Speech therapy portal / Dysarthria / Lecture: Definition of the concept of "organism". General characteristics and levels of organization of the human body. The body as a whole. What is an organism? What is an organism in biology

Lecture: Definition of the concept of "organism". General characteristics and levels of organization of the human body. The body as a whole. What is an organism? What is an organism in biology

08.10.2021

- (late lat. organismus from late lat. organizo I arrange, I report a slender appearance, from other Greek. As a separate individual organism ... ... Wikipedia

- (new lat., from organum organ). The whole, the parts of which are inextricably linked; every living creature that has organs for maintaining and developed in itself life. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. ORGANISM ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

ORGANISM- ORGANISM, a set of interacting organs that form an animal or plant. The very word O. comes from the Greek organon, that is, a work, a tool. For the first time, apparently, Aristotle called living beings organisms, because according to his ... Great medical encyclopedia

- (from late Lat. organizmo - I arrange, I report a slender look) living creature; covering a vast sphere of independent material unity, which in its structure is subordinated primarily to physical and chemical laws. In addition, the body is like ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

ORGANISM, organism, husband. (from the Greek organon tool) (book). 1. A living body that exists independently and consists of coordinated functioning complex parts, organs. Animal organism. Plant organism. 2. A set of individual ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

Cm … Synonym dictionary

ORGANISM- (from Latin organismus), in a broad sense, a biologically integral system, consisting of interdependent and subordinate elements, the relationship and structural features of which are determined by their functioning as a whole; in a narrow sense, an organism ... Ecological Dictionary

organism- a, m. organisme m. 1. Every living being, a living body with its coordinatedly acting organs. ALS 1. An organ is an essential part of an organic, lean body, or organism. 1840. Grech Readings 1 10. || Physical or ... ... Historical Dictionary of Russian Gallicisms

organism- 1. The organism is a living living body, a living being (plant, animal, person). 2. The totality of the spiritual and physical properties of a person. 3. Complex organized unity. The words … Big psychological encyclopedia

- (French organisme, from cf. Lat. organizo arrange, give a slender look), in the broadest, most general sense, living O. any biol. or a bioinert holistic system, consisting of interdependent and subordinate elements, relationships to rykh and ... ... Biological encyclopedic dictionary

A living being, a real bearer of life, characterized by all its properties. The organism comes from one primordium. Individually subject to evolutionary factors and environmental influences Glossary of business terms. Academic.ru. 2001 ... Business glossary

Books

Organism and stress: stress of life and stress of death, Kitaev-Smyk Leonid Alexandrovich. The study guide presents the results of research on emotional and bodily stress conducted by the author over the years. Changes in emotions and behavior of different people are analyzed ...

Organism

noun, m., uptr. cf. often

Morphology: (no) what? organism what? organisms, (see) what? organism, how? organism, about what? about the body; pl. what? organisms, (no) what? organisms what? organisms, (see) what? organisms, how? organisms, about what? about organisms

1. Organism is a living body of a person, animal or a living plant as a whole, in which various organs function in concert and life support systems work.

The simplest organism. | Animal, plant, biological organism. | Lizard organism. | In a stressful situation, the body goes out of control: the head is spinning, the hands are shaking, the body is covered with sweat.

2. By the body call the totality of the physical and mental properties of a person.

A healthy, strong, hardy, strong, heroic organism. | Weak, fragile organism. | Reduce the stress on the body. | Train, strengthen, temper the body. | The body is losing strength. | Tea stimulates the body. | By the beginning of the next working day, the body must fully recover. | The medicine helped the body to quickly cope with the disease.

3. By the body call any community of people, a work organized into a single whole, with all its internal connections and parts performing certain functions.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language Dmitriev... D. V. Dmitriev. 2003.

Synonyms:

See what an "organism" is in other dictionaries:

- (late lat. organismus from late lat. organizo I arrange, I report a slender appearance, from other Greek. As a separate individual organism ... ... Wikipedia

Cm … Synonym dictionary

Books

Organism and stress: stress of life and stress of death, Kitaev-Smyk Leonid Alexandrovich. The study guide presents the results of research on emotional and bodily stress conducted by the author over the years. Changes in emotions and behavior of different people are analyzed ...

