a constant speed. Having arisen, the electromagnetic field propagates in space at the speed of light of 300,000 km/s, occupying a larger and larger volume. D. Maxwell argued that the waves of light are of the same nature as the waves that arise around a wire in which there is an alternating electric current. They differ from each other only in length. Very short wavelengths is visible light.

In 1874, he begins a major historical work: the study of the scientific heritage of the eighteenth-century scientist Henry Cavendish and prepares it for publication. After Maxwell's research, it became clear that long before Faraday, Cavendish discovered the influence of a dielectric on the magnitude of the electric capacitance, and 15 years before Coulomb discovered the law of electrical interactions.

Cavendish's works on electricity, describing experiments, took up a large volume, published in 1879 under the title "Papers on Electricity of the Honorable Henry Cavendish." This was Maxwell's last book published during his lifetime. On November 5, 1879, he died in Cambridge.

MAXWELL (Maxwell) James Clerk ( Clerk) (1831-79), English physicist, creator of classical electrodynamics, one of the founders of statistical physics, organizer and first director (since 1871) of the Cavendish Laboratory. Developing the ideas of M. Faraday, he created the theory of the electromagnetic field (Maxwell's equations); introduced the concept of displacement current, predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves, put forward the idea of the electromagnetic nature of light. Established a statistical distribution named after him. Investigated the viscosity, diffusion and thermal conductivity of gases. He showed that the rings of Saturn are composed of separate bodies. Proceedings on color vision and colorimetry (Maxwell's disk), optics (Maxwell's effect), theory of elasticity (Maxwell's theorem, Maxwell-Cremona diagram), thermodynamics, history of physics, etc.

MAXWELL (Maxwell) James Clerk (June 13, 1831, Edinburgh - November 5, 1879, Cambridge), English physicist, creator of classical electrodynamics, one of the founders of statistical physics, founder of one of the world's largest scientific centers of the late 19th - early 19th century. 20th century - Cavendish Laboratory; created the theory of the electromagnetic field, predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves, put forward the idea of the electromagnetic nature of light, established the first statistical law - the law of distribution of molecules by speed, named after him.

Family. Years of study

Maxwell was the only son of the Scottish nobleman and lawyer John Clerk, who, having inherited the estate of a relative's wife, née Maxwell, added this name to his family name. After the birth of their son, the family moved to South Scotland, to their own estate Glenlar ("Shelter in the valley"), where the boy spent his childhood. In 1841, his father sent James to a school called Edinburgh Academy. Here, at the age of 15, Maxwell wrote his first scientific article "On the Drawing of Ovals". In 1847 he entered the University of Edinburgh, where he studied for three years, and in 1850 moved to the University of Cambridge, graduating in 1854. By this time, Maxwell was a first-class mathematician with a superbly developed intuition of a physicist.

Creation of the Cavendish Laboratory. Teaching work

After graduation, Maxwell was left in Cambridge for teaching work. In 1856 he received a professorship at Marishall College at the University of Aberdeen (Scotland). In 1860 he was elected a member of the Royal Society of London. In the same year he moved to London, accepting an offer to take the post of head of the department of physics at King's College, London University, where he worked until 1865.

Returning to the University of Cambridge in 1871, Maxwell organized and headed the first specially equipped laboratory in Great Britain for physical experiments, known as the Cavendish Laboratory (after the English scientist G. Cavendish). The formation of this laboratory, which at the turn of the 19-20 centuries. turned into one of the largest centers of world science, Maxwell devoted the last years of his life.

Little is known about Maxwell's life. Shy, modest, he strove to live in solitude; did not keep diaries. In 1858, Maxwell married, but family life, apparently, was unsuccessful, exacerbated his unsociableness, alienated him from his former friends. There is an assumption that many important materials about the life of Maxwell were lost during the fire of 1929 in his Glenlar house, 50 years after his death. He died of cancer at the age of 48.

Scientific activity

Maxwell's unusually wide scope of scientific interests covered the theory of electromagnetic phenomena, the kinetic theory of gases, optics, the theory of elasticity, and much more. One of his first works was research on the physiology and physics of color vision and colorimetry, begun in 1852. In 1861, Maxwell first obtained a color image by projecting red, green, and blue transparencies onto a screen simultaneously. This proved the validity of the three-component theory of vision and outlined ways to create a color photograph. In the works of 1857-59, Maxwell theoretically investigated the stability of the rings of Saturn and showed that the rings of Saturn can be stable only if they consist of unrelated particles (bodies).

In 1855 Maxwell began a cycle of his main works on electrodynamics. The articles "On Faraday Field Lines" (1855-56), "On Physical Field Lines" (1861-62), and "Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" (1869) were published. The research was completed with the publication of the two-volume monograph Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (1873).

Creation of the electromagnetic field theory

When Maxwell began researching electrical and magnetic phenomena in 1855, many of them had already been well studied: in particular, the laws of interaction of stationary electric charges (Coulomb's law) and currents (Ampère's law) were established; it has been proved that magnetic interactions are interactions of moving electric charges. Most scientists of that time believed that the interaction is transmitted instantly, directly through the void (long-range theory).

A decisive turn towards the theory of short-range action was made by M. Faraday in the 1930s. 19th century According to Faraday's ideas, an electric charge creates an electric field in the surrounding space. The field of one charge acts on another, and vice versa. The interaction of currents is carried out by means of a magnetic field. The distribution of electric and magnetic fields in space was described by Faraday with the help of lines of force, which, in his view, resemble ordinary elastic lines in a hypothetical medium - the world ether.

