Where the Byzantium was. Byzantine empire. Byzantines did not know that they were not Romans

State and Law of Byzantium

In 395, the Roman Empire was divided into the Western (Capital - Rome) and the rigger (the capital is Constantinople). The first empire ceased to exist in 476 under the blows of the German tribes. Eastern Empire, or Byzantium existed until 1453. His name of Byzantium received from the ancient Greek colony of Megara, a small town of Byzantium, in the place of which Emperor Konstantin
In 324-330, he founded the new capital of the Roman Empire - Constantinople. The Byzantines themselves called themselves "Romaine", and the Empire - Romeic, because the capital was called "New Rome" for a long time.

Byzantium was largely a continuation of the Roman Empire, retaining its political and state traditions. At the same time, Constantinople and Rome became two centers of political life - the Latin West and the Greek East.

The stability of Byzantium had its reasons
In the peculiarities of social and economic and historical development. First, the Byzantine State included economically developed regions: Greece, Small Asia, Syria, Egypt, Balkan Peninsula (the territory of the empire exceeded 750,000 square meters. Km
with a population of 50-65 million people) who led a lively trade
With India, China, Iran, Arabia and North Africa. The decline of the economy based on slave-ownership work here was not so strong as in West Rome, because the population was
in free or semi-free state. Agriculture was built not on forced labor in the form of major slave-owned latifunds, but in the small peasant farm (community peasantry). Therefore, small farms reacted faster to the conjuncture of the changing market and more quickly, compared with large farms, rebuilt their activities. And in the craft here the main role was played by loose workers. Due to these reasons, the Eastern provinces of less western suffered from the economic crisis III century.

Secondly, Byzantia, having large material resources, had a strong army, a fleet and a strong branched state apparatus, which allowed to restrain the raids of the barbarians. There was a strong imperial power with a flexible control apparatus.

Thirdly, Byzantium was built on the basis of a new Christian religion, which, compared to the pagan Roman, had a progressive value.

The greatest power of the Byzantine Empire reached
At the board of Emperor Justinian I (527-565), which conducted extensive conquests, and again the Mediterranean was the inner sea, this time already Byzantium. After the death of the monarch, the state entered a long crisis. The countries conquered by Justinian were rapidly lost. In the VI century Starts collisions with Slavs,
And in the VII century. - With the Arabs, which at the beginning of the VIII century. Rejected by Byzantium North Africa.

At the beginning of the same century, Byzantia is hard to come out of the crisis. In 717, Lion III arrives in the nickname, founding the Isaveri dynasty (717-802). He conducted a number of reforms. To find funds for their implementation, as well as on the maintenance of the army and administration, he decided to eliminate the monastery land tenure. This was expressed in the fight against icons, since the church was accused of paganism - worshiping icons. Power used iconobocrocity to strengthen its political and economic positions, for the subordination of the Church and its wealth. Laws against reverence icons are issued, regarding it as idolatry. Fighting icons gave the opportunity to assign church treasures - utensils, salaries icons, crayfish with the relics of saints. It was also confiscated 100 Monas-Tyr Votchin, the lands of which were distributed to peasants, as well as in the form of remuneration for military warriors.

These actions strengthened the inner and external position of Byzantium, which joined Greece again, Macedonia, Crete, South Italy and Sicily.

In the second half of the IX century, and especially in the twentieth century, Byzantium reaches a new lift, since the powerful Arab Caliphate gradually collapsed into a number of independent feudal states and the Byzantium dismands from Arabs Syria and numerous islands on the Mediterranean Sea, and at the beginning of XI in . Joins Bulgaria.
At that time, Byzantia Rules Macedonian dynasty (867-1056), at which the foundations of the socially centralized early-feudal monarchy were subdued. With her, Kievan Rus in 988 takes Christianity from the Greeks.

For the next dynasty, comnins (1057-1059, 1081-1185),
In the Byzantium, feudalization is enhanced and the process of fixing the peasants is completed. The feudal institute is reproached prona("care"). Feudalization leads to a gradual decay of the state, small independent principalities appear in Malaya Asia. Foreign policy is complicated: Normans come from the West, from the north - Pechenegs, from the East - Seljuki. Saved Byzantium from the Seljuk Turk, the first crusade. Byzantium managed to return part of his possessions. However, shortly, Byzantium and Crusaders began their struggle among themselves. Constantinople in 1204 was taken by crusaders. Byzantium broke into a number of states, weakly connected with each other.

With the advent of the dynasty of Paleologists (1261-1453), Byzantium managed to strengthen, but its territory decreased noticeably. Soon over the state, a new threat on the part of Osmanov's Turkish, spreading their power over Malaya Asia, bringing it to the shores of the Marmara Sea. In the fight against Ottomans, the emperors began to hire foreign troops, which often paid their weapons against the employers. Byzantium exhausted in the struggle, aggravated by peasant and urban uprisings. The state apparatus has decline, which leads to the decentralization of power and its weakening. Byzantine emperors decide to apply for help to the Catholic West. In 1439, the Florentine Union signed, in which the Eastern Orthodox Church obeyed the Roman dad. However, Byzantium never received real help from the West.
Upon returning the Greeks to the Motherland, the Union was rejected by the majority of the people and the clergy.

In 1444, the Crusaders suffered the most severe defeat from the Turkish Ommans, which were finishing the final blow to Byzantium. Emperor John VIII was forced to seek mercy at Sultan Murad II. In 1148, the Byzantine emperor dies. The last Byzantine Emperor Konstantin XI Paleologica joined the fight against the new Sultan Mehmed Fatih (the conqueror). On May 29, 1453, Constantinople was taken under the blows of the Turkish troops, and with his fall actually ceased to exist and the Byzantine Empire. Turkey turns into one
From the powerful powers of the medieval world, and Constantinople becomes the capital of the Ottoman Empire - Istanbul (from Islam Bulb - "Abundance Islam").

