Strait between France and Great Britain. Analysis of the navigational support of the vessel's navigation along the route: Port of Genoa. Crossing the strait by swimming

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English Channel. Between England and France

The English Channel is one of the most famous maritime shipping routes in the world. Cliffs drop sheer into its waters on the French coast, in Normandy.

The English Channel is called by the French and the whole world. The English - with the patriotism of the islanders and perseverance, worthy of respect. - they call this strait the English Channel.


Looking at history, one might think that the strait itself “plays” for England, because it saved her many times from continental invaders. However, the English Channel is equally harsh to everyone: its waters have become the grave of millions of people and ships. However, at the end of the XX century. he still managed to be tamed, the breakthrough of the tunnel is one of the longest in the world.

WATER BARRIER

The English Channel is a French name. The British call this strait the British or (in direct translation) the English Channel. The latter has an older origin:
The ancient Romans called the body of water separating Britain from the continent Mare Britannicum, or the British Sea.


In the II century. BC e. the ancient Greek scientist Herodotus called this water isthmus "Oceanus Britannicus". An interesting situation has developed around the name "English Channel". The French version has been known since the 17th century. and means sleeve. The Spaniards called the strait El Canal de la Mancha, the Portuguese called Canal da Mancha, the Italians La Manica, the Germans Ermelkanal.

The desire of each of the peoples to remake the name in their own way betrayed a persistent desire to claim ownership of these small, but significant waters. Control of the strait provided colossal advantages. Firstly, it was the closest route to England, and secondly, the shortest route to the Baltic Sea. Despite the wayward nature of the English Channel - frequent fogs, gale-force winds, high tides and treacherous currents - political and commercial importance outweighed all natural barriers.

According to the most rough estimates, the remains of several million people and tens of thousands of ships lie at the bottom of the strait: from Roman galleys to diesel submarines. Such is the price of the centuries-old battle for the strait.

None of this would have happened if the British Isles had remained part of continental Europe 10,000 years ago, during the last glaciation (Pleistocene). But the land in these places lay 120 m below sea level, and as the glaciers melted, water filled the lowlands, forming what we now call the English Channel.

In times of peace, the strait served a noble purpose: it was a kind of water bridge, through which there was a cultural exchange between the Celts and the peoples of inner Europe, contributing to the formation of new languages ​​and nationalities. This is indicated by the obvious similarity of many dialects and customs common on both sides of the strait.

However, in difficult times for the population of Britain, the strait became a natural barrier to the conquerors, although not for everyone. The ancient Romans managed to successfully cross the strait and conquer Britain in the 1st century BC. n. e., Normans in 1066, William III of Orange in 1688

Beginning with Elizabeth I (1533-1603), the policy of the English kings in the area of ​​the strait was to prevent an invasion of England from the continent. To do this, the British ensured that none of the major European powers controlled important ports on the other side of the strait. The formation of the British Empire would have been impossible if the British had not established the most severe control over the English Channel in their time.

The rise of England as "Queen of the Seas" began after 1588, when the Spanish "Invincible Armada" perished along its coast, partly in the English Channel, where it was covered by one of the fierce English Channel storms. On the occasion of the victory, Queen Elizabeth III ordered the minting of a medal with the Latin inscription Adflavit Deus et dissipati sunt ("God blew - and they scattered").

France tried twice more to conquer England: during the Seven Years' War (1756-63) and during the Napoleonic Wars (1800-15). Both times the "guests from the continent" gathered a huge fleet, but never invaded the island. A significant role was played here by all the same famous English Channel winds and storms, which, to spite the French, began on the most favorable day for the invasion.

Whatever name the strait bears and whoever it belongs to, it applies equally to sailors on both sides. Hurricane winds, heavy rain, giant waves, high tides and thick fog are common in quiet places. Before the opening of the Eurotunnel, bad weather created big problems for the ferries.

NEW HORIZONS

20th century showed that the importance of the English Channel as a defensive line did not decrease at all even with the development of aviation and rocket science. But with the end of the era of world wars, the English Channel again became a link between England and Europe.

Fisher, First Lord of the British Admiralty, declared shortly before the outbreak of the First World War: "Five keys keep the world shut: Singapore, Cape Town, Alexandria, Gibraltar and Dover." The importance of the English Channel port of Dover remained decisive for the defense of the strait.

On July 25, 1909, Frenchman Louis Blériot crossed the English Channel for the first time in his monoplane, starting at Calais and landing at Dover. The British were made clear that the English Channel was no longer an insurmountable barrier to enemy forces. In addition, Germany began to hastily build submarines, which was an even greater threat to England. The British had to fight on land in order to get close to the German submarine bases, but only in 1918, when the war was drawing to a close, the threat of an invasion of England from under the water was finally eliminated during the famous Zeebrugee Raid and the complete naval blockade of Germany .

During World War II, the theater of operations at sea moved to the Atlantic, as the shallow waters and narrow inlets of the English Channel were too dangerous for large-capacity ships. Having abandoned a direct invasion (Operation Sea Lion), the German troops concentrated on submarine warfare, laying minefields and rocket-and-artillery attacks on England across the strait.