Maxwell fully accepted Faraday's ideas about the existence of an electromagnetic field, that is, about the reality of processes in space near charges and currents. He believed that the body cannot function where it does not exist.

The first thing Maxwell did was to give Faraday's ideas a rigorous mathematical form, so necessary in physics. It turned out that with the introduction of the concept of a field, the laws of Coulomb and Ampere began to be expressed most fully, deeply and gracefully. In the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, Maxwell saw a new property of fields: an alternating magnetic field generates in empty space an electric field with closed lines of force (the so-called vortex electric field).

The next, and last, step in the discovery of the basic properties of the electromagnetic field was taken by Maxwell without any reliance on experiment. He made a brilliant guess that an alternating electric field generates a magnetic field, like an ordinary electric current (hypothesis of the displacement current). By 1869, all the basic laws governing the behavior of the electromagnetic field had been established and formulated as a system of four equations, called Maxwell's equations.

A fundamental conclusion followed from Maxwell's equations: the finiteness of the propagation velocity of electromagnetic interactions. This is the main thing that distinguishes the theory of short-range action from the theory of long-range action. The speed turned out to be equal to the speed of light in vacuum: 300,000 km/s. From this Maxwell concluded that light is a form of electromagnetic waves.

Works on the molecular-kinetic theory of gases

The role of Maxwell in the development and development of the molecular-kinetic theory (the modern name is statistical mechanics) is extremely great. Maxwell was the first to make a statement about the statistical nature of the laws of nature. In 1866 he discovered the first statistical law - the law of the distribution of molecules by velocities (Maxwell distribution). In addition, he calculated the values of the viscosity of gases depending on the velocities and mean free path of molecules, and derived a number of thermodynamic relations.

Maxwell was a brilliant popularizer of science. He wrote a number of articles for the Encyclopædia Britannica and popular books: "The Theory of Heat" (1870), "Matter and Motion" (1873), "Electricity in Elementary Presentation" (1881), which were translated into Russian; gave lectures and reports on physical topics for a wide audience. Maxwell also showed great interest in the history of science. In 1879 he published the works of G. Cavendish on electricity, providing them with extensive comments.

Appreciation of Maxwell's work

The works of the scientist were not appreciated by his contemporaries. Ideas about the existence of an electromagnetic field seemed arbitrary and unproductive. Only after G. Hertz in 1886-89 experimentally proved the existence of electromagnetic waves predicted by Maxwell, his theory received universal recognition. It happened ten years after Maxwell's death.

After experimental confirmation of the reality of the electromagnetic field, a fundamental scientific discovery was made: there are different types of matter, and each of them has its own laws that cannot be reduced to the laws of Newtonian mechanics. However, Maxwell himself was hardly clearly aware of this and at first he tried to build mechanical models of electromagnetic phenomena.

The American physicist R. Feynman said excellently about the role of Maxwell in the development of science: “In the history of mankind (if you look at it, say, in ten thousand years), the most significant event of the 19th century will undoubtedly be the discovery by Maxwell of the laws of electrodynamics. Against the backdrop of this important scientific opening, the civil war in America in the same decade will look like a provincial incident.

Maxwell is buried not in the tomb of the great people of England - Westminster Abbey - but in a modest grave next to his beloved church in a Scottish village, not far from the family estate.

James Clerk Maxwell (1831-79) - English physicist, creator of classical electrodynamics, one of the founders of statistical physics, organizer and first director (since 1871) of the Cavendish Laboratory, predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves, put forward the idea of the electromagnetic nature of light, established the first statistical law - the law of the distribution of molecules by velocities, named after him.

Developing the ideas of Michael Faraday, he created the theory of the electromagnetic field (Maxwell's equations); introduced the concept of displacement current, predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves, put forward the idea of the electromagnetic nature of light. Established a statistical distribution named after him. Investigated the viscosity, diffusion and thermal conductivity of gases. Maxwell showed that the rings of Saturn are composed of separate bodies. Proceedings on color vision and colorimetry (Maxwell's disk), optics (Maxwell's effect), theory of elasticity (Maxwell's theorem, Maxwell-Cremona diagram), thermodynamics, history of physics, etc.

Family. Years of study

James Maxwell was born June 13, 1831, in Edinburgh. He was the only son of the Scottish nobleman and lawyer John Clerk, who, having inherited the estate of a relative's wife, née Maxwell, added this name to his surname. After the birth of their son, the family moved to South Scotland, to their own estate Glenlar (“Shelter in the valley”), where the boy spent his childhood.

In 1841, his father sent James to a school called Edinburgh Academy. Here, at the age of 15, Maxwell wrote his first scientific article, "On the Drawing of Ovals." In 1847 he entered the University of Edinburgh, where he studied for three years, and in 1850 moved to the University of Cambridge, graduating in 1854. By this time, James Maxwell was a first-class mathematician with a superbly developed intuition of a physicist.

Creation of the Cavendish Laboratory. Teaching work

After graduation, James Maxwell was left in Cambridge for teaching work. In 1856 he received a professorship at Marishall College at the University of Aberdeen (Scotland). In 1860 he was elected a member of the Royal Society of London. In the same year he moved to London, accepting an offer to take the post of head of the department of physics at King's College, London University, where he worked until 1865.