Accepted in East. Science Name of the State-Wa, which emerged in the east. Parts of Rome. Empire in 4 c. and existing to gray. 15nd; Adm., Economic And the cultural center of V. was Constantinople. Officer name On Wednesday. century - Basileia Ton Romaion - Roman Empire (in Grech. Romeev). The emergence of B. How to independently. The state was prepared in the depths of Rome. Empire, where economically more powerful and less affected by the crisis of slave owner. ON-VA Helled East. P-we (M. Asia, Syria, Egypt, etc.) already in 3 V. They tried to politically alternate from Lat. West. Creating a beginning. 4 in. new politics. The center in the East was actually a division of the empire for 2 states and led to the emergence of V. in the continuation of 4 c. Both states sometimes were connected under the rule of one emperor, let's finish. The gap occurred in the con. 4 in. The emergence of V. promoted the economy. Stabilization and delayed the fall of slave owner. Building to east. parts of the Mediterranean. 4 - beginning. 7 centuries. For V., the economies were characterized. Lifting, transformation of a number of AGR. settlements in Crafts and Trade Centers in M. Asia, Syria, Vost. parts of the Balkan P-Ova; the development of trading with Arabia, Black Sea, Iran, India, China; Sealing the population in Syria, M. Asia. In Marxist historiography, the periodization of the history of early V. is associated with the problem of existence in V. Rabivowel. Building, with the stages of transition to feudalism and its development. Most scientists consider V. slave-owned to gray. 7th century (M. Ya. Suzumumov, Z. V. Udaltsova, A. P. Korotan, A. R. Korshunsky), although some believe that V. passes to feudalism already in 4-5 centners., Believing that already in 4 c. The feud began to form. Property, land. Colunt became a form of operation in the village, the work of free craftsmen was used in the city, slavery was maintained only as a dying line (most consistently this t. Pros. defended E. E. Lipschits) (see Discussion on page journals. "Lady", no 2 and 3 for 1953, NO 2 and 3 for 1954, no 1, 3 and 4 for 1955, NO 1 for 1956 and on page journals. "V", no 10 for 1958, no 3 for 1959, no 2 for 1960, Nono 6, 8 for 1961). B. In the last period of the existence of a slave-building (4 - beginning. 7th century). The owners of the Earth V. of this period were the state, to know, church, townspeople, free peasant communities. Members of the Peasant Community (MetroMia) had sections of arable land in private ownership; The sale of land "strangers" was limited (Code of Justinian, XI, 56). The peasants were associated with a circular place; Community relations were regulated by the usual right; Garden and garden crops, viticulture obtained widespread; Main economy. The trend was reduced to the growth of small x-wa. Slavery still retained the prevailing place in society both in the village and in the city. Although the number of slaves entering the military. production, decreased, but the influx of slaves in state-in continued, since neighboring with V. Barbarian tribes, fighting with each other, sold in B. Many slaves (almost unity. Equivalent in trade with V.). Prices for slaves were resistant to continued long time. The slave was still considered a thing, the use of the F-regulation was regulated; The slave was not subject to family law, did not have guaranteed personal property law. However, the influence of new relations affected; The legislation facilitated the leave of slaves to the will, which adopted in 4-6 centuries. Wide scope. The estates of large landowners were processed not only by slaves, but also dependent peasants - enappographs, freedmen, or leased. The slave owners sought to use the benefits of small x-wa. Contrary to the main economy. The tendencies of the era, they tried to rip and attach small landowners to the Earth, the dependence of the rod in the conditions of the domination of slave owner. The relationship was often approaching the slave state (especially in enappographs). Slave owner. Character of society in 4-6 centuries. It was determined not only by the predominance of slave labor in the society, but also to the preservation of slave owner. The superstructure that joined the progressive trends in development. State The device was in the hands of those sucks for nobility that were interested in the conservation of slave ownership property relations. From the wiser. Cities Only part was Crafts and Trade Centers (eg, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, Lodicia, Seleucia, Skitopol, Bible, Caesarea, Beirut, Fessonalki, Trapezount, Ephesus, Smyrna). Most cities are united in municipalities of the settlement of small owners, slave owners. Province. Cities were operated by Konstantinople; Local self-government (curia) has become a recruiting tax system. Most cities in 4-6 centuries. lost his societies. land; A number of settlements that were published before in the district, subordinate to the city, received the rights of Metroomy. Large seams of the province. NORTICs also out of submission to the city, moreover, the election of officials and bishop (which had great importance in self-government) was solved by the surrounding major landowners (Justinian Code 1, 4, 17 and 19). Production in cities was small, artisans hired premises from nobility, church, state. Trade and craft. The associations were associated with the Liturgy system, therefore in the collegium were forcibly included rich citizens and landowners. Taxes and fees for the premises are absorbed means. Part of the surplus product of artisans. Luxury and weapons manufactured in the state. workshops where slave labor prevailed (Code of Justiniana, XI, 8, 6); Legally free also were usually fixed for such workshops and in the case of flights were forcibly returned. In major cities, there was a numerous. Lumpen-proletarian layer, who lived at the expense of either the state (the policy "bread and spectacle"), or mountains. Lighturg. With 4 in. charity. Functions began to be naked on the church and specials. "Bogogenic institutions." The bulk of bread for the capital went from Egypt. Local markets were equipped with ch. arr. suburban x-you: mountains. To know was sought to have "prosainties" (suburban estate) with vineyards, olive groves, gardens, gardens. Despite the devastation caused by barbaric invasions, the severity of taxes, forced the citizens sometimes escape from the city, to 7 century. There were no signs of agricultural cities. The inscriptions, papyrus testify rather about the consolidation of the old and the founding of new cities. The development of the city was based, however, on the development of the soil of degrading slave owner. H-Wa and interrupted in the beginning. 7th century (This t. S., however, is challenged by some scientists). Cities were cultural centers (see Art. Byzantine culture). Those types of antih. Property, which were already actually ceased to exist, were canceled by the Code of Justinian, where a single "full property" was proclaimed. Justinian Law, imbued with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe assurance essence of the state, theoretical. The substantiation of K-Roy was the provision on the deities, the origin of the imperial power, was aimed at the guarantee of the property. Relationship slave owl. about The social database of the monarchy in B. 4-6 centuries. There were mountains. Slave owners: Owners of suburban estates ("Prosastiyev"), homeowners, usurists, traders, from the environment by the purchase of posts was created sinnow. The material base of the monarchy was heavy taxes that absorb it means. Part of the surplus product of slaves and colons. Claus. Fighting in B. 4-6 centuries. It was a protest against a military-fiscal dictatorship, against attempts to artificially delay societies. Development within the framework of slave owner. relationship. With 4 in. She took mostly the shape of Hehetich. movements. In Constantine, Christianity became the dominant religion, which caused an aggravation of the internal. contradictions in the church. Christianity genetically connected with the protest of the oppressed masses, in the 4th century. Saved another democratic. phraseology. Church. Hierarchs and exploitative layers sought to eliminate into Christ. Teaching Democratic. trends; nar. Mass sought to save them. The origin of any "heresy" of that time lies in this contradiction. Departure Hierarchs, based on the mood of the masses, dogmatically made out disagreeable from the dominance. Teaching Church (see Donatists, Arianism, Nesterianism, etc.); In the future, having done "Church", heresy lost his democratic. character. Repressions, restrictions on rights and religation applied against heretics. "Anahedhem" (church. Hierarchy fiercely defended slave owl. relationship). In Egypt and Syria church. Unrest, taking a relig. The shell was also due to separatist moods. Dr. The form of class struggle was the movement of Dimov - the organizations of the mountains. population in circus parties (see Venets and Prasins). Both parties sought to attract nar. Mass, k-rye sometimes opposed the Gneta Rablowel. Gos-Va as a whole, in addition to the will of its leaders (for example, in the "Nika" uprising in 532). B. Ethnically represented the combination of various peoples involved in Hellen-Rome. Statehood and culture. Greek. The population prevailed in Greece, to the east. The coast of the Mediterranean M.; Romanizer lived in the Balkans. The tribes, on Wednesday, the GEM was poured into Wednesday., Alansky and Slav. settlers. In East V. subjugated Armenians, Syrians, Isaver, Arabs, in Egypt - the local Coptic population. Officer Yaz. Latin, who was gradually replaced by Greek from Kon. 5 and 6 centuries. Language of chase The acts were b. h. Greek. Protest against nat. The oppression took the relig. Form (rebellion of Samaritans 529-530). Serious danger to slave owner. B. There were attacks of the barbarians. The rural population of V. Sometimes supported barbarians, hoping to get rid of the fiscal oppression and oppression of landowner. Nobility. But the mountains. Patricate and bargaining. Craft. Layers, fearing barbaric robberies and violations bargaining. connections, desperately defended the city. Among the visant. landowner. Nature existed a layer, ready to get close to the barbaric leaders. In an effort to merge with the military. V. vestment, the leaders of Varvarov went to the service for the visant. PR-WU, which used barbarians as punishers in the fight against nar. movements (especially in cities). V. V. Westges adopted in 376 rebelled, which led to a revolution. Movement among the population of the Balkan P-ov. In the battle of Adrianopol (378), the visant. The army was crushed. However, with the support of the mountains. The population and due to the betrayal of the barbarian leaders, this movement was suppressed in 380 imp. Feodosius I. To con. 4 in. The barbaric element began to prevail in the wiser. The army and hung a real threat to the united speech of barbar slaves with barbarians-soldiers. In the face of this danger, the patrician of Constantinople in 400 made a massacre of Varvarov-mercenaries and supported their slaves, eliminating the threat of barbarian conquest. Overcoming in 5 c. The danger on the side of the sharp and the Huns, the Empire in order to stabilize the slave owner. Relations in the whole Mediterranean switched to Justinian on the offensive against the barbaric states-in the West (Vandalsky, Osthots and Westgot). However, the success of V. turned out to be fragile. In Africa, resistance to the broad masses (rising stump), in Italy - the uprising of the sharpening is under hand. Tothyls with the support of slaves and colons. V. suppressed these movements with difficulty. The difficulties in the East increased, where the Persians, using separatist sentiments, were war against V., seeking to break through the marine bargaining. paths on the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Heavy struggle V. Vela with various tribes, which occurred from the side of the north. Black Sea, chopping their attacks by force of weapons, then bribers of the leaders. With Justinian V., presented the highest degree of its power; However, the aggressive policy of Justinian undermined the power V. and already in the last quarter of the 6th century. V. began to lose its conquests in Italy and Spain. The indigenous changes in the position of the Empire are associated with the onset of the Balkan Pershes of Slavs. Failures in wars with Slavs, the general discontent of the population caused an uprising in the army. Restored in 602 with the support of the mountains. The bottoms were traded by Constantinople and, proclaiming the Emperor Centurion Foku, began to carry out terror in respect of nobility. Regardless of the subjective goals of Foki, its objectively performed progressive functions. After 8 years, the uprising was suppressed, but the dominance. The class as a whole was a crushing blow. Power slave owner. The superstructure was abandoned by the forces striving for social reorganization, given a space. In the 1st floor. 7th century Most of the Balkan P-Oov was settled by the Slavs, and Syria, Palestine and Egypt were lost by V. as a result of Arab conquests. Rannefodal V. In the period of domination of the free peasant community (Ser. 7 - Ser. 9 centuries). As a result of glory. and Arab. conquests of terr. V. decreased. B. This period-country with strong glory. Ethnic. Element. At S. and Z. Balkan, P-Oov, Slavs created their state-based (from 681 - Bulgaria) and assimilated the local population, on Yu. P-Oov and M. Asia, on the contrary, they joined Greek. Nativity. Slavs did not create new social forms in B., but they brought to the vistent. The community is strong lifelines of the generic building that the vistent has strengthened. The community, the character of K-Roy is the subject of discussion. The usual community right was issued by agricultural law (approximately arr. 8th century). Large land tenure is extremely reduced; Sources talk about abandoned, overgrown deposits, the sections of the lands between the peasants ("Merismos"). Apparently, gradual violence occurred. The destruction of the form of the earth. Property, K-paradium based on the work of slaves, enappographs, etc. categories of dependent population. The institute attached to the land of peasants disappeared: neither in the ecologic - legislation. The compilation of the 8th century, who replaced the code of Justinian, nor in a later applied charter did not provide for the attachment to the Earth. Loose cross. The community has become dominant. The community owned by intake, forest, unrequited land, but arable land, obviously, were privately owned. The changes in general were favorable for the peasants - and if in 4-6 centuries. The peasants fled from V. to Varvaram, then with the con. 7 and 8 centuries. from Arab. Caliphate and from Bulgaria There is a flight of the population in B. This allowed the vistent. Prospe to go to the military service villages. Population, Kraya with Ser. 7th century spread throughout the empire; The structure of the army acquired terr. character. New military formed.-Adm. Areas - Fammers, with stratigu at the chapter (Femny device). The command composition of the FEM was formed from consisting. Landowners, the province was made from the renewing environment. Military. - Landowner. Know that becoming feudal. The feudalization process was facilitated by the fact that the freedom of the peasant was relative - although the peasant did not depend on the major landowner, he was in the vice of the state. taxes and debts to Rostovists; Differentiation of the village progressed. Inside the community, various forms of lease and hired work were distributed; Slavery has been preserved. GL The enemy is a cross. The communities at that time were state-in with his tax system and dominance. church. At the end of the 7th century The peasant-Plebean Yerez Pavlikian originated in Armenia. Social shifts of 7-8 centuries. They also affected the city. Some cities remained the centers of the commercial production (Constantinople, thesaloniki, Ephesus). With the loss of Syria conquered by the largest cities, Palestine and Egypt, the role of Constantinople in the history of V. has increased. At the end of 7-8 centuries. Economy. Power of Constantinople Nobles falls, the position of the free craft is strengthened. Commodity circulation decreased. In archaeological Finds of the coin 7-8 centuries. Almost not found. Remote cities, without losing a nominal connection with V., actually achieved independence and turned into an aristocratic., Managed by Patriciath, Republic (Venice, Amalfi, Chersonese). Internal Politics V. of this period was characterized by the struggle of the mountains. and the province. Know, both of the group sought to keep centralized. State-in. End 7 V. marked by the confiscations of the property of ancient mountains. Fames (Terror of Justinian II) in favor of the military. settlements and emerging military. Province. Nobility. In the future, the struggle for the path of feudalization took the form of iconococration, which was born as a Nar. Movement against the oppression of the state and church (Bourges. Historians are considering an iconocobalism from a confessional point of view, seeing in it exclusively an ideological. Fight and tearing it from social and economic. Conditions) Province. Hierarchs, demagogically leading the movement of the masses, was distinguished by his social sense, concentrating the attention of the masses on the issue of the cult of icons. Folding military. - Landowner. The estate used the movement to strengthen its political. and economy. provisions. Pr-in supported iconobocretion, seeking to strengthen the power over the church and master her treasures. The mountains spoke on the side of the icon. Knowing Constantinople associated with her monasticism, bargaining. Centers Eldla and islands. Emperators-iconoclands of Isavi (Syrian) dynasty, confiscative property of mountains. Nobility and recalcitrant monasteries, significantly strengthened the femnoe know and supported the free cross. Community and mountains. Craftsmen. However, the femnoe knows began to use their privileges for the attack on the peasants, which caused the dissatisfaction of the peasants and narrowed the social base of the iconoborets. This led to a big nar. uprising under the hands. Fomas of Slavyanina (820-823) - the first antipode. Movement. In the early period of feudalization in V., Ethnic is strengthened. Pestrot population. Of particular importance acquires the fiction in the ranks of the Byzantine. and arm. Know: A number of emperors and large politicians come from Armenians. and cultural figures. Foreign policy V. was aimed at combating independence. Losing Syria, Palestine, Egypt, huge terr. On the Balkan P-Oves, V. Bang off the onslaught of Arabs and Bulgarians and in Ser. 8 in. Moved to the offensive. Feodalization V. During the rule of the urban sanitary nobility (Ser. 9 - Con. 11th century). Two centuries of the predominance of a free cross. Communities have a positive effect on the development produces. Force: the empty lands were settled, water mills spread wider, yielded yield with. xy. In the 9th century Loose cross. The community became the object of the offensive from the landowner. Nobility, especially after the defeat of the uprising of the Foma Slavyanin. Social struggle aggravated; Part of the peasantry joined Pavlikians, founded at the borders of the Caliphate Military. Center Tamph. Loins. The war ended in 872 by the defeat of Pavlikian, which were partially exterminated, partially relocated to the Balkan ps. Violent. The resettlement was intended to weaken the resistance of the masses in the east and create a military. Clamps from alien population to counter Bulgarians on Z. Mass cross. The lands were captured by the military. Note. Further attack on the cross. The community was carried out by buying land of impoverished peasants, with the subsequent provision of areas of the acquired land to crops on the "Pyrić Law" (see wigs). The feud spread is widely. The dependence of the peasants: a wig, rarely encountered in monuments of 9th century, ch. Figure in the village in the con. 11 V. Slavery to con. 11 V. Almost disappeared, although his individual cases were observed, for example. Sale of children in the years of Nar. disasters. In the process of feudalization changed military. Organization of the population. Nar. The militia has lost importance. Consist. The part of the peasants was included in the stratiti lists (see Pads) with the ad default. Parts of the land is inappropriate. The dimensions of these sections to the gray. 10 V. They were increased due to the introduction of severe cavalry and reached the sizes of the estate (cost 12 liter, approx. 