A living organism is the main subject studied by such a science as biology. It is made up of cells, organs and tissues. A living organism is one that has a number of characteristic features. He breathes and feeds, wiggles or moves, and also has offspring.

Wildlife science

The term "biology" was introduced by J. B. Lamarck, a French naturalist, in 1802. At about the same time and independently of him, the German botanist G.R. Treviranus.

Numerous sections of biology consider the diversity of not only currently existing, but also already extinct organisms. They study their origins and evolutionary processes, structure and functioning, as well as individual development and relationships with the environment and with each other.

Sections of biology consider particular and general patterns that are inherent in all living things in all properties and manifestations. This also applies to reproduction, and metabolism, and heredity, and development, and growth.

The beginning of the historical stage

The first living organisms on our planet were significantly different in structure from those existing at the present time. They were incomparably simpler. Throughout the entire stage of the formation of life on Earth, He contributed to the improvement of the structure of living beings, which allowed them to adapt to the conditions of the surrounding world.

At the initial stage, living organisms in nature fed only on organic components arising from primary carbohydrates. At the dawn of their history, both animals and plants were the smallest single-celled creatures. They looked like today's amoebas, blue-green algae and bacteria. In the course of evolution, multicellular organisms began to appear, which were much more diverse and more complex than their predecessors.

Chemical composition

A living organism is one that is formed by molecules of inorganic and organic substances.

The first of these components includes water, as well as mineral salts. found in the cells of living organisms are fats and proteins, nucleic acids and carbohydrates, ATP and many other elements. It is worth noting the fact that living organisms in their composition contain the same components that objects have. The main difference lies in the ratio of these elements. Living organisms are those with ninety-eight percent of their composition being hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen.

Classification

The organic world of our planet today numbers almost one and a half million different animal species, half a million plant species, as well as ten million microorganisms. Such diversity cannot be studied without its detailed systematization. The classification of living organisms was first developed by the Swedish naturalist Karl Linnaeus. He based his work on the hierarchical principle. The unit of systematization was the species, the name of which was proposed to be given only in Latin.

The classification of living organisms used in modern biology indicates kinship and evolutionary relationships of organic systems. At the same time, the principle of hierarchy is preserved.

The set of living organisms that have a common origin, the same chromosome set, adapted to similar conditions, living in a certain area, freely interbreeding with each other and giving offspring capable of reproduction, is a species.

There is another classification in biology. By this science, all cellular organisms are subdivided into groups according to the presence or absence of a formed nucleus. it

The first group is represented by nuclear-free primitive organisms. In their cells, a nuclear zone is allocated, but it contains only a molecule. They are bacteria.

The true nuclear representatives of the organic world are eukaryotes. The cells of living organisms of this group have all the main structural components. Their core is also clearly defined. This group includes animals, plants and fungi.

The structure of living organisms can be not only cellular. Biology studies other forms of life as well. These include non-cellular organisms such as viruses as well as bacteriophages.

Classes of living organisms

In biological systematics, there is a hierarchical classification rank, which scientists consider one of the main ones. He distinguishes classes of living organisms. The main ones include the following:

Bacteria;

Animals;

Plants;

Seaweed.

Description of the classes

A bacterium is a living organism. It is a unicellular species that reproduces by division. A bacterial cell is enclosed in a membrane and has a cytoplasm.

Fungi belong to the next class of living organisms. In nature, there are about fifty thousand species of these representatives of the organic world. However, biologists have studied only five percent of the total. Interestingly, fungi share some characteristics of both plants and animals. An important role of living organisms of this class lies in the ability to decompose organic material. That is why mushrooms can be found in almost all biological niches.

The fauna can boast of a great variety. Representatives of this class can be found in areas where it would seem that there are no conditions for existence.