In May 1940, the British Expeditionary Force, which fought on the side of France, retreated through Dunkirk along with the remnants of the French army under the onslaught of the advancing German army. It was the most ambitious rescue operation in the history of wars: in just a few days, 338 thousand soldiers were evacuated during Operation Dainemo

During 1940-1945, the Germans built the most powerful fortifications on the continental side of the strait, called the Atlantic Wall. Many have survived to this day, becoming tourist attractions. German troops managed to occupy several islands in the strait, but did not advance further. The Atlantic Wall fell in 1944, during the opening of the Second Front and the implementation of Operation Overlord to land Allied troops in Normandy.

After the end of the war and with the beginning of the unification of Europe, the issue of transport links between the British Isles and the continent became acute. Ferry crossings were morally and technologically outdated and could not cope with the transportation of goods, cars and railway cars. About 3.5 million people lived on the banks of the English Channel, in dire need of a modern crossing.

The idea of ​​building a tunnel under the English Channel has a long history. Back in 1802, the French engineer Albert Mathieu-Favier proposed a project for a tunnel for traveling in carriages by the light of oil lamps. There were other projects, and even construction began: twice in 1876 and 1922, but both times the construction was frozen for political reasons.

Tunnel in the English Channel, "Channel"

The new project was launched in 1973. The underground crossing was opened in 1994 and was named the Eurotunnel. This is a double-track railway with a length of about 51 km (39 km under the English Channel). Thanks to the tunnel, it is now possible to get from Paris to London in 2 hours and 15 minutes; in the tunnel itself, the trains are 20-35 min.

Channel Tunnel photography

1. The Channel Tunnel is the world's longest underwater tunnel that runs under the English Channel and connects England with France.

2. The length of the tunnel is 50 kilometers, 38 of them are laid under the seabed. The tunnel under the strait was opened in 1994 as part of a modern transport system.

3. Over the past 200 years, many ways have been proposed to overcome the English Channel. The tunnel project was proposed in 1802, and after 90 years the development of the project began.

4. Even Napoleon III suggested crossing the strait. So Queen Victoria, in agreement with Napoleon III, approved a new French tunnel plan in 1860, and construction began, however, the tunnel did not advance further than 2 km.

5. Now there are three tunnels: two railway and one service, the distance between each is 30 meters. On the English coast, work began in December 1987, and on the French coast a little later. Both sides spent a month laying each kilometer. The tunneling took three years.

6. The tunnels are laid 45 meters below the seabed.

7. Thanks to the tunnel, you can easily visit London from Paris in just 2 hours and 15 minutes, given that the trains are in the tunnel itself from 20 to 35 minutes.

8. The diameter of the tunnels is 7.3 meters, the length of each tunnel is about 50 kilometers, of which 38 pass under the water.

9. The tunnel under the Channel is a truly grandiose tunnel, it is also called the "Eurotunnel".

10. Cars carry trains, cars simply enter special cars and leave at the other end.

11. The tunnel was opened in 1994 on May 6, Elizabeth II and President Mitterrand. This is how we saw the Channel Tunnel and its photographs.

CURIOUS FACTS

Herds Deep - a depression at the bottom of the English Channel - was used by the British during the First World War to bury chemical weapons. After the Second World War, German weapons were flooded here. Similar operations continued until 1974. In the period 1946-73. the depression was used to flood radioactive waste.

Eurostar trains travel through the Eurotunnel at a speed of 160 km/h.

The Channel Islands, which are part of the two crown dependencies of Jersey and Guernsey, are under the jurisdiction of the British monarchy, but are not part of the UK and are not part of the EU, although they are part of the customs territory of the EU.

On about. Sark (Channel Islands) until 2008, the feudal system of government was preserved - the last in Europe. The island was governed by a council of elders.

The giant sea eel, or conger, living in the English Channel, reaches a length of 3 m and weighs more than 100 kg

On about. Alderney (Channel Islands) operates the only railway on the islands. Built in 1847, 3 km long, open only in summer, on weekends
and holidays.

British swimmer Matthew Webb was the first in the history of mankind to cross the English Channel in 1875 in 21 hours and 45 minutes. The slowest swim across the strait - 28 hours 44 minutes. (Jackie Cobell, UK, 2010).