4 kg of gold). Among the stratiov, differentiation was observed: economically weakened lost areas and fell into a dependent state, becoming at the same time a politically unreliable element; More wealthy stratifies had a tendency to join the preferred military-landowner nobility. Hasive territories confiscated during Pavlikian wars served as the basis of the power of the low-immigising nobility, which is 10-11 centuries. Makes attempts to master the state power. With gray 9th century There is a rapid development of cities, especially large seaside ("Emporia"). Concentration of wealth as a result of the formation of the feud. Province property, rapid growth external. trade with countries Vost. Europe, the restoration of marine power on the Aegean m. And in the Adriatic - all this contributed to the development of the craft. Commodity relations strengthened. Grees was restored. Justinian's right (see Prokhron, Epanagoga, Vasiliki). Were codified (t. n. Epara book) Decree on trade and craft. Corporations, in the reached, along with the free owners of Ergasterei, there could be slaves (like Faces Lord). Corporations were granted benefits - advantages. The right to production and trade, the purchase of goods from foreigners. Ergasteriers worked hired workers, little related to the corporation, as well as slaves and disciples. Both the types of products and the profit rate were regulated by the Grador (Epau). Build. Workers were outside the corporations and worked under the hands. Contractors. Life level of the OSN. The masses of artisans were extremely low. The policy of the pr-va was to promote associations in order to facilitate the state. Control and regulation. Despite the remnants of slave owner. Relations, which prevented the development of technology, the craft mostly wore a CP.-century. Character: Small production, associations by profession, regulation. In order to avoid nar. Volatos pr-in sought to ensure the supply of the capital and major cities with the necessary goods; To lesser extent, the state was interested in exporting abroad. Rogue merchants and artisans by buying posts and ranks went to the composition of the surname, refusing direct participation in trade and craft. Activities that weakened the position of the vistent. merchants in his competition with Italian. Internal Politics V. in 9-10 centuries. was carried out in the OSN. In the interests of the mountains. Sanovna, cohesy around the synclite of the nobility seeking to preserve the leading position in state-ve and through taxes, ADM. And the judiciary to exploit the population. Turning the rural population of the province. The landowners (dinates) and the development of private authorities were damaged to the influence of the metropolitan nobility, in the interests of Ki-Roy Macedonian dynasty began to maintain a free cross. The community against dinatov, forbidding them to buy a cross. Earth, and the poor was given benefits to reverse redemption sold land. Peasants-rhodes, the neighbors were given the right to preference when buying a cross. plots. This policy was persistently carried out in a continuation of 10 V. However, the preference rules have created such advantages to a rustic wealthy tip that, from the medium, the peasants themselves began to highlight the markers who were suspended later with the feud. Note. From the 2nd four. 11 V. Visant. Pr-in strengthened the tax oppression, translating natur. Contributions for cash. The significance of the synclith, local court increased. institutions increased the influence of crafts.-bargaining. Corporations, the intervention of nar. MASS (especially in the capital) in politics. a life. At the same time, typical forms of peasantry through the feud were embroidered in the province. Rent. Submission center. State Institutions Mountains. Knight did not fit the underlying power of the province. Feed. land tenure, in connection with this, the struggle between the metropolitan and provinces aggravated. Interlayers for nobility, and the procya lavished between them. After the impact of the iconoclapperity and restoration of iconotability (843), the importance of monasticism and politics increased. The role of the patriarch. Patriarch Fotius spoke with the theory of strong (equal imperial) Patriarch authorities (Epanagoga). The church actively interfered in the struggle of various assholes for power, from here a number of conflicts with imp. Lvom Vi, Nikifor II Fokhu, Isaac Comnin. But the visant. (Orthodox) Church failed to create a strong centralization. Organization, like papacy in the West: and state. The system, and legislation, and the formation in V. were in less dependence on the church than in the West. Differences between the wiser. Feudalism and feudalism in the West led to disagreements between the Vost. and zap. churches. In 9-10 centuries. Disagreements between churches intensified in the struggle for influence in Slav. countries and south. Italy. The convulsions of the hierarchs were warmed by the hatred of trade and craft. Circles of Constantinople to Ital. Competitors. In 1054 followed the "division of churches". In 10-11 centuries. Created large monasters. Feed. Ownership, which received special privileges in the field of taxation and rights on the dependent population. Foreign policy V. of this period was characterized by feud. expansion. At 10 c. A number of victories over the Arabs were obsessed. In Balkans V. in 1018, Bulgaria took possession, strengthened influence in Serbia; It was struggled for preserving positions to the south. Italy and for domination over the Adriatic and Aegean m. In 9th century. B. established a connection with Kievan Rus. In 860, after the reflection of the first campaign of the Russians, Konstantinople V. was able to achieve the baptism of the population of Russia. In 907 as a result of a successful campaign. Oleg V. had to conclude on the basis of equality of the parties mutually favorable bargaining. Treaty, OSN. The provisions of the C-pogo were fixed as a result of hikes 941, 944 and visiting the princes of Olga Konstantinople in 957. In 967 Between V. and Russia began the struggle for Bulgaria, which ended, despite the original. Success KN. Svyatoslav Igorevich, Victory V. in 987 V. entered into an alliance with the CN. Vladimir Svyatoslavich, who helped Vasily II to deal with rebellious feudals. With adoption (approx. 988) KN. Vladimir Christianity by the visant. The rite of intercourse V. With Russia has become even closer. However, V. could not use Christianization for politics. Subordination of Russia. In vet Parts M. Asia V. continued expansion, conducting policies to oppress the Transcaucasian nationalities. In 1045, Armenia was conquered with the center of Ani. The resistance of oppressed ethnicities did the position of V. in the East fragile. All R. 11 V. In the east there was a danger from the Seljuk. Conquered by V. The population was not prone to support the vistent. domination. The result was the defeat of the visant. Army with Manazkert (Manzikert) 1071 and the loss of most M. Asia, conquered by Seljuk. At the same time, V. loses its possessions in Italy as a result of the onset of Yuzhnoytalian Normanov. Along with this, the resistance of the masses in the conquered Bulgaria is enhanced. B. During the period of the domination of the military-feudal (provincial) nobility (con. 11 - Nach. 13 centuries). In 1081, using severe international. Position V., the throne seized the representative of the province. Knight Alexey I Comnin, which managed to reflect the dangerous offensive of Normanov, Pechenegov, Seljuk, and from 1096 I used crusades for the rest of the part M. Asia. By the end of the 11th century. Large provinces. Landowners (comnines, Duki, Angels, Paleologists, Cantakuzins, Vrats, etc.) Steel Osn. dominance. politics. force in state-ve. For 12 V. Institutes of the vistent are issued. Feudalism: Charistic, Proki, Excusion. The progressive ruin of the peasantry led (from 11 c.) To the formation of a special category of "poor" - Actimonov. Monastic centers (especially Athos) became semi-dependent chur. Gos-you. On the contrary, politics. The effect of the white clergy fell. Despite decay political. The influence of the urban surname, V. remained a bureaucrat. Monarchy: Multimitus persisted. staff of financial and judicial officials; chase The right (Vasiliki) has spread to the entire terr. Empire. Still survived the polynomial. Interlayers of an independent peasantry, to the composition of a friend, you can rank and settlements around the military. fortifications (Kastra). Cross. The community struggled against a push from the side of the feudal: sometimes she enjoyed legal forms, referring to the court complaints or to the emperor, and sometimes rose on the path of the arsonists of the Lord's estates. In contrast to the preceding. Period, Osn. By challenging the peasants during this period, it is no longer buying the earth feudal, but state events. authorities. Usually K.L. The person in the form of award was granted the right to collect taxes with the definite. settlements. When manuile, the cross. The lands were widely distributed in the management of inrogenous knights and a small miserable. Feudals. These actions that caused indignation in contemporaries were actually an expropriation of a cross. Property, K-paradium, having made the object of award, passed into the conditional possession of the feudal. We raised in the 12th century. Visant. Feed. Institutions organically rose on local ground, however, since the comnin dynasty relied in part and on Zap.-Europe. Mercenaries-knights, in the vistent. Feed. The right began to appear Zap. Concepts and terms. Transfer power in the hands of the province. No more confirmed privilege. The position of Constantinople, which generally had a positive effect on the economy of the provinces, where crafts and trade took place, den. Appeal. Many agraded 7-8 centuries. Centers have again become cities in economy. sense. In the cities of Eldlaces developed silk proms. However, the komnin dynasty did not take into account the values \u200b\u200bof the mountains. Economy and often at the conclusion of international. Agreements sacrificed the interests of citizens. Privileges Ial. The merchants were adversely affected the cities: in the economy V. received the predominance of bargaining. Capital Latinan. T. about., Was stopped favorably folded for V. The process of creating an internal process. Market and determined the beginning of the economy. Failure V. unsuccessful external. Politics at Manuel I undermined the military. Power V. (in 1176 after the battle of Miriochefalon V. Forever lost most of M. Asia). After the death of Manuil in Constantinople broke out by Nar. Movement against his "western" policy. Latinan's pogrom was confirmed. This took advantage of Andronik Komnin, to-ry, capturing power, tried by terror to revive Centralize. State The device and thereby prevent the decay of the Empire. However, Andronik failed to create supports for his own and influenced by the time, failures in the war against Normanov was overthrown from the throne. The collapse of V. Depth began. Feudals and cities sought to get full independence. Restored versatant. The domination of Bulgarians and Serbs revived their state. The weakening empire was not able to confront the Natik of Franz. Knights and crown. The fleet - Constantinople in 1204 as a result of the 4th crusade hit the hands of the crusaders, which were created by Terr. The Latin Empire conquered by the regions. B. In the period of feudal fragmentation, the heyday of feudalism (beginning 13 - Ser. 15 centuries). V. P was asked to a number of independent feudal regions, of which part at different times was under the rule of French knights, Venetians, Genoesers, Catalan, part fell into the hands of Bulgarians, Serbs, Turks, and the part remained under the rule of the feudal police of Greece (see card); However, the uniformity of economic and social life, the language and cultural community, the preserved East. Traditions allow you to interpret V. as a single state-in in the stage of the feud. fragmentation. Feed. The estate was the OSN. Hose unit. In 13-15 centuries. It was drawn into market ties, sending products through the buyers. x-wa on an externalist market. Barskar, especially on monastery lands, pastures for the Lord's Stud also occupied. Part of the Earth and were serviced by dependent wigs, elephrases (free, not included in the submitted lists), part of the remedy, merging with dependent. The deposits and Tselin were given to the naughters from the "unknown executions of persons", which were also poured into the dependent population (prospecting). The screening books reflected a strong fluidity of the dependent population of the feud. estate. Cross. The community that fell under the authority of the feudal, preserved (eg, is source. testify to the acute struggle of the cross. Communities against monasteries, who strive at the expense of the cross. Earth expand its X-W). Social bundle even more deepened in the village: the low-power worked as rumbers (powered). Cross. Plots, so on. Stati, were inherited. Holding a cross. families. State The peasants had their land, could sell it, give. However, in 13-15 centuries. State The peasants were the object of sucks and easily turned into dependent. Procya in 13-15 centuries. turned into inheritance. Conditional ownership with duties of military. character. Secular feudal feudalists usually lived in cities where they had homes leased workshops. Purgoi - Pyrgi, Castles-Strengths were built in rural areas, - supporting points of the feudal. Mountain riches, saltwalls, alum development was usually state. Property, but surrendered to the spill or gave way to individual nobles, monasteries, ingenians. Littleizant. The city was the centers of S.-H. The territory drawn into external. Trade S.-H. Products (grain, olive, wine, in some areas of silk-raw). Economically stood out ch. arr. Seaside cities. Leading role in external. Trade belonged to bargaining. Capital Ial. cities. V. from the country that made in 4-11 centuries. Luxury items, turned into a country that departs products with products abroad. H-Wa and raw materials. Each area participating in external. trade, was economically torn off from other areas of the country. This prevented the creation of a single internal. Market. Economy. Disobedience prevented nat. Reunion of the country. Constantinople, although no economy was no longer., ADM, the cultural center of the whole country, retained an important place in the international. trade. Sources are distinguished in the cities of Archonts (landowner. Know), Burgesiyev, or Mesoi (wealthy trade and craft. Strike), Plebeian masses. Inside the city of Torg.-Craft. Circles and plebeian masses were struggled against patrician, to-ry sought using feud. Dischaus, strengthen the independence of the city. At the same time, the population in the form of support of Orthodoxy opposed the ITal Zasil. merchants and zap. feudal. Cultural, linguistic and relig. Unity, East. The traditions caused the existence of tendencies to unite V. The leading role in the fight against the LAT. The Empire played the Nicene Empire, one of the strongest Greek. State-c found in the beginning. 13 V. on terr. B., not captured by the Crusaders. Her rulers, leaning on small and medium-sized landowners and cities, managed to drive out Latinan from Constantinople in 1261. However, this victory did not lead to the reunification of V. Foreign Polit. The furnishings and centrifugal forces, weakness and lack of unity in the mountains. The estate made it difficult to unite attempts. Dynasty of Paleologists, fearing the activity of Nar. The masses did not enter the path decide. Fight against large feudalists, preferring dynasty. Marriages, intrigues and feud. Wars using foreign. mercenaries. Foreign policy. The position of V. turned out to be extremely difficult: attempted to recreate the lat from the West. Empire and spread on V. Power Rome. dad; Increased economy. and military. Pressure from Venice and Genoa; Surbs offensive with S.-Z. And the Turks from the East became more successful. Exaggerating the influence of Rome. Pope, visant. The emperors have repeatedly sought to get a military. Assistance by subordination to Greek. Pape Churches (Lyon Union, Florentine Sania), however, Ial's dominance. bargain. Capital and Zap. The feudalists were so hateful to the population that I could not force the people to recognize the Ulya. Like a relig. Reset and internecine wars were an expression internal. contradictions in the country: produces. Forces evolved, some economies appeared. Conditions for the introduction of capitalist. relationship. However, with eliminated. The weaknesses of citizens and the complete domination of the feud. orders of all strengthening external. Trade in Dep. Centers (Mistra, Monemvasia, etc.) only strengthened (economically) feudal. Overcome feud. The fragmentation was impossible without a revolution. Speeches of the masses and the following. Fighting Center. Governments against feud. fragmentation. The decisive period was the 40s. 14th century, when the cross broke out during the struggle of two clicks. traffic. Running on the side of the "legitimate" dynasty, the peasantry has become louded by the estate of rebellious feudalists, headed by John Cantakuzine. Pr-in the apocaution and Patriarch John began to conduct progressive politics, sharply opposing the feud. Aristocracy (confiscation of impositions of nobility) and against the reaction. Mystich. ideology of Isicasts. The townspeople of the Fesalonik, organizing the plebeian masses, supported the apocaution. The movement headed the batch of Zilotov, the program of K-Roy soon accepted the anti-beode. character. Constantinople pr-in was frightened by the activity of the masses and did not use the Nar. traffic. The apochante in 1345 was killed, the struggle against rebellious faeodals actually ceased. In theses, the situation aggravated as a result of the transition of the mountains. Nobility (archons) on the side of Cantakuzine. Pleasured Plebs destroyed most of the mountains. Nobility. However, movement, losing communication with the center. Pros-B, acquired a local character and was suppressed. The collapse of the centralization policy and the defeat of the Nar. The movements in theses marked the final victory of the reaction. Forces. Explaced V. could not oppose the onslaught of the Turks,