The most highly organized class is warm-blooded animals. They got their name from the way the offspring are fed. All representatives of mammals are divided into ungulates (giraffe, horse) and carnivores (fox, wolf, bear).

Insects are also representatives of the animal world. There are a great many of them on Earth. They swim and fly, crawl and jump. Many of the insects are so small that they are not able to withstand even water tension.

Amphibians and reptiles were among the first vertebrates to emerge on land in distant historical times. Until now, the life of representatives of this class is associated with water. So, the habitat of adults is land, and their breathing is carried out by the lungs. The larvae breathe with gills and swim in the water. Currently, there are about seven thousand species of this class of living organisms on Earth.

Birds are unique representatives of the fauna of our planet. Indeed, unlike other animals, they are able to fly. Almost eight thousand six hundred species of birds live on Earth. Plumage and egg-laying are characteristic of representatives of this class.

Fish belong to the huge group of vertebrates. They inhabit water bodies and have fins and gills. Biologists classify fish into two groups. These are cartilaginous and bone. Currently, there are about twenty thousand different types of fish.

Within the class of plants, there is its own gradation. Representatives of the flora are subdivided into dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous. In the first of these groups, an embryo is located in the seed, consisting of two cotyledons. You can identify representatives of this species by the leaves. They are permeated with a mesh of veins (corn, beets). The embryo has only one cotyledon. On the leaves of such plants, the veins are parallel (onion, wheat).

The algae class has more than thirty thousand species. These are spore plants living in water that do not have blood vessels, but have chlorophyll. This component contributes to the implementation of the process of photosynthesis. Algae do not form seeds. Their reproduction occurs vegetatively or by spores. This class of living organisms differs from higher plants in the absence of stems, leaves and roots. They have only the so-called body, which is called the thallus.

Functions inherent in living organisms

What is fundamental for any representative of the organic world? This is the implementation of the processes of metabolism of energy and substances. In a living organism, various substances are constantly being converted into energy, as well as physical and chemical changes.

This function is an indispensable condition for the existence of a living organism. It is thanks to metabolism that the world of organic beings differs from inorganic ones. Yes, in inanimate objects there are also changes in matter and transformation of energy. However, these processes have their own fundamental differences. The metabolism that occurs in inorganic objects destroys them. At the same time, living organisms cannot continue their existence without metabolic processes. The consequence of metabolism is the renewal of the organic system. Termination of exchange processes entails death.

The functions of a living organism are varied. But all of them are directly related to the metabolic processes taking place in it. This can be growth and reproduction, development and digestion, nutrition and respiration, reactions and movement, excretion of waste products and secretion, etc. At the heart of any function of the body is a set of processes of transformation of energy and substances. Moreover, it is equally related to the capabilities of both tissue, cell, organ, and the whole organism.

Metabolism in humans and animals includes the processes of nutrition and digestion. In plants, it is carried out using photosynthesis. A living organism, when carrying out metabolism, supplies itself with substances necessary for existence.

An important distinguishing feature of the objects of the organic world is the use of external energy sources. Light and food are examples of this.

Properties inherent in living organisms

Any biological unit contains separate elements, which, in turn, form an inextricably linked system. For example, in the aggregate, all organs and functions of a person represent his body. The properties of living organisms are diverse. In addition to a single chemical composition and the possibility of carrying out metabolic processes, objects of the organic world are capable of organization. Certain structures are formed from chaotic molecular motion. This creates a certain orderliness in time and space for all living things. The structural organization is a whole complex of the most complex self-regulating ones that proceed in a certain order. This allows you to maintain the constancy of the internal environment at the required level. For example, the hormone insulin reduces the amount of glucose in the blood when it is in excess. With a lack of this component, it is replenished by adrenaline and glucagon. Also, warm-blooded organisms have numerous mechanisms of heat regulation. This is the expansion of skin capillaries, and intense sweating. As you can see, this is an important function that the body performs.