In the II century, BC. e. the ancient Greek scientist Herodotus called this water isthmus "Oceanus Britannicus".
An interesting situation has developed around the name "English Channel". The French version has been known since the 17th century. and means sleeve. The Spaniards called the strait El Canal de la Mancha, the Portuguese called Canal da Mancha, the Italians La Manica, the Germans Ermelkanal.
The desire of each of the peoples to remake the name in their own way betrayed a persistent desire to claim ownership of these small, but significant waters. Control of the strait provided colossal advantages. Firstly, it was the closest way to England, and secondly, the shortest way to. Despite the wayward nature of the English Channel - frequent fogs, gale-force winds, high tides and treacherous currents - political and commercial importance outweighed all natural barriers.
According to the most rough estimates, the remains of several million people and tens of thousands of ships lie at the bottom of the strait: from Roman galleys to diesel submarines. Such is the price of the centuries-old battle for the strait.
None of this would have happened if the British Isles had remained part of continental Europe 10,000 years ago, during the last glaciation (Pleistocene). But the land in these places lay 120 m below sea level, and as the glaciers melted, water filled the lowlands, forming what we now call the English Channel.
In times of peace, the strait served a noble purpose: it was a kind of water bridge, through which there was a cultural exchange between the Celts and the peoples of inner Europe, contributing to the formation of new languages ​​and nationalities. This is indicated by the obvious similarity of many dialects and customs common on both sides of the strait.
However, in difficult times for the population of Britain, the strait became a natural barrier to the conquerors, although not for everyone. The ancient Romans managed to successfully cross the strait and conquer Britain in the 1st century BC. n. e., Normans in 1066, William III of Orange in 1688.
Beginning with Elizabeth I (1533-1603), the policy of the English kings in the area of ​​the strait was to prevent an invasion of England from the continent. To do this, the British ensured that none of the major European powers controlled important ports on the other side of the strait. The formation of the British Empire would have been impossible if the British had not established the most severe control over the English Channel in their time.
The rise of England as "Queen of the Seas" began after 1588, when the Spanish "Invincible Armada" perished along its coast, partly in the English Channel, where it was covered by one of the fierce English Channel storms. On the occasion of the victory, Queen Elizabeth III ordered the minting of a medal with the Latin inscription Adflavit Deus et dissipati sunt ("God blew and they scattered").
France tried twice more to conquer England: during the Seven Years' War (1756-63) and during the Napoleonic Wars (1800-15). Both times the "guests from the continent" gathered a huge fleet, but never invaded the island. A significant role was played here by all the same famous English Channel winds and storms, which, to spite the French, began on the most favorable day for the invasion.
Fisher, First Lord of the British Admiralty, declared shortly before the outbreak of the First World War: "Five keys keep the world shut: Singapore, Cape Town, Alexandria, Gibraltar and Dover." The importance of the English Channel port of Dover remained decisive for the defense of the strait.
On July 25, 1909, Frenchman Louis Blériot crossed the English Channel for the first time in his monoplane, starting at Calais and landing at Dover. The British were made clear that the English Channel was no longer an insurmountable barrier to enemy troops. In addition, Germany began to hastily build submarines, which was an even greater threat to England. The British had to fight on land in order to get close to the German submarine bases, but only in 1918, when the war was drawing to a close, the threat of an invasion of England from under the water was finally eliminated during the famous Zeebrugee Raid and the complete naval blockade of Germany .
During World War II, the theater of operations at sea moved to the Atlantic, as the shallow waters and narrow inlets of the English Channel were too dangerous for large-capacity ships. Having abandoned a direct invasion (Operation Sea Lion), the German troops concentrated on submarine warfare, laying minefields and rocket and artillery shelling of England across the strait.
In May 1940, the British Expeditionary Force, which fought on the side of France, retreated through Dunkirk along with the remnants of the French army under the onslaught of the advancing German army. It was the most ambitious rescue operation in the history of wars: in just a few days, 338,000 soldiers were evacuated during Operation Dainemo.
During 1940-1945, the Germans built the most powerful fortifications on the continental side of the strait, called the Atlantic Wall. Many have survived to this day, becoming tourist attractions. German troops managed to occupy several islands in the strait, but did not advance further. The Atlantic Wall fell in 1944, during the opening of the Second Front and the implementation of Operation Overlord to land Allied troops in Normandy.
After the end of the war and with the beginning of the unification of Europe, the issue of transport links between the British Isles and the continent became acute. Ferry crossings were morally and technologically outdated and could not cope with the transportation of goods, cars and railway cars. About 3.5 million people lived on the banks of the English Channel, in dire need of a modern crossing.
The idea of ​​building a tunnel under the English Channel has a long history. Back in 1802, the French engineer Albert Mathieu-Favier proposed a project for a tunnel for traveling in carriages by the light of oil lamps. There were other projects, and even construction began: twice in 1876 and 1922. But both times the construction was frozen for political reasons.
The new project was launched in 1973. The underground crossing was opened in 1994 and was named the Eurotunnel. This is a double-track railway with a length of about 51 km (39 km under the English Channel). Thanks to the tunnel, it is now possible to get from Paris to London in 2 hours and 15 minutes; in the tunnel itself, the trains are 20-35 min.

general information

The English Channel, together with the Pas de Calais, connects the North Sea with the Atlantic Ocean

The most important ports: Great Britain- Portsmouth, Southampton, Dover; France- Le Havre, Calais, Cherbourg, Dunkirk, Dieppe, Boulogne-sur-Mer.
Largest islands: Isle of Wight (Great Britain), (Jersey and Guernsey), under the jurisdiction of Great Britain, off the coast of France.
Peninsulas: Cornwall (UK), Cotentin (France).
Rivers flowing into the strait: Seine, Somme, Orna, Vira (France); Ex, Dort, Tamer, Fal (Great Britain).
Languages: English, French, dialects of the population of the shores of the strait (Gallo, Mor Bretannec, Het Canaal, Ermel Canal, etc.).
Monetary units: pound sterling, euro.