Byzantine Empire
Eastern part of the Roman Empire, surviving the fall of Rome and the loss of Western provinces at the beginning of the Middle Ages and existed before the conquest of Constantinople (the capital of the Byzantine Empire) by the Turks in 1453. There was a period when she stretched from Spain to Persia, but Greece and other Balkan Earth, as well as small asia. Until the middle of the 11th century. Byzantium was the most powerful power of the Christian world, and Constantinople was the largest city in Europe. Byzantines called their country "Empire Romeev" (Greek. "Roma" - Roman), but it was extremely very different from the Roman Empire of August. Byzantium has kept the Roman management system and laws, but in the language and culture was a Greek state, had a monarchy of the Eastern type, and most importantly - the Christian faith was zealously kept. For centuries, the Byzantine Empire performed as the keeper of Greek culture, thanks to her, the Slavic peoples were joined to civilization.
Early Byzantium
The foundation of Constantinople. The history of Byzantium would be legitimate from the moment of the fall of Rome. However, two important decisions that determined the nature of this medieval empire is to appeal to Christianity and the foundation of Constantinople, "the Emperor were adopted by Emperor Konstantin I Great (rules in 324-337) approximately one and a half centuries to the fall of the Roman Empire. The ruler shortly before Konstantin Diocletian (in 284-305) reorganized the management of the empire, dividing it into Eastern and Western. After Diocletian's death, the empire turned out to be plunged into a civil war, when several applicants were fighting for the throne, among which Konstantin was also. In 313 Konstantin, smashing their opponents in the West, retreated from the pagan gods, with which Rome was inextricably linked, and declared himself an adherent of Christianity. All his successors, except for one, were Christians, and with the support of the imperial power in the territory of the empire, Christianity soon spread. Another important decision of Konstantin, adopted by him after he became the only emperor, overthrows his rival in the East, was the election as a new capital of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium, founded by Greek Morelods on the European coast of Bosporus in 659 (or 668) BC . Konstantin expanded Byzantium, erected new defensive structures, rebuilt it according to the Roman sample and gave the city a new name. The official proclamation of the new capital occurred at 330 AD.
Fall of Western provinces. It seemed that Konstantin's administrative and financial policy breathed a new life in the united Roman Empire. But the period of unity and prosperity continued not long. The last emperor who owned the whole empire was theeodosius I great (rules in 379-395). After his death, the empire was finally divided into Eastern and Western. For 5 c. At the head of the Western Roman Empire, the mediocre emperors were stood, who were unable to protect their provinces from barbar raids. In addition, the welfare of the western part of the empire always depended on the welfare of the eastern part of it. With the section of the Empire, the West was cut off from the main sources of income. Gradually, the Western provinces broke up into several barbaric states, and in 476 the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire was shifted.
Fight for the preservation of the Eastern Roman Empire. Constantinople and East as a whole were in a better position. At the head of the Eastern Roman Empire, there were more capable rulers, her borders were not so long and better fortified, besides, she was richer and had a more numerous population. At the eastern borders, Constantinople retained its possessions in the endless, the Roman times of wars with the Persia began. Nevertheless, the Eastern Roman Empire also ran into a number of serious problems. The cultural traditions of the Middle Eastern provinces of Syria, Palestine and Egypt were very different from the Greek and Romans, and the population of these territories belonged to the domination of the empire with disgust. Separatism was closely connected with church straightening: in Antioch (Syria) and in Alexandria (Egypt), this and the case appeared new teachings that the universal cathedrals condemned as heretical. Of all the heresies, the most concerns delivered monophimitas. Attempts by Constantinople to achieve a compromise between orthodox and monophysite teachings led to a split between Roman and East Churches. The split was overcome after joining the throne of Justine I (rules in 518-527), unshakable orthodox, but Rome and Constantinople continued to move away from each other in the creed, worship and church organization. First of all, Constantinople objected to Pope's claims on the principle of the entire Christian church. Periodically there were discretions that led in 1054 to the final split (schism) of the Christian Church on the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox.