Returning to Cambridge University in 1871, Maxwell organized and headed the first specially equipped laboratory in Great Britain for physical experiments, known as the Cavendish Laboratory (after the English scientist Henry Cavendish). The formation of this laboratory, which at the turn of the 19-20 centuries. turned into one of the largest centers of world science, Maxwell devoted the last years of his life.

In general, little is known about the life of Maxwell. Shy, modest, he strove to live in solitude and did not keep diaries. In 1858, James Maxwell married, but family life, apparently, was unsuccessful, exacerbated his unsociableness, alienated him from his former friends. There is an assumption that many important materials about the life of Maxwell were lost during the fire of 1929 in his Glenlar house, 50 years after his death. He died of cancer at the age of 48.

Scientific activity

Maxwell's unusually wide scope of scientific interests covered the theory of electromagnetic phenomena, the kinetic theory of gases, optics, the theory of elasticity, and much more. One of his first works was research on the physiology and physics of color vision and colorimetry, begun in 1852. In 1861, James Maxwell first obtained a color image by projecting red, green, and blue transparencies onto a screen at the same time. This proved the validity of the three-component theory of vision and outlined ways to create a color photograph. In the works of 1857-59, Maxwell theoretically investigated the stability of the rings of Saturn and showed that the rings of Saturn can be stable only if they consist of unrelated particles (bodies).

In 1855, D. Maxwell began a cycle of his main works on electrodynamics. The articles "On Faraday's lines of force" (1855-56), "On physical lines of force" (1861-62), "The dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field" (1869) were published. The research was completed with the publication of the two-volume monograph Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (1873).

Creation of the electromagnetic field theory

When James Maxwell began researching electrical and magnetic phenomena in 1855, many of them had already been well studied: in particular, the laws of interaction of stationary electric charges (Coulomb's law) and currents (Ampère's law) were established; it has been proved that magnetic interactions are interactions of moving electric charges. Most scientists of that time believed that the interaction is transmitted instantly, directly through the void (long-range theory).

A decisive turn towards the theory of short-range action was made by Michael Faraday in the 1930s. 19th century According to Faraday's ideas, an electric charge creates an electric field in the surrounding space. The field of one charge acts on another, and vice versa. The interaction of currents is carried out by means of a magnetic field. The distribution of electric and magnetic fields in space was described by Faraday with the help of lines of force, which, in his view, resemble ordinary elastic lines in a hypothetical medium - the world ether.

The first thing D.K. Maxwell - gave the ideas of Faraday a rigorous mathematical form, so necessary in physics. It turned out that with the introduction of the concept of a field, the laws of Coulomb and Ampere began to be expressed most fully, deeply and gracefully. In the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, Maxwell saw a new property of fields: an alternating magnetic field generates in empty space an electric field with closed lines of force (the so-called vortex electric field).

Maxwell's equations are the basic equations of classical macroscopic electrodynamics that describe electromagnetic phenomena in arbitrary media and in vacuum. Maxwell's equations were obtained by J.K. Maxwell in the 60s. 19th century as a result of generalization of the laws of electrical and magnetic phenomena found from experience.

Works on the molecular-kinetic theory of gases

The role of James Maxwell in the development and development of the molecular-kinetic theory (the modern name is statistical mechanics) is extremely great. Maxwell was the first to make a statement about the statistical nature of the laws of nature. In 1866 he discovered the first statistical law - the law of the distribution of molecules by velocities (Maxwell distribution). In addition, he calculated the values of the viscosity of gases depending on the velocities and mean free path of molecules, and derived a number of thermodynamic relations.

Maxwell's distribution - the distribution of the velocities of the molecules of the system in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium (provided that the translational motion of the molecules is described by the laws of classical mechanics). Established by J. K. Maxwell in 1859.

Maxwell was a brilliant popularizer of science. He wrote a number of articles for the Encyclopædia Britannica and popular books: The Theory of Heat (1870), Matter and Motion (1873), Electricity in Elementary Presentation (1881), which were translated into Russian; gave lectures and reports on physical topics for a wide audience. Maxwell also showed great interest in the history of science. In 1879 he published the works of G. Cavendish on electricity, providing them with extensive comments.

Appreciation of Maxwell's work

The works of the scientist were not appreciated by his contemporaries. Ideas about the existence of an electromagnetic field seemed arbitrary and unproductive. Only after Heinrich Hertz experimentally proved the existence of the electromagnetic waves predicted by Maxwell in 1886-89 did his theory gain general recognition. It happened ten years after Maxwell's death.

The American physicist Richard Feynman said excellently about the role of Maxwell in the development of science: “In the history of mankind (if you look at it, say, in ten thousand years), the most significant event of the 19th century will undoubtedly be the discovery by Maxwell of the laws of electrodynamics. Against the background of this important scientific discovery, the American Civil War in the same decade will look like a provincial incident.

James Maxwell passed away November 5, 1879, Cambridge. He is buried not in the tomb of the great people of England - Westminster Abbey - but in a modest grave next to his beloved church in a Scottish village, not far from the family estate.

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International University of Nature, Society and Man "Dubna"
Department of sustainable innovative development
RESEARCH WORK

on the topic of:

"James Clerk Maxwell's contributions to science"

Completed by: Pleshkova A.V., gr. 5103

Checked by: Bolshakov B.E.

Dubna, 2007

The formulas we arrive at must be such that a representative of any nation, substituting the numerical values of quantities measured in its national units instead of symbols, would get the correct result.