The properties of living organisms, characteristic only for the organic world, are also included in the process of self-reproduction, because any existence has a time limit. Only self-reproduction can support life. This function is based on the process of formation of new structures and molecules, conditioned by the information that is embedded in DNA. Self-reproduction is inextricably linked with heredity. After all, each of the living creatures gives birth to their own kind. Through heredity, living organisms transmit their developmental characteristics, properties and characteristics. This property is due to constancy. It exists in the structure of DNA molecules.

Another property characteristic of living organisms is irritability. Organic systems always react to internal and external changes (influences). As for the irritability of the human body, it is inextricably linked with the properties inherent in muscle, nervous, and glandular tissue. These components are able to give an impetus to a response after muscle contraction, the sending of a nerve impulse, as well as the secretion of various substances (hormones, saliva, etc.). And if a living organism is deprived of the nervous system? The properties of living organisms in the form of irritability are manifested in this case by movement. For example, protozoa leave solutions in which the salt concentration is too high. As for plants, they are able to change the position of the shoots in order to absorb light as much as possible.

Any living system can respond to the action of a stimulus. This is another property of objects in the organic world - excitability. This process is provided by muscle and glandular tissues. One of the final reactions of excitability is movement. The ability to move is a common property of all living things, despite the fact that outwardly some organisms are deprived of it. After all, the movement of the cytoplasm occurs in any cell. Attached animals also move. Growth movements due to an increase in the number of cells are observed in plants.

Habitat

The existence of objects of the organic world is possible only under certain conditions. Some part of the space invariably surrounds a living organism or a whole group. This is the habitat.

In the life of any organism, organic and inorganic components of nature play a significant role. They have a certain effect on him. Living organisms are forced to adapt to existing conditions. So, some of the animals can live in the Far North at very low temperatures. Others are only able to exist in the tropics.

There are several habitats on planet Earth. Among them are:

Land-water;

Ground;

Soil;

Living organism;

Ground-air.

The role of living organisms in nature

Life on planet Earth has been around for three billion years. And during all this time, organisms developed, changed, dispersed and simultaneously influenced their habitat.

The influence of organic systems on the atmosphere caused more oxygen to appear. At the same time, the volume of carbon dioxide has significantly decreased. Plants are the main source of oxygen production.

Under the influence of living organisms, the composition of the waters of the World Ocean has also changed. Some rocks are of organic origin. Mineral resources (oil, coal, limestone) are also the result of the functioning of living organisms. In other words, the objects of the organic world are a powerful factor that transforms nature.

Living organisms are a kind of indicator indicating the quality of the human environment. They are associated with the most complex processes with vegetation and soil. If even a single link from this chain is lost, an imbalance of the ecological system as a whole will occur. That is why for the circulation of energy and substances on the planet it is important to preserve all the existing diversity of representatives of the organic world.

A term that is often used in psychology (including this book) to describe a person or any animal. In a broader sense, it refers to all living things, but the latter are not of direct interest to psychologists. The term came into use after the release of the first works in the field of behaviorism, where he pointed out that all animals exhibit the same basic learning abilities, therefore, the discoveries made in the study of "lower" animals. can be extended to humans. Nowadays, the term is more often used to emphasize the psychologist's objective attitude to the subject of research. Organisms are simply "living units" that react in a certain way to external and internal stimuli.

ORGANISM

Free meaning: any living thing, be it a plant or animal, a bacterium or a virus. This kind of definition is only satisfactory to a certain extent, since it is little more than a list of those units that are generally regarded as belonging to organisms. Ideally, you need to have a clear definition of what is meant by the podgie, and thus dispense with our list - and also avoid discussing exactly which items deserve to be included in this list; not everyone would put viruses in it. The difficulty, however, is that attempts to deal with the definition of life are themselves lists; for example, a living being is one that performs some (or all) of the basic physiological functions of eating, excreting, reproducing, locomotion, etc. Since by now there is no agreed criterion set of properties for defining what is alive, there is no strict definition of what qualifies as an organism. In psychology, this term refers to an animal, especially one that is used in an experiment or other scientific research. It turned out to be a useful term for many behaviorists who, working primarily with rats, pigeons, etc., preferred to formulate their results and conclusions, implying that their findings could be applied to all living things. Naturally, it is not surprising that one of the fundamental works carried out in this tradition was the work of B.F. Skinner 1938 "Behavior of organisms