Justinian I. A large-scale attempt to return power over the West has taken Emperor Justinian I (rules in 527-565). Military trips under the leadership of outstanding commander - Belisarius, and later Nursa ended. Italy, North Africa and South Spain were conquered. However, in the Balkans, the invasion of the Slavic tribes, which turned the Danube and devastating the Byzantine lands, could not stop. In addition, Justinian had to be held a fragile truce with the Persian who followed long and not leading to a certain result of the war. In the very empire, Justinian supported the traditions of imperial luxury. With it, such masterpieces of architecture were erected as the Cathedral of St. Sofia in Constantinople and Church of San Vitaly in Ravenna, also built aqueducts, terms, public buildings in cities and border fortresses. Perhaps the most significant achievement of Justinian was the codification of Roman law. Although other codes were subsequently replaced in the Byzantium itself, the Roman law was based on French laws, Germany and Italy. Justinian had a wonderful assistant - the wife of Theodore. Once she kept him the crown, convincing Justinian to stay in the capital during folk unrest. Feodora supported monophysites. Under its influence, as well as faced with the political realities of the strengthening of monophysites in the East, Justinian was forced to move away from the orthodox position he occupied in the early period of the Board. Justinian unanimously recognize one of the greatest Byzantine emperors. He restored cultural ties between Rome and Constantinople and for 100 years extended the period of prosperity of the North Africa region. In his reign of the empire reached maximum sizes.