J.K.Maxwell

Biography 5

The discoveries of J.C. Maxwell 8

Edinburgh. 1831-1850 8

Childhood and school years 8

First discovery 9

Edinburgh University 9

Optical-mechanical research 9

1850-1856 Cambridge 10

Electricity lessons 10

Aberdeen 1856-1860 12

Treatise on the Rings of Saturn 12

London - Glenlare 1860-1871 13

First color photograph 13

Probability theory 14

Maxwell mechanical model 14

Electromagnetic Waves and Electromagnetic Theory of Light 15

Cambridge 1871-1879 16

Cavendish Laboratory 16

World recognition 17

Dimension 18

Law of Conservation of Power 22

List of used literature 23

Introduction

Today, the views of J.K. Maxwell, one of the greatest physicists of the past, whose name is associated with fundamental scientific achievements that are part of the golden fund of modern science, are of considerable interest. Maxwell is of interest to us as an outstanding methodologist and historian of science, who deeply understood the complexity and inconsistency of the process of scientific research. Analyzing the relationship between theory and reality, Maxwell exclaimed in shock: “But who will lead me into an even more hidden foggy area where Thought is combined with Fact, where we see the mental work of a mathematician and the physical action of molecules in their true relationship? Does not the road to them pass through the very lair of metaphysicians, littered with the remains of previous researchers and terrifying to every man of science? .. In our daily work we come to questions of the same kind as metaphysics, but without relying on the innate insight of our mind, we approach them prepared by a long adaptation of our way of thinking to the facts of external nature. (James Clerk Maxwell. Articles and speeches. M., "Science", 1968. P.5).

Biography

Born in the family of a Scottish nobleman from a noble family of Clerks. He studied first at Edinburgh (1847-1850), then at Cambridge (1850-1854) universities. In 1855 he became a member of the Council of Trinity College, in 1856-1860. He was a professor at Marishall College, Aberdeen University, from 1860 he headed the Department of Physics and Astronomy at King's College, University of London. In 1865, due to a serious illness, Maxwell resigned from the chair and settled in his family estate of Glenlar near Edinburgh. He continued to study science, wrote several essays on physics and mathematics. In 1871 he took the chair of experimental physics at the University of Cambridge. He organized a research laboratory, which opened on June 16, 1874 and was named Cavendish - in honor of G. Cavendish.

Maxwell completed his first scientific work while still at school, inventing a simple way to draw oval shapes. This work was reported at a meeting of the Royal Society and even published in its Proceedings. As a member of the Council of Trinity College, he experimented with color theory, acting as a successor to Jung's theory and Helmholtz's theory of the three primary colors. In experiments on mixing colors, Maxwell used a special top, the disk of which was divided into sectors painted in different colors (Maxwell's disk). When the spinning top rotated quickly, the colors merged: if the disk was painted over in the way the colors of the spectrum are located, it seemed white; if one half of it was painted red and the other half yellow, it appeared orange; mixing blue and yellow gave the impression of green. In 1860, Maxwell was awarded the Rumfoord Medal for his work on color perception and optics.

In 1857, the University of Cambridge announced a competition for the best work on the stability of Saturn's rings. These formations were discovered by Galileo at the beginning of the 17th century. and represented an amazing mystery of nature: the planet seemed to be surrounded by three continuous concentric rings, consisting of a substance of an unknown nature. Laplace proved that they cannot be solid. Having carried out a mathematical analysis, Maxwell was convinced that they could not be liquid either, and came to the conclusion that such a structure could be stable only if it consisted of a swarm of unrelated meteorites. The stability of the rings is ensured by their attraction to Saturn and the mutual motion of the planet and meteorites. For this work, Maxwell received the J. Adams Prize.

One of Maxwell's first works was his kinetic theory of gases. In 1859, the scientist made a presentation at a meeting of the British Association, in which he gave the distribution of molecules by velocities (Maxwellian distribution). Maxwell developed the ideas of his predecessor in the development of the kinetic theory of gases R. Clausius, who introduced the concept of "mean mean free path". Maxwell proceeded from the idea of a gas as an ensemble of perfectly elastic balls moving randomly in a closed space. The balls (molecules) can be divided into groups according to their velocities, while in the stationary state the number of molecules in each group remains constant, although they can leave the groups and enter them. It followed from such a consideration that "particles are distributed according to velocities according to the same law as the observation errors are distributed in the theory of the least squares method, i.e., in accordance with Gaussian statistics." As part of his theory, Maxwell explained Avogadro's law, diffusion, heat conduction, internal friction (transfer theory). In 1867 he showed the statistical nature of the second law of thermodynamics ("Maxwell's demon").

In 1831, the year of Maxwell's birth, M. Faraday carried out classical experiments that led him to the discovery of electromagnetic induction. Maxwell began to study electricity and magnetism about 20 years later, when there were two views on the nature of electric and magnetic effects. Scientists such as A. M. Ampere and F. Neumann adhered to the concept of long-range action, considering electromagnetic forces as an analogue of gravitational attraction between two masses. Faraday was a proponent of the idea of lines of force that connect positive and negative electric charges, or the north and south poles of a magnet. The lines of force fill the entire surrounding space (the field, in Faraday's terminology) and determine the electrical and magnetic interactions. Following Faraday, Maxwell developed a hydrodynamic model of lines of force and expressed the then known relations of electrodynamics in a mathematical language corresponding to Faraday's mechanical models. The main results of this study are reflected in the work "Faraday's Lines of Force" (Faraday's Lines of Force, 1857). In 1860-1865. Maxwell created the theory of the electromagnetic field, which he formulated as a system of equations (Maxwell's equations) describing the basic laws of electromagnetic phenomena: the 1st equation expressed Faraday's electromagnetic induction; 2nd - magnetoelectric induction, discovered by Maxwell and based on the concepts of displacement currents; 3rd - the law of conservation of the amount of electricity; 4th - vortex nature of the magnetic field.