ORGANISM

from lat. organismus] - 1) a living body, a living being (man, animal, plant); 2) any biological or bio-bone integral system, consisting of interdependent and subordinate elements, the relationship of which is determined by their functioning as a whole; 3) a set of physical and spiritual properties of a person

Organism

A separate living being, considered as an open self-regulating biological system, all parts of which are inextricably linked, supporting the exchange of substances and energy with the environment, capable of reproducing their own kind and of continuous adaptation to environmental conditions.

Organism

Greek organon - tool, instrument) - 1. in general - any living creature, from a person to a virus. The brevity of this definition, formed according to the principle of Napoleon ("speak briefly and incomprehensibly"), does not compensate, alas, for its essential shortcomings. The ambiguity of the definition is primarily due to the fact that a specific criterion set of properties has not yet been established that distinguishes a living being itself from inanimate objects, and clear sets of properties have not been established that distinguish one type of living being from another. To eliminate this ambiguity, it would be nice to first determine what the essence of life processes is, but neither philosophers nor natural scientists are yet able to do this. Some thinkers hope that this can be helped by the trend of transition of scientific research to the atomic and subatomic level of organization of the structures of a living organism. So, J. Bernal points out: "Life is partial, continuous, progressive, diverse and interacting with the environment self-realization of the potential of the electronic states of atoms." This is very similar to the illusion that the study of neurochemical processes and their self-realization in the brain sheds light on understanding the essence of consciousness. Secondly, any organism is an element of the biosphere, the boundaries of which remain undetermined, but it is quite clear that outside the context of the latter, the manifestations of its vital activity cannot be comprehended. 2. in psychology - the designation of any animal that is used in an experiment or other scientific research. Scientists who hold this position may also include viruses in the class of living organisms and not see any significant differences between a rat or dog, on the one hand, and humans, on the other. In behaviorism, for example, experimental data obtained in experiments on a rat or a pigeon are freely transferred to other organisms, including humans. Therefore, it does not seem surprising that one of the fundamental works carried out in the tradition of behaviorism was the work of BF Skinner "The Behavior of Organisms" (1938). Apparently, the day is not far off when, with this approach, android robots will also be ranked among living or even thinking beings; 2.in psychopathology - the general name of biological structures and processes in a human being, the violation of which inevitably leads to the development of mental and personal pathology, but which, in turn, can suffer due to socio-psychological dysfunctions (for example, in conditions of inadequate in this or a different attitude of society.