Numbers

Area: 75,000 km2.
Length: 560 km.
Width: from 34 km (between Dover, UK, and Calais, France) to 240 km (between Mont Saint-Michel, France, and Devon, UK).
Average depth at widest section: 120 m
Average depth at the narrowest section: 45 m
Minimum depth on the fairway: 23.5 m
Maximum depth on the fairway: 172 m (underwater low Heards Deep).
Average current speed: 12-13 km/h near the city of Portland. Great Britain, 15-18.5 km/h at Cape Ag France.
Maximum tidal wave height: 15 m (city of Saint-Malo, France).
Average salinity: over 35% ° .

Economy

Shipping.
Minerals: building sand and gravel.
Fishing: turbot (halibut), flounder, stingray, mackerel, whiting, sea eel (conger). Breeding oysters.
Services sector: tourism, transport.

Climate and weather

Moderate maritime, significant influence of the Atlantic Ocean.
Average air temperature:+4°С in winter, +18°С in summer.
The average temperature of the surface layer of water: January: +6°С; July: +19°С.
Average annual rainfall: 830 mm.
Average annual cloudiness: 7 points.
Average number of foggy days per year: in the west - 34, in the east - 101. Storms in autumn and winter.
Relative humidity: 85-100%.

sights

■ Eurotunnel (France - Great Britain);
■ Seven Sisters Cretaceous Reefs (Great Britain);
■ Allied landing site (Normandy, France);
■ Guernsey Island (Channel Islands, UK): Cornet Castle (1206-1256), Victoria Tower (1848), forts, small chapel, mills;
■ The ruins of the "Atlantic wall" (France);
■ Cotentin Peninsula: Cherbourg city, Cape Flamanville (France);
■ Lighthouses of the Brittany Peninsula (France);
■ Needle Rocks (Great Britain).

Curious facts

■ Herds Deep - a depression at the bottom of the English Channel - was used by the British during the First World War to bury chemical weapons. After the Second World War, German weapons were flooded here. Similar operations continued until 1974. In the period 194673. the depression was used to flood radioactive waste.
■ Eurostar trains travel through the Eurotunnel at a speed of 160 km/h.
■ The Channel Islands, part of the two Crown Dependencies of Jersey and Guernsey, are under the jurisdiction of the British Monarchy, but are not part of the UK and are not part of the EU, although they are part of the customs territory of the EU.
■ The island of Sark (Channel Islands) until 2008 retained a feudal system of government - the last in Europe. The island was governed by a council of elders.
■ The giant sea eel, or conger, living in the English Channel, reaches a length of 3 m and weighs more than 100 kg.
■ Alderney Island (Channel Islands) has the only railway on the islands. Built in 1847, 3 km long, open only in summer, on weekends and public holidays.
■ The British swimmer Matthew Webb was the first in the history of mankind to cross the English Channel in 1875 in 21 hours and 45 minutes. The slowest swim across the strait - 28 hours 44 minutes. (Jackie Cobell, UK, 2010)

The British Isles are separated from the rest of the continent by a narrow channel between the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. We have collected some interesting facts about this narrow isthmus.

The strait between France and the British Isles we know as the English Channel - this is the French name. And the British call it the English Channel - theEnglishChannel , thereby as if claiming their rights to it. Most other countries use names borrowed from French, such as "el Canal de la Mancha" in Spanish.

The narrowest point of the English Channel is the Strait of Dover or Pas de Calais: on the one hand, there is the city of Dover, on the other, the French coast of the Hauts-de-France region. The width of the strait in this part is only 37 km: the opposite side is perfectly visible in good weather.

The English Channel was formed relatively recently by geological standards: only 200 thousand years ago. In those days, there was a lake in the North Sea region, bounded by a glacier. The waters of the lake broke through the glacier and caused a huge flood, as a result of which the isthmus between modern Britain and France was washed away.

The English Channel had an important defensive function for Britain. Although the width of the strait is small, and it could be overcome even on ancient ships (the Romans, the Normans, and William of Orange sailed to the islands), the journey was rather difficult. Strong currents, tides, squally winds, thick fogs destroyed many ships.

Experienced swimmers can swim across the Pas de Calais. The first person to swim across the strait without a life jacket was Briton Matthew Webb, who took almost 22 hours. The time record was set by Australian swimmer Trent Grimsey in 2007 - only 7 hours. Surprisingly, in the entire history of the strait, fewer people swam across than Everest conquered: only about a thousand people.

Due to currents and weather, the water temperature in the English Channel does not rise above 18 degrees even in summer, and usually stays around 15-16 degrees during the warmer months. At the same time, the strait does not freeze in winter - even ice does not form near the coast. This is due to the warm current of the Gulf Stream.

Under the Pas de Calais, the Eurotunnel was built, which connects the UK and France - the cities of Dover and Calais. Its length is 51 kilometers, 39 of which lie under water. It is the third longest railway tunnel in the world. It was even included in the list of modern wonders of the world.

Now you know about the English Channel no less than the British. The main thing is not to forget to correctly call it in English - the English Channel, because it is easy to forget and pronounce the French version, and the British are unlikely to like it.

 /  / 50.18361; -0.53111(G) (I)Coordinates : 50°11′01″ s. sh. 0°31′52″ W d. /  50.18361° N sh. 0.53111° W d./ 50.18361; -0.53111(G) (I) English Channel English Channel

English Channel or English channel(fr. la Manche[MFA (fr.) : ], English. English Channel[MFA: [ˈɪŋ.glɪʃ ˈtʃæn.(ə)l]]) is a strait between the coast of France and the island of Great Britain. Since 1994, the world's third longest railway tunnel, the Eurotunnel, has been running under the strait.