Continuing to develop these ideas, Maxwell came to the conclusion that any changes in the electric and magnetic fields must cause changes in the lines of force penetrating the surrounding space, that is, there must be impulses (or waves) propagating in the medium. The speed of propagation of these waves (electromagnetic disturbance) depends on the dielectric and magnetic permeability of the medium and is equal to the ratio of the electromagnetic unit to the electrostatic unit. According to Maxwell and other researchers, this ratio is 3×1010 cm/s, which is close to the speed of light measured seven years earlier by the French physicist A. Fizeau. In October 1861, Maxwell informed Faraday of his discovery that light is an electromagnetic disturbance propagating in a non-conductive medium, i.e. a type of electromagnetic wave. This final stage of research is outlined in Maxwell's "Dynamic Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" (Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, 1864), and the famous "Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism" summed up his work on electrodynamics. (1873)

The last years of his life, Maxwell was engaged in preparing for printing and publishing the manuscript heritage of Cavendish. Two large volumes appeared in October 1879.

Discoveries of J.K. Maxwell

Edinburgh. 1831-1850

Childhood and school years

June 13, 1831 in Edinburgh at number 14, India Street, Frances Kay, the daughter of an Edinburgh judge, after marriage - Mrs. Clerk Maxwell, gave birth to a son, James. On this day, nothing significant happened in the whole world, the main event of 1831 has not yet happened. But for eleven years, the brilliant Faraday has been trying to comprehend the secrets of electromagnetism, and only now, in the summer of 1831, he attacked the trail of the elusive electromagnetic induction, and James will be only four months old when Faraday will sum up his experiment "to obtain electricity from magnetism." And thus will open a new era - the era of electricity. The era for which little James, a descendant of the glorious families of Scottish Clerks and Maxwells, will have to live and create.

James's father, John Clerk Maxwell, a lawyer by profession, hated the law and had a distaste, as he himself said, for "dirty lawyer business." As soon as the opportunity arose, John stopped his endless shuffling through the marble lobbies of Edinburgh Court and devoted himself to scientific experiments, which he casually engaged in amateurly. He was an amateur, he was aware of this and was deeply worried. John was in love with science, with scientists, with practical people, with his learned grandfather George. It was the attempts to design blower bellows, which were carried out jointly with his brother Francaise Kay, that brought him to his future wife; the wedding took place on October 4, 1826. Blower bellows never worked, but a son, James, was born.

When James was eight, his mother died and he stayed with his father. His childhood is filled with nature, communication with his father, books, stories about relatives, "scientific toys", the first "discoveries". James' relatives were worried that he did not receive a systematic education: casual reading of everything that is in the house, astronomy lessons on the porch of the house and in the living room, where James and his father built a "celestial globe". After an unsuccessful attempt to study with a private teacher, from whom James often ran away to more exciting pursuits, it was decided to send him to study in Edinburgh.

Although educated at home, James met the high standards of the Edinburgh Academy and was enrolled there in November 1841. His performance in the classroom was far from brilliant. He could easily have done better tasks, but the spirit of competition in unpleasant pursuits was deeply alien to him. After the very first day of school, he did not get along with his classmates, and therefore, more than anything, James liked to be alone and examine the surrounding objects. One of the most striking events, undoubtedly brightening up the dull school days, was a visit with his father to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, where the first "electromagnetic machines" were exhibited.

The Royal Society of Edinburgh changed James' life: it was there that he received his first concepts of the pyramid, cube, and other regular polyhedra. The perfection of symmetry, the regular transformations of geometric bodies changed James' concept of teaching - he saw in teaching the grain of beauty and perfection. When it was time for the exams, the students of the academy were amazed - the "fool", as they called Maxwell, became one of the first.

First discovery

If earlier his father occasionally took James to his favorite entertainment - meetings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, now visiting this society, as well as the Edinburgh Society of Arts with James, has become regular and mandatory for him. At the meetings of the Society of the Arts, the most famous, crowd-drawing lecturer was Mr. D.R. Hey, decorator. It was his lectures that prompted James to his first major discovery - a simple tool for drawing ovals. James found an original and at the same time very simple way, and most importantly, a completely new one. He described the principle of his method in a short "article" that was read at the Royal Society of Edinburgh - an honor that many sought, and was awarded to a fourteen-year-old schoolboy.

Edinburgh University

Optical-mechanical research

In 1847, training at the Edinburgh Academy ends, James is one of the first, the insults and worries of the first years are forgotten.

After graduating from the academy, James enters the University of Edinburgh. At the same time, he became seriously interested in optical research. Brewster's statements led James to the idea that the study of the path of rays can be used to determine the elasticity of the medium in different directions, to detect stresses in transparent materials. Thus, the study of mechanical stresses can be reduced to an optical study. Two beams separated in a tense transparent material will interact, giving rise to characteristic colorful pictures. James showed that color pictures are quite natural in nature and can be used for calculations, for checking previously derived formulas, for deriving new ones. It turned out that some of the formulas were incorrect or inaccurate or needed to be corrected.