Organism

from late lat. organizo, organizare - arrange, inform, slender appearance) is a complex morphologically and chemically organized system, the vital activity of which is ensured by the interaction of its cells, tissues and organs with various factors - internal and external. O. is constantly influenced by nutrients, the composition of the air, the bacterial environment, some chemical reactions, the conditions of geographical location, etc. O.'s peculiarity is largely determined by its heredity, the environment in which it lives, and the activity it produces. It is characterized by constant metabolism, self-renewal, irritability and reactivity, self-regulation, movement, growth and development, heredity and variability, adaptability to the conditions of existence. The more complex O., the more it preserves the constancy of the internal environment - homeostasis (body temperature, biochemical composition of blood, etc.), regardless of external influences, acquires socio-economic features. Due to the variability of the moments that dictate the conditions of existence of O., each person always differs from others in structure and functions. Thus, there is an individual variability of the physical type, but at the same time there are age-related changes (from early embryonic development to old age, inclusive) and the phenomenon of sexual demorphism. Morphology O. includes: 1) merology (from the Greek "meros" - part), which studies both variations of individual organs and tissues, and their connections, and 2) somatology (from the Greek "soma" - body), when the body is studied in general, variations in its height, mass, proportions, etc. Literally translated from the Latin "soma" it is equivalent to the Russian "body" and the limb apparatus fixed on it. In ancient times, for the Greeks, the understanding of personality was inseparable from a well-organized living body, and to some extent was identical to it. However, historically, “soma” and “body” are not all equivalent. In biology, the body is most often understood as an organism that combines both a soma, which has a certain length, size, surface and relief, and a viscera (i.e., internal organs that are divided into systems: digestive, respiratory, urinary, genital, endocrine glands ; in addition, they secrete pathways that conduct fluids and irritation). When the adjective somatic is used, as a rule, bodily properties are meant that are clearly different from the phenomena of a mental nature. In particular, bones, joints and ligaments, muscles are recognized as elements of the soma. Already unicellular organisms (prokaryotes) possess a set of basic vital properties that enable them to live, to carry out various integral phenomena (metabolic processes, movement, adaptability, etc.). All these are the signs that distinguish O. from inanimate nature. Eukaryotes are multicellular organisms. They also have a body differentiated into various tissues, and represent an integral system, a kind of "cell state", sensitively interacting with the external environment. In human organisms, four types of tissues are distinguished: (1) epithelial tissues (from the Greek epi - a protrusion on the body; the term was introduced in 1708 by the anatomist Ruish), cover the surface of the body, line the mucous membranes, separating the body from the environment (integumentary epithelium ) and form glands (glandular epithelium); there is also a sensory epithelium, the modified cells of which perceive specific stimuli in the organs of hearing, balance and taste. The epithelium is characterized by an abundance of cellular elements; (2) connective tissues, formed from numerous cells, represent a large group. It includes loose and dense fibrous tissues, as well as tissues with special properties (reticular, pigment, adipose), solid skeletal (bone, cartilaginous) and liquid (blood and lymph). Connective tissue performs supporting, mechanical (dense, fibrous connective tissue, cartilage, bone), trophic (nutritional) and protective (phagocytosis and antibody production) functions; (3) muscle tissue that moves and is able to contract. There are two varieties of it: smooth (non-striated) and striated (skeletal and cardiac); (4) the nervous tissue forms the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral (nerves with their end devices, nerve nodes). It consists of nerve cells (neurons) and neuroglia, which is created by gliocytes. Systematic anatomy groups all tissues of the body into systems: I) the doctrine of bones - osteologia (osteon - bone, logos - word, doctrine); 2) the doctrine of ligaments and joints - syndesmologia, arthrologia (syn - together, desmao - connect; arthron - joint); 3) the doctrine of muscles - myologia (mus - muscle); 4) the doctrine of the insides - splanchnologia (splanchna - insides); 5) the doctrine of vessels - angiologia (angion - vessel); 6) the doctrine of the nervous system - neurologia (neuron - nerve); 7) the doctrine of the sense organs - esthesiologia (Greek aisthesis - feeling). V. Dahl pointed out that the word "organism" comes from the word "organ" ("tool"). In this regard, the idea has developed that an organ (liver, heart, uterus, etc.) is a separate part of a whole organism that performs certain specific functions. Any organ has its own shape and structure. Each organ has characteristic features. 1) Topographic - the location of the organ in certain body cavities: chest, abdominal, pelvic (some organs are removed from these cavities: the larynx on the neck, testicles - in the scrotum). 2) Genetic - the development of various organs from a single system (for example, the kidneys and gonads). 3) Functional - an inextricable functional cooperation between the systems of digestion, respiration and excretion. Dysfunction in one of the systems inevitably causes a reaction in other systems of the body. Each organ consists of one (bone) or several (stomach, kidneys, uterus, etc.) tissues, that is, it combines various elements and performs specific functions. The elements of any organ are cells, intercellular substance, tissues, lymphoid formations, blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves. Usually the organ is represented by a skeleton - the stroma (consists of connective tissue) and parenchyma - a specific tissue of the organ (epithelium in the glands, muscle tissue in the muscles), as well as the vascular and nervous systems. Distinguish also organs homologous - originating from the same primordia, and similar - similar in function. There are also rudimentary (Latin rudimentum - rudiment) organs that have not received full development in humans (tail rudiment, mammary glands in men, auricle muscles, gill slits, etc.). The organs seem to complement each other functionally: the mouth - the pharynx - the esophagus - the stomach - the small intestine and only then the large intestine. Others do not have a direct anatomical connection (for example, the endocrine system). There are parenchymal (Greek par? Nthyma - "pouring out near", meaning specific tissue) organs: liver, kidneys, and hollow: uterus, ureters, pharynx. The organs are located in the body cavities. Each of them is laid at a strictly defined time, has specific stages of growth, the time of maximum functioning and wilting. For accurate orientation of organs, the following additional criteria are used: skeletotopy - the relation of an organ to a specific part of the skeleton; syntopy - the relationship of organs to each other; holotopy is a projection of an organ onto the external integument and onto the walls of cavities within the established topographic and anatomical areas. When assessing the shape, size, structure and topography of organs, gender, constitutional, age and individual differences are taken into account. The human body is also subject to bilateral symmetry, which is regarded as a universal feature of vertebrates. But such symmetry occurs when assessing the skeleton and muscular system, and the stomach, intestines, heart, liver, spleen and other organs are located asymmetrically. This is considered as a secondary phenomenon, as a consequence of the movements of organs in the process of their development.