The formation of medieval Byzantium
After a half century after Justinian, the appearance of the empire has completely changed. She lost most of his possessions, and the remaining provinces were reorganized. As an official language, Greek came to replace Latin. Even the national composition of the empire has changed. To 8 c. The country actually ceased to be the eastern Roman Empire and became the medieval Byzantine Empire. Military failures began soon after the death of Justinian. The German tribes of Langobards invaded northern Italy and founded independent duchy further to the south. Byzantia retained only Sicily, the extreme south of the Apennine Peninsula (Brutte and Kalabria, i.e. "sock" and "heel"), as well as a corridor between Rome and equal, the place of stay of the imperial governor. The northern borders of the Empire threatened the Asian nomadic tribes of Avar. Slavs joined the Balkans, who began to settle these lands, based on their principalities.
Irakli. Together with the attacks of the Varvarov empire had to withstand a destructive war with a percia. The detachments of the Persian troops invaded Syria, Palestine, Egypt and Malaya Asia. Almost was taken by Constantinople. In 610 Irakli (rules in 610-641), the son of the governor of North Africa, arrived in Constantinople and took power into his hands. He devoted the first decade of government to raise the crushed empire from the ruins. He raised the moral spirit of the army, reorganized her, found the allies in the Caucasus and during several brilliant campaigns defeated Persians. By 628, Persia was finally broken, and the world reigned on the eastern borders of the empire. However, the war undermined the strength of the empire. In 633 Arabs, who accepted Islam and were full of religious enthusiasm, began the invasion of the Middle East. Egypt, Palestine and Syria, which Iraklia managed to return to the empire, were again lost to 641 (the year of his death). By the end of the century, the empire lost North Africa. Now, Byzantium consisted of small territories in Italy, constantly devastated by the Slavs of the Balkan provinces, and in Malaya Asia, the case and the case suffering from the raids of Arabs. Other emperors of the Irakli dynasty fought off the enemies as far as they were in their power. The provinces were reorganized, the administrative and military policy was revised. Slavs for the settlement allocated state land, which made them subjects of the empire. With the help of a skillful diplomacy, Byzantium managed to make allies and trading partners of the Turkic-speaking tribes of the Khazarov, who inhabited land north of the Caspian Sea.
Isaver (Syrian) dynasty. The policies of the emperors of the Irakli dynasty continued Lion III (rules in 717-741), founder of the Isairus dynasty. Isaver emperors were active and successful rulers. They could not return the land employed by the Slavs, but at least they were not able to let the Slavs to Constantinople. In Malaya Asia, they fell off from Arabs, pushing them outside these territories. However, in Italy there were failures. Forced to reflect the raids of the Slavs and Arabs, absorbed by church disputes, they had no time nor means for protecting the corridor, binding Rome with equals, from aggressive Langobards. About 751, the Byzantine governor (Exarch) passed to Langobard's equal. Pope, who himself was attacked by Langobards, received help from francs from the north, and in 800 Pope Leo Lion III crown in Rome Karl the Great as an emperor. Byzantines considered this act of Pope by an encroachment on their rights and in the future did not recognize the legitimacy of the Western emperors of the Sacred Roman Empire. Of particular fame brought the Isavi emperors their role in the turbulent events around the iconocration. Iconobracy is a heretical religious movement against worshiping icons, images of Jesus Christ and Saints. It was supported by the wide sections of society and many clergymen, primarily in Malaya Asia. However, it was contrary to the ancient church customs and was convicted by the Roman Church. In the end, after recovered Icon of the Cathedral 843, the movement was suppressed.
Golden age of medieval Byzantium
Amorior and Macedonian dynasty. The Isair Dynasty changed the amoriyskaya, or Frigian, dynasty (820-867) who was in power (820-867), the founder of which was Mikhail II, in the past, a simple soldier from the city of Amorius in Malaya Asia. Under the emperor Mikhail III (rules in 842-867), the empire entered into the continued almost 200 years (842-1025) the period of the new expansion, forced to remember its former power. However, the amoric dynasty of Vasily, the stern and amperor's amperor's amperor's amperor. The peasant, in the recent past, Klow, Vasily hooked up the post of the great chamber, after which I made the execution of Ward, the powerful Uncle Mikhail III, and a year later dismissed and executed Mikhail himself. According to the origin, Vasily was Armenian, but was born in Macedonia (Northern Greece), and therefore the dynasty founded by him was called the Macedonian. The Macedonian dynasty was very popular and existed to 1056. Vasily I (rules in 867-886) was an energetic and gifted ruler. His administrative transformations continued Lev VI Wise (rules in 886-912), on whom the Empire had fallen by the empire: the Arabs captured Sicily, the Russian Prince Oleg approached Constantinople. The son of Lev Konstantin VII Baghryanorovnoe (rules in 913-959) focused on literary activities, and military affairs fired a co-guarantee, Flotodets Roman I Lacipin (rules in 913-944). Son Konstantin Roman II (rules in 959-963) died four years after the end of the throne, leaving two young sons, to the age of majority of which the outstanding warlords of Nikifor II Fock (in 963-969) and John I Cimiri (in 969 -976). Having reached the age of majority, the son of Roman II entered the throne under the name of Vasily II (rules in 976-1025).