Geographical position

origin of name

The word English Channel was borrowed from the French name for the strait (fr. la Manche- sleeve), which was first mentioned in the XVII century. Apparently, it appeared due to the specific shape of the strait in the form of a sleeve. In many languages, including Slavic, the strait is called in a similar way: in Spanish - El Canal de la Mancha, in Portuguese - Canal da Mancha, German - Ermelkanal (Ermel in German - sleeve). A clear exception is English, where the title English Channel means "English Strait", the origin of which is not known for certain. Perhaps this was due to the settlement of the Angles (together with the Saxons) on the British island, who managed to oust the Romans from the island and form their own state there for the next five centuries. The Angles came from the territory of modern Denmark, and in the Scandinavian languages ​​the name of the channel is the same as the English version.

Crossing the English Channel by swimming

Swimmers cross the English Channel (more precisely, its narrowest part - Pas de Calais, Strait of Dover, 32 km) in difficult conditions: cold water (15-18 ° C in summer), waves and wind (swimming takes place with waves up to 4 points on the Beaufort scale inclusive), as well as currents caused by ebbs and flows. In this regard, in the entire history of the English Channel, about 1000 people were able to overcome (as of 2012) - this is less than the number of people who have conquered Everest.

The record among men since 2012 belongs to Trent Grimsey (Australia) (6:55); among women - the Czech swimmer Ivetta Hlavachova (2006, 7 hours 25 minutes 15 seconds).

Crossing the English Channel in vehicles

Ecology

Like any busy shipping line, there are environmental concerns in the English Channel with ships carrying toxic cargo and oil tankers passing through the channel in large numbers. About 40% of pollution incidents in the UK occur in the English Channel and its environs. For example, in the crash of the Napoli container ship in 2007, about 1,700 tons of dangerous goods were thrown onto the shores of Lime Bay (Jurassic Coast).

see also

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Notes

Literature

• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.