Organism(from late lat. organizo, organizare - arrange, inform, slender appearance) - a complex morphologically and chemically organized system, the vital activity of which is ensured by the interaction of its cells, tissues and organs with various factors - internal and external. O. is constantly influenced by nutrients, the composition of the air, the bacterial environment, some chemical reactions, the conditions of geographical location, etc. O.'s peculiarity is largely determined by its heredity, the environment in which it lives, and the activity it produces. It is characterized by constant metabolism, self-renewal, irritability and reactivity, self-regulation, movement, growth and development, heredity and variability, adaptability to the conditions of existence.

The more complex O., the more it preserves the constancy of the internal environment - homeostasis (body temperature, biochemical composition of blood, etc.), regardless of external influences, acquires socio-economic features.

Due to the variability of the moments that dictate the conditions for the existence of O., each person always differs from others in structure and functions. Thus, there is an individual variability of the physical type, but at the same time there are age-related changes (from early embryonic development to old age, inclusive) and the phenomenon of sexual demorphism.

Morphology of O. includes: 1) merology (from the Greek "meros" - part), which studies both variations of individual organs and tissues, and their connections, and 2) somatology (from the Greek "soma" - body), when the body is studied in general, variations in its height, mass, proportions, etc. In a literal translation from the Latin "soma" it is equivalent to the Russian "body" and the apparatus of the limbs fixed on it. In ancient times, for the Greeks, the understanding of personality was inseparable from a well-organized living body, and to some extent was identical to it. However, historically, “soma” and “body” are not all equivalent. In biology, the body is most often understood as an organism that combines both a soma, which has a certain length, size, surface and relief, and a viscera (i.e., internal organs that are divided into systems: digestive, respiratory, urinary, genital, endocrine glands ; in addition, they secrete pathways that conduct fluids and irritation). When the adjective somatic is used, as a rule, bodily properties are meant that are clearly different from the phenomena of a mental nature. In particular, bones, joints and ligaments, muscles are recognized as elements of the soma.