Successes in the fight against Arabs. Military successes of Byzantium under the emperors of the Macedonian dynasty took place mainly on two fronts: in the fight against Arabs in the East, and with Bulgarians in the north. The promotion of Arabs into the inland areas of Malaya Asia was still stopped by Isaver emperors in the 8th century, however, Muslims were strengthened in the southeastern mountainous areas, from where it and the case arranged raids on Christian regions. The Arab Fleet dominated the Mediterranean. Sicily and Crete were captured, and Cyprus was under full control of Muslims. In the middle of the 9th century The position has changed. Under the pressure of major landowners of Malaya Asia, who wanted to push the borders of the state to the east and expand their possessions at the expense of new lands, the Byzantine army invaded Armenia and Mesopotamia, established control over the Mountains of the brand and captured Syria and even Palestine. The joining of two islands - Crete and Cyprus had a nontime importance.
War against Bulgarian. In the Balkans, the main problem in the period from 842 to 1025 was a threat from the first Bulgarian kingdom, which was arranged in the second half of the 9th century. States of Slavs and Turkic-speaking proto-rolley. In 865, the Bulgarian Prince Boris I introduced Christianity among the people suspended to him. However, the adoption of Christianity in no way cooled the ambitious plans of the Bulgarian rulers. Boris's son, Tsar Simeon, spared several times in Byzantium, trying to capture Constantinople. His plans were broken by the Flotodian Roman Lacipin, which later became the co-atomper. Nevertheless, the empire had to be alert. At the critical moment, Nikifor II, who paid the focus of conquests in the East, as the help of Svyatoslav in the cultivation of Bulgarians to the Kiev Prince, but found that the Russians themselves seek to take the place of Bulgaria. In 971 John I finally cooled and drove the Russians and joined the Eastern part of Bulgaria to the empire. Bulgaria was finally conquered by his successor to Vasily II during several fierce campaigns against the Bulgarian Tsar Samuel, who created the state with the capital in the city of Ohrid in Macedonia (Sovr. Ohrid). After in 1018 Vasily took Ohrid, Bulgaria was divided into several provinces in the Byzantine Empire, and Vasily received the nickname Bulgaroboetz.
Italy. The situation in Italy, as happened before, was less favorable. With Alberika, "Princeps and senator of all Romans", the papal authorities belonged to Byzantium without a prediction, but since 961 control over the dads switched to the German king of Otton I from the Saxon dynasty, which in 962 was crowned in Rome as the Emperor of the Sacred Roman Empire. Otton sought to conclude an alliance with Constantinople, and after two unsuccessful embassies in 972 he still managed to achieve for his son Ottone II of Faofano, the relatives of Emperor John I.
Internal achievements of the Empire. During the reign of the Macedonian dynasty, the Byzantines have achieved impressive success. Literature and art flourished. Vasily I created a commission that was entrusted to revise the legislation and formulate it in Greek. With the son of Vasily, Lev VI was drawn up a collection of laws, known as basilica, partially based on the Code of Justinian and actually replaced him.
Missionary. Equally important in this period of development of the country had missionary activities. Her Kirill and Methodius began, which as preachers of Christianity among Slavs reached Moravia (although in the end the region turned out to be in the sphere of influence of the Catholic Church). The Balkan Slavs inhabited by Byzantia, the Slavs accepted Orthodoxy, although it did not cost without a short breaking with Rome, when the tricky and unprincipled Bulgarian Prince Boris, seeking privileges for the church just created, put on Rome, then to Constantinople. Slavs received the right to hold worship in their native language (Staroslavlyansky). Slavs and the Greeks jointly trained priests and monks and translated religious literature from Greek. Approximately a hundred years later, in 989, the church achieved another success, when Kiev Prince Vladimir accepted Christianity and established the close connections of the Kiev Rus and its new Christian church with Byzantia. This union was bonded by the marriage of the native sister Vasily Anna and Prince Vladimir.
Patriarchhood of Foto. In recent years, the Board of the Amoriy Dynasty and the first years of the Macedonian dynasty, Christian unity was undermined by a major conflict with Rome in connection with the appointment of Foto, Mirianin of great scholarship, Patriarch Konstantinople. In 863, Dad announced the appointment of not legal strength, and in response to 867 the church cathedral in Constantinople announced the displacement of the Pope.
Sunset Byzantine Empire
Crash 11 V. After the death of Vasily II Byzantium, the period of the reign of mediocre emperors took place to 1081. At this time, an external threat was hanging over the country, which in the end led to the loss of the empire most of the territory. From the north, the Turkic-speaking nomadic tribes of the Pechenegs, devastating land to the south of the Danube. But much more crushing for the empire were losses incurred in Italy and Malaya Asia. Starting from 1016, Normans, served by mercenaries in endless minor wars, were rushed to the south of Italy. In the second half of the century, they began to conduct conquering war under the leadership of the ambitious Robert Gwiscara and very quickly mastered all south of Italy and expelled Arabs from Sicily. In 1071, Robert Gwiscar took the last fortress left for the Byzantium in the south of Italy and, crushing through the Adriatic Sea, invaded the territory of Greece. Meanwhile, the raids of the Turkic tribes on Malny Asia. By the middle of the century, south-western Asia was captured by the armies of the Cells of the Channels, which in 1055 won the weakened Baghdad Khalifat. In 1071, the Seljuk ruler Alp-Arslan broke the Byzantine army led by the emperor Roman IV Diogen in the battle of Manzikert in Armenia. After that, the defeat of Byzantium was not able to recover, and the weakness of the central authorities led to the fact that Turks poured into Malny Asia. Selzhuki created a Muslim state here, known as the Rumsky ("Roman") Sultanat, with the capital in Icon (Sovr. Konya). At one time, the young Byzantium managed to survive the invasion of Arabs and the Slavs in Malaya Asia and Greece. To collapse 11 in. They have led special reasons, not related to Namannov and Turks. The story of Byzantium between 1025 and 1081 is marked by the residence in the authority of exclusively weak emperors and destructive parties between the civilian bureaucracy in Constantinople and military land aristocracy in the provinces. After the death of Vasily II, the throne turned first to his talent brother Konstantin VIII (rules in 1025-1028), and then to his two elderly nieces, Zoe (rules in 1028-1050) and Feodore (1055-1056), the latest representatives of the Macedonian dynasty. The Empress Zoe was not lucky with three husbands and a foster son, which was not long in power, but still devastated the imperial treasury. After the death of Theodore, the policy of Byzantium passed under the control of the party, at the head of which there was a powerful family of the Duk.