An excerpt characterizing the English Channel

- I had the pleasure, - answered Prince Andrei, - not only to participate in the retreat, but also to lose in this retreat everything that he had dear, not to mention the estates and home ... father, who died of grief. I am from Smolensk.
- And? .. Are you Prince Bolkonsky? It’s a hell of a place to meet: Lieutenant Colonel Denisov, better known as Vaska, said Denisov, shaking Prince Andrei’s hand and peering into Bolkonsky’s face with especially kind attention. Yes, I heard, he said sympathetically and, after a pause, continued : - Here is the Scythian war. This is all hog "osho, but not for those who puff with their sides. And you are Prince Andg "she Bolkonsky?" He shook his head. "Very hell, prince, very hell to meet you," he added again with a sad smile, shaking his hand.
Prince Andrei knew Denisov from Natasha's stories about her first fiancé. This recollection both sweetly and painfully carried him now to those painful sensations that he had not thought about for a long time, but which nevertheless were in his soul. Recently, there have been so many other and such serious impressions as leaving Smolensk, his arrival in the Bald Mountains, recently known about the death of his father - so many sensations were experienced by him that these memories had not come to him for a long time and, when they did, had no effect on him. him with the same strength. And for Denisov, the series of memories that Bolkonsky’s name evoked was the distant, poetic past, when, after dinner and Natasha’s singing, without knowing how, he proposed to a fifteen-year-old girl. He smiled at the memories of that time and his love for Natasha, and immediately turned to what passionately and exclusively now occupied him. This was the campaign plan he had come up with while serving in the outposts during the retreat. He presented this plan to Barclay de Tolly and now intended to present it to Kutuzov. The plan was based on the fact that the French line of operations was too long and that instead of, or at the same time, acting from the front, blocking the way for the French, it was necessary to act on their messages. He began to explain his plan to Prince Andrei.
“They can't hold this whole line. This is impossible, I answer that pg "og" vu them; give me five hundred people, I g "azog" vu them, this is veg "but! One system is pag" tizanskaya.
Denisov stood up and, making gestures, outlined his plan to Bolkonsky. In the middle of his exposition, the cries of the army, more incoherent, more widespread and merging with music and songs, were heard at the place of the review. There was a clatter and screams in the village.
“He’s on his way,” shouted the Cossack, who was standing at the gate, “he’s on his way!” Bolkonsky and Denisov moved up to the gate, at which a handful of soldiers (guard of honor) stood, and saw Kutuzov advancing along Kutuzov Street, riding a short bay horse. A huge retinue of generals rode behind him. Barclay rode almost alongside; a crowd of officers ran after them and around them and shouted "Hurrah!".
Adjutants galloped ahead of him into the yard. Kutuzov, impatiently pushing his horse, which was ambling under his weight, and constantly nodding his head, put his hand to the misfortune of the cavalry guard (with a red band and without a visor) cap that was on him. Having approached the guard of honor of the young grenadiers, mostly cavaliers, who saluted him, for a minute he silently, carefully looked at them with a commanding stubborn look and turned to the crowd of generals and officers standing around him. His face suddenly took on a subtle expression; he shrugged his shoulders with a gesture of bewilderment.
- And with such good fellows, everything retreats and retreats! - he said. “Well, goodbye, general,” he added, and touched the horse through the gate past Prince Andrei and Denisov.
- Hooray! Hooray! Hooray! shouted from behind him.
Since Prince Andrei had not seen him, Kutuzov had grown fat, flabby and swollen with fat. But the familiar white eye, and the wound, and the expression of weariness in his face and figure were the same. He was dressed in a uniform frock coat (a whip on a thin belt hung over his shoulder) and in a white cavalry guard cap. He, heavily blurring and swaying, sat on his cheerful horse.
“Fu… fu… fu…” he whistled almost audibly as he drove into the yard. His face expressed the joy of reassuring a man who intends to rest after the representation. He took his left leg out of the stirrup, falling down with his whole body and grimacing from the effort, with difficulty brought it onto the saddle, leaned on his knee, grunted and went down on his hands to the Cossacks and adjutants who supported him.
He recovered, looked around with his narrowed eyes, and looking at Prince Andrei, apparently not recognizing him, walked with his diving gait to the porch.
“Fu… fu… fu,” he whistled and looked back at Prince Andrei. The impression of Prince Andrei's face only after a few seconds (as is often the case with old people) was associated with the memory of his personality.
“Ah, hello, prince, hello, my dear, let’s go ...” he said wearily, looking around, and heavily entered the porch, creaking under his weight. He unbuttoned and sat down on a bench on the porch.
- Well, what about the father?
“Yesterday I received news of his death,” said Prince Andrei shortly.
Kutuzov looked at Prince Andrei with frightened open eyes, then took off his cap and crossed himself: “Kingdom to him in heaven! May the will of God be over all of us! He sighed heavily, with all his chest, and was silent. “I loved and respected him and I sympathize with you with all my heart.” He embraced Prince Andrei, pressed him to his fat chest and did not let go for a long time. When he released him, Prince Andrei saw that Kutuzov's swollen lips were trembling and there were tears in his eyes. He sighed and grabbed the bench with both hands to stand up.
“Come, come to me, we’ll talk,” he said; but at this time Denisov, as little shy before his superiors as before the enemy, despite the fact that the adjutants at the porch stopped him in an angry whisper, boldly, banging his spurs on the steps, entered the porch. Kutuzov, leaving his hands resting on the bench, looked displeasedly at Denisov. Denisov, having identified himself, announced that he had to inform his lordship of a matter of great importance for the good of the fatherland. Kutuzov began to look at Denisov with a tired look and with an annoyed gesture, taking his hands and folding them on his stomach, he repeated: “For the good of the fatherland? Well, what is it? Speak." Denisov blushed like a girl (it was so strange to see the color on that mustachioed, old and drunken face), and boldly began to outline his plan for cutting the enemy's line of operations between Smolensk and Vyazma. Denisov lived in these parts and knew the area well. His plan seemed undoubtedly good, especially in terms of the force of conviction that was in his words. Kutuzov looked at his feet and occasionally looked back at the yard of a neighboring hut, as if he was expecting something unpleasant from there. Indeed, during Denisov's speech, a general appeared from the hut he was looking at with a briefcase under his arm.
- What? - in the middle of Denisov's presentation, Kutuzov said. - Ready?
“Ready, your grace,” the general said. Kutuzov shook his head, as if to say: "How can one person do all this," and continued to listen to Denisov.
“I give you an honest noble word from a Hussian officer,” said Denisov, “that I am g“ azog ”wu of Napoleon’s messages.
- You Kirill Andreevich Denisov, Chief Quartermaster, how do you have to? Kutuzov interrupted him.
- Uncle g "one, your grace.
- O! there were friends, ”Kutuzov said cheerfully. - All right, all right, my dear, stay here at the headquarters, we'll talk tomorrow. - Nodding his head to Denisov, he turned away and held out his hand to the papers that Konovnitsyn brought him.
“Would your lordship please come into the rooms,” the general on duty said in a displeased voice, “it is necessary to review the plans and sign some papers. - The adjutant who came out of the door reported that everything was ready in the apartment. But Kutuzov, apparently, wanted to enter the rooms already free. He winced...
“No, tell me to bring it, my dear, here is a table, I’ll look here,” he said. “Don’t go away,” he added, turning to Prince Andrei. Prince Andrei remained on the porch, listening to the general on duty.
During the report outside the front door, Prince Andrei heard a woman's whispering and the crunch of a woman's silk dress. Several times, looking in that direction, he noticed behind the door, in a pink dress and a purple silk scarf on her head, a plump, ruddy and beautiful woman with a dish, who, obviously, was waiting for the entry of the commander in chief. Adjutant Kutuzov explained to Prince Andrei in a whisper that it was the mistress of the house, the priest, who intended to serve bread and salt to his lordship. Her husband met the most illustrious with a cross in the church, she is at home ... "Very pretty," the adjutant added with a smile. Kutuzov looked back at these words. Kutuzov listened to the report of the general on duty (the main subject of which was criticism of the position under Tsarev Zaimishch) just as he listened to Denisov, just as he listened to the debate of the Austerlitz military council seven years ago. He apparently listened only because he had ears which, despite the fact that one of them had a sea rope, could not but hear; but it was obvious that nothing that the general on duty could tell him could not only surprise or interest him, but that he knew in advance everything that was said to him, and listened to all this only because he had to listen, how to listen singing prayer. Everything that Denisov said was sensible and clever. What the general on duty said was even more detailed and smarter, but it was obvious that Kutuzov despised both knowledge and mind and knew something else that was supposed to solve the matter - something else, independent of mind and knowledge. Prince Andrei carefully followed the expression on the commander-in-chief's face, and the only expression that he could notice in it was an expression of boredom, curiosity about what a woman's whisper outside the door meant, and a desire to keep up appearances. It was obvious that Kutuzov despised the mind, and knowledge, and even the patriotic feeling that Denisov showed, but he did not despise the mind, not the feeling, not the knowledge (because he did not try to show them), but he despised them for something else. He despised them with his old age, his experience of life. One order, which Kutuzov made on his own behalf in this report, deviated to the looting of the Russian troops. At the end of the report, the rederal on duty presented the brightest for signature with a paper about the penalties from the army commanders at the request of the landowner for mowed green oats. English Channel. Between England and France