Fig. 1 Stress pattern in a stele triangle obtained by James using polarized light.

Moreover, James was able to uncover patterns in cases where previously nothing could be done due to mathematical difficulties. The transparent and loaded triangle of untempered glass (Fig. 1) gave James the opportunity to investigate the stresses in this uncalculable case as well.

Nineteen-year-old James Clerk Maxwell first took the podium of the Edinburgh Royal Society. His report could not go unnoticed: he contained too much new and original.

1850-1856 Cambridge

Electricity lessons

Now no one questioned the talent of James. He had clearly outgrown the University of Edinburgh, and therefore entered Cambridge in the fall of 1850. In January 1854, James graduated with honors from the university with a bachelor's degree. He decides to stay at Cambridge to prepare for a professorship. Now, when he does not have to study for exams, he gets the long-awaited opportunity to spend all his time on experiments, continues his research in the field of optics. He is especially interested in the question of primary colors. Maxwell's first article was called "Color Theory in Connection with Color Blindness" and was not even actually an article, but a letter. Maxwell sent it to Dr. Wilson, who found the letter so interesting that he took care of its publication: he placed it in its entirety in his book on color blindness. And yet James is unconsciously attracted to deeper mysteries, things far more unobvious than the mixing of colors. It was electricity, due to its intriguing incomprehensibility, inevitably, sooner or later, was to attract the energy of his young mind. James grasped the fundamental principles of strained electricity quite easily. Having studied Ampere's theory of long-range action, he, despite its apparent irrefutability, allowed himself to doubt it. The long-range theory seemed unquestionably fair, since was confirmed by the formal similarity of laws, mathematical expressions for seemingly different phenomena - gravitational and electrical interaction. But this theory, more mathematical than physical, did not convince James, he was more and more inclined towards the Faraday perception of action through the medium of magnetic lines of force filling space, towards the theory of short-range action.

Trying to create a theory, Maxwell decided to use the method of physical analogies for research. First of all, it was necessary to find the right analogy. Maxwell always admired the analogy that was then only noticed between the problems of attraction of electrically charged bodies and the problems of steady heat transfer. This, as well as Faraday's ideas of short-range action, the Amperian magnetic action of closed conductors, James gradually built into a new theory, unexpected and bold.

At Cambridge, James is assigned to teach the most difficult chapters in hydrostatics and optics to the most able students. In addition, he was distracted from electrical theories by work on a book on optics. Maxwell soon comes to the conclusion that optics no longer interests him as before, but only distracts from the study of electromagnetic phenomena.

Continuing to look for an analogy, James compares the lines of force with the flow of some incompressible fluid. The theory of tubes from hydrodynamics made it possible to replace lines of force with tubes of force, which easily explained Faraday's experiment. The concepts of resistance, the phenomena of electrostatics, magnetostatics and electric current easily and simply fit into the framework of Maxwell's theory. But the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction discovered by Faraday did not fit into this theory.

James had to abandon his theory for a while due to the deterioration of his father's condition, which required care. When, after the death of his father, James returned to Cambridge, he could not get a higher master's degree because of his religion. Therefore, in October 1856, James Maxwell took over the chair at Aberdeen.

Aberdeen 1856-1860

A Treatise on the Rings of Saturn

It was in Aberdeen that the first work on electricity was written - the article "On Faraday's lines of force", which led to an exchange of opinions on electromagnetic phenomena with Faraday himself.

When James began his studies in Aberdeen, a new problem had already matured in his head, which no one could solve yet, a new phenomenon that had to be explained. These were Saturn's rings. To determine their physical nature, to determine them from millions of kilometers away, without any instruments whatsoever, using only paper and pen - it was a task, as it were, for him. The hypothesis of a solid rigid ring was dropped immediately. The liquid ring would break up under the influence of giant waves that arose in it - and as a result, according to James Clerk Maxwell, a host of small satellites, "brick fragments", according to his perception, most likely hovers around Saturn. For a treatise on the rings of Saturn, James was awarded the Adams Prize in 1857, and he himself is recognized as one of the most respected English theoretical physicists.

Fig.2 Saturn. Photo taken with a 36-inch refractor at the Lick Observatory.

Fig.3 Mechanical models illustrating the movement of Saturn's rings. Drawings from Maxwell's essay "On the stability of the rotation of the rings of Saturn"

London - Glenlare 1860-1871

First color photograph

In 1860, a new stage in the life of Maxwell begins. He is appointed to the position of Professor of Natural Philosophy at King's College London. Kings College, in terms of the equipment of its physics laboratories, was ahead of many universities in the world. Here Maxwell is not just in 1864-1865. taught a course in applied physics, here he tried to organize the educational process in a new way. Students learned through experimentation. In London, James Clerk Maxwell tasted for the first time the fruits of his recognition as a great scientist. For research on color mixing and optics, the Royal Society awarded Maxwell the Rumfoord Medal. On May 17, 1861, Maxwell was offered the high honor of giving a lecture before the Royal Institution. The theme of the lecture is "On the theory of the three primary colors." In this lecture, as proof of this theory, a color photograph was shown to the world for the first time!

Probability theory

At the end of the Aberdeen period and at the beginning of the London period, Maxwell had, along with optics and electricity, a new hobby - the theory of gases. Working on this theory, Maxwell introduces into physics such concepts as "probably", "this event can happen with a greater degree of probability."