Already unicellular organisms (prokaryotes) possess a set of basic vital properties that enable them to live, to carry out various integral phenomena (metabolic processes, movement, adaptability, etc.). All these are the signs that distinguish O. from inanimate nature. Eukaryotes are multicellular organisms. They also have a body differentiated into various tissues, and represent an integral system, a kind of "cell state", sensitively interacting with the external environment. In human organisms, four types of tissues are distinguished: (1) epithelial tissues (from the Greek epi - a protrusion on the body; the term was introduced in 1708 by the anatomist Ruish), cover the surface of the body, line the mucous membranes, separating the body from the environment (integumentary epithelium ) and form glands (glandular epithelium); there is also a sensory epithelium, the modified cells of which perceive specific stimuli in the organs of hearing, balance and taste. The epithelium is characterized by an abundance of cellular elements; (2) connective tissues, formed from numerous cells, represent a large group. It includes loose and dense fibrous tissues, as well as tissues with special properties (reticular, pigment, adipose), solid skeletal (bone, cartilaginous) and liquid (blood and lymph). Connective tissue performs supporting, mechanical (dense, fibrous connective tissue, cartilage, bone), trophic (nutritional) and protective (phagocytosis and antibody production) functions; (3) muscle tissue that moves and is able to contract. There are two varieties of it: smooth (non-striated) and striated (skeletal and cardiac); (4) the nervous tissue forms the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral (nerves with their end devices, nerve nodes). It consists of nerve cells (neurons) and neuroglia, which is created by gliocytes.

Systematic anatomy groups all tissues of the body into systems: I) the doctrine of bones - osteologia (osteon - bone, logos - word, doctrine); 2) the doctrine of ligaments and joints - syndesmologia, arthrologia (syn - together, desmao - connect; arthron - joint); 3) the doctrine of muscles - myologia (mus - muscle); 4) the doctrine of the insides - splanchnologia (splanchna - insides); 5) the doctrine of vessels - angiologia (angion - vessel); 6) the doctrine of the nervous system - neurologia (neuron - nerve); 7) the doctrine of the sense organs - esthesiologia (Greek áisthesis - feeling).

V. Dahl pointed out that the word "organism" comes from the word "organ" ("tool"). In this regard, the idea has developed that an organ (liver, heart, uterus, etc.) is a separate part of a whole organism that performs certain specific functions. Any organ has its own shape and structure. Each organ has characteristic features. 1) Topographic - the location of the organ in certain body cavities: chest, abdominal, pelvic (some organs are removed from these cavities: the larynx on the neck, testicles - in the scrotum). 2) Genetic - the development of various organs from a single system (for example, the kidneys and gonads). 3) Functional - an inextricable functional cooperation between the systems of digestion, respiration and excretion. Dysfunction in one of the systems inevitably causes a reaction in other systems of the body. Each organ consists of one (bone) or several (stomach, kidneys, uterus, etc.) tissues, that is, it combines various elements and performs specific functions. The elements of any organ are cells, intercellular substance, tissues, lymphoid formations, blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves. Usually the organ is represented by a skeleton - the stroma (consists of connective tissue) and parenchyma - a specific tissue of the organ (epithelium in the glands, muscle tissue in the muscles), as well as the vascular and nervous systems. Distinguish also organs homologous - originating from the same primordia, and similar - similar in function. There are also rudimentary (Latin rudimentum - rudiment) organs that have not received full development in humans (tail rudiment, mammary glands in men, auricle muscles, gill slits, etc.). The organs seem to complement each other functionally: the mouth - the pharynx - the esophagus - the stomach - the small intestine and only then the large intestine. Others do not have a direct anatomical connection (for example, the endocrine system). There are parenchymal (Greek par nthyma - "pouring out near", meaning a specific tissue) organs: liver, kidneys, and hollow: uterus, ureters, pharynx.

The organs are located in the body cavities. Each of them is laid at a strictly defined time, has specific stages of growth, the time of maximum functioning and wilting. For accurate orientation of organs, the following additional criteria are used: skeletotopy - the relation of an organ to a specific part of the skeleton; syntopy - the relationship of organs to each other; holotopy is a projection of an organ onto the external integument and onto the walls of cavities within the established topographic and anatomical areas. When assessing the shape, size, structure and topography of organs, gender, constitutional, age and individual differences are taken into account.

The human body is also subject to bilateral symmetry, which is regarded as a universal feature of vertebrates. But such symmetry occurs when assessing the skeleton and muscular system, and the stomach, intestines, heart, liver, spleen and other organs are located asymmetrically. This is considered as a secondary phenomenon, as a consequence of the movements of organs in the process of their development.

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