The English Channel is one of the most famous maritime shipping routes in the world. Cliffs drop sheer into its waters on the French coast, in Normandy.

The English Channel is called by the French and the whole world. The English - with the patriotism of the islanders and perseverance, worthy of respect. - they call this strait the English Channel.

Looking at history, one might think that the strait itself “plays” for England, because it saved her many times from continental invaders. However, the English Channel is equally harsh to everyone: its waters have become the grave of millions of people and ships. However, at the end of the XX century. he still managed to be tamed, the breakthrough of the tunnel is one of the longest in the world.

WATER BARRIER

The English Channel is a French name. The British call this strait the British or (in direct translation) the English Channel. The latter has an older origin:
The ancient Romans called the body of water separating Britain from the continent Mare Britannicum, or the British Sea.


In the II century. BC e. the ancient Greek scientist Herodotus called this water isthmus "Oceanus Britannicus". An interesting situation has developed around the name "English Channel". The French version has been known since the 17th century. and means sleeve. The Spaniards called the strait El Canal de la Mancha, the Portuguese called Canal da Mancha, the Italians La Manica, the Germans Ermelkanal.

The desire of each of the peoples to remake the name in their own way betrayed a persistent desire to claim ownership of these small, but significant waters. Control of the strait provided colossal advantages. Firstly, it was the closest route to England, and secondly, the shortest route to the Baltic Sea. Despite the wayward nature of the English Channel - frequent fogs, gale-force winds, high tides and treacherous currents - political and commercial importance outweighed all natural barriers.

According to the most rough estimates, the remains of several million people and tens of thousands of ships lie at the bottom of the strait: from Roman galleys to diesel submarines. Such is the price of the centuries-old battle for the strait.

None of this would have happened if the British Isles had remained part of continental Europe 10,000 years ago, during the last glaciation (Pleistocene). But the land in these places lay 120 m below sea level, and as the glaciers melted, water filled the lowlands, forming what we now call the English Channel.

In times of peace, the strait served a noble purpose: it was a kind of water bridge, through which there was a cultural exchange between the Celts and the peoples of inner Europe, contributing to the formation of new languages ​​and nationalities. This is indicated by the obvious similarity of many dialects and customs common on both sides of the strait.

However, in difficult times for the population of Britain, the strait became a natural barrier to the conquerors, although not for everyone. The ancient Romans managed to successfully cross the strait and conquer Britain in the 1st century BC. n. e., Normans in 1066, William III of Orange in 1688

Beginning with Elizabeth I (1533-1603), the policy of the English kings in the area of ​​the strait was to prevent an invasion of England from the continent. To do this, the British ensured that none of the major European powers controlled important ports on the other side of the strait. The formation of the British Empire would have been impossible if the British had not established the most severe control over the English Channel in their time.

The rise of England as "Queen of the Seas" began after 1588, when the Spanish "Invincible Armada" perished along its coast, partly in the English Channel, where it was covered by one of the fierce English Channel storms. On the occasion of the victory, Queen Elizabeth III ordered the minting of a medal with the Latin inscription Adflavit Deus et dissipati sunt ("God blew - and they scattered").

France tried twice more to conquer England: during the Seven Years' War (1756-63) and during the Napoleonic Wars (1800-15). Both times the "guests from the continent" gathered a huge fleet, but never invaded the island. A significant role was played here by all the same famous English Channel winds and storms, which, to spite the French, began on the most favorable day for the invasion.

Whatever name the strait bears and whoever it belongs to, it applies equally to sailors on both sides. Hurricane winds, heavy rain, giant waves, high tides and thick fog are common in quiet places. Before the opening of the Eurotunnel, bad weather created big problems for the ferries.

NEW HORIZONS

20th century showed that the importance of the English Channel as a defensive line did not decrease at all even with the development of aviation and rocket science. But with the end of the era of world wars, the English Channel again became a link between England and Europe.