There was a revolution in physics, and many listeners of Maxwell's reports at the annual meetings of the British Association did not even notice it. On the other hand, Maxwell approached the limits of the mechanical understanding of matter. And crossed them. Maxwell's conclusion about the dominance of the laws of probability in the world of molecules affected the most fundamental foundations of the worldview. The claim that the world of molecules is "chance-dominated" was, in its audacity, one of the greatest feats of science.

Maxwell mechanical model

Work at King's College was already much longer than at Aberdeen - the lecture course lasted nine months a year. However, at this time, thirty-year-old James Clerk Maxwell sketches out the plan for his future book on electricity. This is the germ of the future Treatise. He devotes the first chapters of it to his predecessors: Oersted, Ampère, Faraday. Trying to explain the Faraday theory of lines of force, the induction of electric currents and Oersted's theory of the vortex nature of the nature of magnetic phenomena, Maxwell creates his own mechanical model (Fig. 5).

The model represented rows of molecular vortices rotating in one direction, between which a layer of the smallest spherical particles capable of rotation was placed. Despite its cumbersomeness, the model explained many electromagnetic phenomena, including electromagnetic induction. The model was sensational in that it explained the theory of the action of a magnetic field at a right angle with respect to the direction of the current, formulated by Maxwell (“the gimlet rule”).

Fig. 4 Maxwell eliminates the interaction of neighboring vortices A and B rotating in the same direction, introducing “idle gears” between them

Fig.5 Maxwell's mechanical model for explaining electromagnetic phenomena.

Electromagnetic Waves and Electromagnetic Theory of Light

Continuing experiments with electromagnets, Maxwell approached the theory that any changes in electric and magnetic forces send waves propagating in space.

After the series of articles "On Physical Lines" Maxwell already had, in fact, all the material for constructing a new theory of electromagnetism. Now for the electromagnetic field theory. Gears and whirlwinds have completely disappeared. The field equations were for Maxwell no less real and tangible than the results of laboratory experiments. Now both Faraday's electromagnetic induction and Maxwell's displacement current were derived not with the help of mechanical models, but with the help of mathematical operations.

According to Faraday, a change in the magnetic field leads to the appearance of an electric field. A surge in the magnetic field causes a surge in the electric field.

A surge of an electric wave gives rise to a surge of a magnetic wave. So for the first time from the pen of a thirty-three-year-old prophet, electromagnetic waves appeared in 1864, but not yet in the form in which we understand them now. Maxwell spoke in an 1864 paper only of magnetic waves. An electromagnetic wave in the full sense of the word, including both electrical and magnetic perturbations, appeared in Maxwell later, in his article in 1868.

In another article by Maxwell - "Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" - the electromagnetic theory of light outlined even earlier acquired a clear outline and evidence. Based on his own research and the experience of other scientists (and most of all Faraday), Maxwell concludes that the optical properties of the medium are related to its electromagnetic properties, and light is nothing but electromagnetic waves.

In 1865, Maxwell decides to leave King's College. He settled in his family estate of Glenmare, where he was engaged in the main works of life - the Theory of Heat and the Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. All the time is devoted to them. These were the years of hermitage, the years of complete detachment from the hustle and bustle, serving only science, the most fruitful, bright, creative years. However, Maxwell is again drawn to work at the university, and he accepts an offer made to him by the University of Cambridge.

Cambridge 1871-1879

Cavendish Laboratory

In 1870, the Duke of Devonshire declared to the University Senate his desire to build and equip a physics laboratory. And it was to be headed by a world-famous scientist. This scientist was James Clerk Maxwell. In 1871, he began work on equipping the famous Cavendish Laboratory. During these years, his "Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism" was finally published. More than a thousand pages, where Maxwell gives a description of scientific experiments, an overview of all the theories of electricity and magnetism created until then, as well as the "Basic Equations of the Electromagnetic Field". On the whole, the main ideas of the Treatise were not accepted in England; even friends did not understand it. Maxwell's ideas were picked up by the young. Maxwell's theory made a great impression on Russian scientists. Everyone knows the role of Umov, Stoletov, Lebedev in the development and strengthening of Maxwell's theory.

June 16, 1874 - the day of the grand opening of the Cavendish Laboratory. The following years were marked by growing recognition.

World recognition

In 1870, Maxwell was elected an honorary doctor of literature from the University of Edinburgh, in 1874 - a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in Boston, in 1875 - a member of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia, and also becomes an honorary member of the academies of New York, Amsterdam, Vienna . For the next five years, Maxwell edited and prepared twenty sets of Henry Cavendish manuscripts for publication.

In 1877, Maxwell felt the first signs of illness, and in May 1879 he delivered his last lecture to his students.

Dimension

In his famous treatise on electricity and magnetism (see Moscow, "Nauka", 1989), Maxwell turned to the problem of the dimension of physical quantities and laid the foundations for their kinetic system. The peculiarity of this system is the presence in it of only two parameters: length L and time T. All known (and unknown today!) Values are represented in it as integer powers of L and T. Fractional indicators that appear in the formulas of dimensions of other systems, devoid of physical content and logical sense, in this system are absent.

In accordance with the requirements of J. Maxwell, A. Poincaré, N. Bohr, A. Einstein, V. I. Vernadsky, R. Bartini a physical quantity is universal if and only if its connection with space and time is clearmenem. And, nevertheless, before J. Maxwell's treatise "On Electricity and Magnetism" (1873), the relationship between the dimension of mass and length and time was not established.