Fisher, First Lord of the British Admiralty, declared shortly before the outbreak of the First World War: "Five keys keep the world shut: Singapore, Cape Town, Alexandria, Gibraltar and Dover." The importance of the English Channel port of Dover remained decisive for the defense of the strait.


On July 25, 1909, Frenchman Louis Blériot crossed the English Channel for the first time in his monoplane, starting at Calais and landing at Dover. The British were made clear that the English Channel was no longer an insurmountable barrier to enemy forces. In addition, Germany began to hastily build submarines, which was an even greater threat to England. The British had to fight on land in order to get close to the German submarine bases, but only in 1918, when the war was drawing to a close, the threat of an invasion of England from under the water was finally eliminated during the famous Zeebrugee Raid and the complete naval blockade of Germany .

During World War II, the theater of operations at sea moved to the Atlantic, as the shallow waters and narrow inlets of the English Channel were too dangerous for large-capacity ships. Having abandoned a direct invasion (Operation Sea Lion), the German troops concentrated on submarine warfare, laying minefields and rocket-and-artillery attacks on England across the strait.

In May 1940, the British Expeditionary Force, which fought on the side of France, retreated through Dunkirk along with the remnants of the French army under the onslaught of the advancing German army. It was the most ambitious rescue operation in the history of wars: in just a few days, 338 thousand soldiers were evacuated during Operation Dainemo

During 1940-1945, the Germans built the most powerful fortifications on the continental side of the strait, called the Atlantic Wall. Many have survived to this day, becoming tourist attractions. German troops managed to occupy several islands in the strait, but did not advance further. The Atlantic Wall fell in 1944, during the opening of the Second Front and the implementation of Operation Overlord to land Allied troops in Normandy.


After the end of the war and with the beginning of the unification of Europe, the issue of transport links between the British Isles and the continent became acute. Ferry crossings were morally and technologically outdated and could not cope with the transportation of goods, cars and railway cars. About 3.5 million people lived on the banks of the English Channel, in dire need of a modern crossing.

The idea of ​​building a tunnel under the English Channel has a long history. Back in 1802, the French engineer Albert Mathieu-Favier proposed a project for a tunnel for traveling in carriages by the light of oil lamps. There were other projects, and even construction began: twice in 1876 and 1922, but both times the construction was frozen for political reasons.


Tunnel in the English Channel, "Channel"

The new project was launched in 1973. The underground crossing was opened in 1994 and was named the Eurotunnel. This is a double-track railway with a length of about 51 km (39 km under the English Channel). Thanks to the tunnel, it is now possible to get from Paris to London in 2 hours and 15 minutes; in the tunnel itself, the trains are 20-35 min.

Channel Tunnel photography

1. The Channel Tunnel is the world's longest underwater tunnel that runs under the English Channel and connects England with France.


2. The length of the tunnel is 50 kilometers, 38 of them are laid under the seabed. The tunnel under the strait was opened in 1994 as part of a modern transport system.


3. Over the past 200 years, many ways have been proposed to overcome the English Channel. The tunnel project was proposed in 1802, and after 90 years the development of the project began.

4. Even Napoleon III suggested crossing the strait. So Queen Victoria, in agreement with Napoleon III, approved a new French tunnel plan in 1860, and construction began, however, the tunnel did not advance further than 2 km.


5. Now there are three tunnels: two railway and one service, the distance between each is 30 meters. On the English coast, work began in December 1987, and on the French coast a little later. Both sides spent a month laying each kilometer. The tunneling took three years.


6. The tunnels are laid 45 meters below the seabed.


7. Thanks to the tunnel, you can easily visit London from Paris in just 2 hours and 15 minutes, given that the trains are in the tunnel itself from 20 to 35 minutes.


8. The diameter of the tunnels is 7.3 meters, the length of each tunnel is about 50 kilometers, of which 38 pass under the water.


9. The tunnel under the Channel is a truly grandiose tunnel, it is also called the "Eurotunnel".


10. Cars carry trains, cars simply enter special cars and leave at the other end.


11. The tunnel was opened in 1994 on May 6, Elizabeth II and President Mitterrand. This is how we saw the Channel Tunnel and its photographs.

CURIOUS FACTS

Herds Deep - a depression at the bottom of the English Channel - was used by the British during the First World War to bury chemical weapons. After the Second World War, German weapons were flooded here. Similar operations continued until 1974. In the period 1946-73. the depression was used to flood radioactive waste.

Eurostar trains travel through the Eurotunnel at a speed of 160 km/h.

The Channel Islands, which are part of the two crown dependencies of Jersey and Guernsey, are under the jurisdiction of the British monarchy, but are not part of the UK and are not part of the EU, although they are part of the customs territory of the EU.

On about. Sark (Channel Islands) until 2008, the feudal system of government was preserved - the last in Europe. The island was governed by a council of elders.

The giant sea eel, or conger, living in the English Channel, reaches a length of 3 m and weighs more than 100 kg

On about. Alderney (Channel Islands) operates the only railway on the islands. Built in 1847, 3 km long, open only in summer, on weekends
and holidays.

British swimmer Matthew Webb was the first in the history of mankind to cross the English Channel in 1875 in 21 hours and 45 minutes. The slowest swim across the strait - 28 hours 44 minutes. (Jackie Cobell, UK, 2010).