Since the dimension for the mass was introduced by Maxwell (along with the designation in square brackets), let us quote an excerpt from the work of Maxwell himself: “Any expression for any quantity consists of two factors or components. One of these is the name of some known quantity of the same type as the quantity we are expressing. She is taken as reference standard. The other component is a number indicating how many times the standard must be applied to obtain the required value. The reference standard value is called e unit, and the corresponding number is h word value of this magnitude."

"ON THE MEASUREMENT OF VALUES"

1. Any expression for any quantity consists of two factors or components. One of these is the name of some known quantity of the same type as the quantity we are expressing. She is taken as reference standard. The other component is a number indicating how many times the standard must be applied to obtain the required value. The reference standard value is called in engineering unit, and the corresponding number - Numeric Meaning given value.

2. When constructing a mathematical system, we consider the basic units - length, time and mass - given, and derive all derived units from them using the simplest acceptable definitions.

Therefore, in all scientific research it is very important to use units that belong to a properly defined system, as well as to know their relationship with the basic units, in order to be able to immediately convert the results of one system to another.

Knowing the dimensions of the units provides us with a test to be applied to equations derived from long studies.

The dimension of each of the terms of the equation with respect to each of the three basic units must be the same. If this is not so, then the equation is meaningless, it contains some kind of error, since its interpretation turns out to be different and depends on the arbitrary system of units that we accept.

Three basic units:

(1) LENGTH. The standard of length used in our country for scientific purposes is the foot, which is one third of the standard yard kept in the Treasury.

In France and other countries that have adopted the metric system, the standard for length is the meter. Theoretically, this is one ten millionth of the length of the earth's meridian, measured from the pole to the equator; in practice, this is the length of the standard stored in Paris, made by Borda (Borda) in such a way that at the melting temperature of ice it corresponds to the value of the meridian length obtained by d'Alembert. Measurements reflecting new and more accurate measurements of the Earth are not entered in meters, on the contrary, the meridian arc itself is calculated in original meters.

In astronomy, the average distance from the Earth to the Sun is sometimes taken as a unit of length.

In the present state of science, the most universal standard of length that could be proposed would be the wavelength of a certain kind of light emitted by some widely distributed substance (for example, sodium) that has clearly identifiable lines in its spectrum. Such a standard would be independent of any change in the size of the earth, and should be accepted by those who hope that their writings will prove more durable than this celestial body.

When working with dimensions of units, we will denote the unit of length as [ L]. If the numerical value of the length is equal to l, then this is understood as a value expressed through a certain unit [ L], so that the entire true length is represented as l [ L].

(2) TIME. In all civilized countries, the standard unit of time is derived from the period of rotation of the Earth around its axis. The sidereal day, or the true period of the earth's revolution, can be determined with great accuracy by ordinary astronomical observations, and the mean solar day can be calculated from the sidereal day by our knowledge of the length of the year.

The second of mean solar time is accepted as the unit of time in all physical studies.

In astronomy, a year is sometimes taken as a unit of time. A more universal unit of time could be established by taking the period of oscillation of the very light whose wavelength is equal to a unit length.

We will refer to a specific unit of time as [ T], and the numerical measure of time is denoted by t.

(3) WEIGHT. In our country, the standard unit of mass is the reference commercial pound (avoirdupois pound), kept in the Treasury Chamber. Often used as a unit, the grain is one 7,000th of that pound.

In the metric system, the unit of mass is the gram; theoretically it is the mass of a cubic centimeter of distilled water at standard temperatures and pressures, but in practice it is one thousandth of the reference kilogram stored in Paris*.

But if, as is done in the French system, a certain substance, namely water, is taken as the standard of density, then the unit of mass ceases to be independent, but changes like a unit of volume, i.e. how [ L 3]. If, as in the astronomical system, the unit of mass is expressed through the force of its attraction, then the dimension [ M] turns out to be [ L 3 T-2]".

Maxwell shows that mass can be excluded from the number of basic dimensional quantities. This is achieved through two definitions of the concept of "power":

1) and 2) .

By equating these two expressions and assuming the gravitational constant to be a dimensionless quantity, Maxwell obtains:

, [M] = [L 3 T 2 ].

Mass turned out to be a space-time quantity. Its dimension: volume with angular acceleration(or density having the same dimension ).

The value of the mass began to satisfy requirement of universality. It became possible to express all other physical quantities in space-time units.

In 1965, in the journal "Reports of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR" (No. 4), an article by R. Bartini "Kinematic system of physical quantities" was published. These results have exceptional value for the problem under discussion.

Law of conservation of power

Lagrange, 1789; Maxwell, 1855.

In general terms, the power conservation law is written as the invariance of the power value:

From the total power equationN = P + G it follows that useful power and loss power are projectively inverse, and therefore any change in free energy compensated by the change in power losses under full power control .

The resulting conclusion gives reason to represent the law of conservation of power in the form of a scalar equation:

Where .

The change in the active flow is compensated by the difference between losses and receipts in the system.

Thus, the mechanism of an open system removes the restrictions of closure, and thus provides the possibility of further movement of the system. However, this mechanism does not show the possible directions of movement - the evolution of systems. Therefore, it must be supplemented by the mechanisms of evolving and non-evolving systems or non-equilibrium and equilibrium ones.