Comnin dynasty. Further decline of the empire was temporarily suspended with the coming to power of the representative of the Military Aristocracy Alexey I Comnin (1081-1118). Comnin Dynasty Rules up to 1185. Alexey did not have the strength to drive out Selzhuks from Asia Minor, but at least he managed to conclude an agreement with them that stabilized the situation. After that, he began fighting Normans. First of all, Alexey tried to use all his military resources, and also attracted mercenaries from Seljuk. In addition, the price of significant trade privileges, he managed to buy Venice support with her fleet. So he managed to restrain the ambitious Robert Gwiscara, who secured in Greece (Mind 1085). Having stopped the promotion of Normanov, Alexey again took up Seljuk. But here he seriously prevented the movement of the Crusaders began in the west. He hoped that mercenaries would serve in his army during campaigns in Malaya Asia. But the 1st Crusade, which began in 1096, pursued the goals that differed from Alexei outlined. Crusaders saw their task in simply to drive out of the wrong Christian holies, in particular from Jerusalem, while they often ruined the provinces of Byzantium itself. As a result of the 1st Crusade, the Crusaders created on the territory of the former Byzantine provinces of Syria and Palestine new states, which, however, have long existed. The influx of crusaders in the eastern Mediterranean weakened the position of Byzantium. By the history of Byzantium, during comments, it is possible to characterize as a period of non-revival, but survival. Byzantine diplomacy, which has always been considered the greatest heritage of the empire, succeeded in the bleeding of the states of the Crusaders in Syria, strengthened Balkan states, Hungary, Venice and other Italian cities, as well as the Norman Sicilian Kingdom. The same policy was carried out towards various Islamic states that were sworn enemies. Inside the country, the polishes policy led to the strengthening of large landlords due to the weakening of the central government. As a remuneration for military service provincial knew huge possessions. Even the power of comnins could not suspend the sliding of the state towards feudal relations and compensate for the loss of income. Financial difficulties were aggravated by a reduction in receipts from customs fees in the port of Constantinople. After three outstanding rulers, Alexey I, John II and Manuel I, in 1180-1185, the weak representatives of the comNNIN dynasty were in power, the last of which was Andronik I Comnin (rules in 1183-1185), who had an unsuccessful attempt to strengthen the central government. In 1185, the throne captured Isaac II (rules in 1185-1195), the first of the four emperors of the Angels dynasty. Angels have laid no means or a nature of character in order to prevent the political breakdown of the Empire or withstand the West. In 1186, Bulgaria returned independence, and in 1204, a crushing blow from the West collided to Constantinople.
4th crusade. From 1095 to 1195 through the territory of Byzantium, three Waves of Crusaders were held, which were repeatedly arranged here. Therefore, every time the Byzantine emperors were in a hurry to pay them as soon as possible beyond the limits of the empire. When Comnotines, Venetian merchants received trade concessions in Constantinople; Very soon, most foreign trade has moved to them from the owners. After joining the throne Andronika Comnin in 1183, the Italian concessions were withdrawn, and Italian merchants are either interrupted by the crowd or sold into slavery. However, the emperors from the angels dynasty after Andronicus who came to power were forced to restore trade privileges. The 3rd crusade (1187-1192) turned into a complete failure: Western barons were completely unable to restore control over Palestine and Syria, which were conquered during the 1st crusade, but are lost after the 2nd Crusade. Device Europeans rushed envious views on Christian relics collected in Constantinople. Finally, after 1054, there was an obvious split between the Greek and Roman churches. Of course, Pope never immediately called for the storm by Christian Christian city, but they sought to use the established position in order to establish direct control over the Greek Church. In the end, the Crusaders turned their weapons against Constantinople. The pretext for the attack was the displacement of Isaac II angel by his brother Alexei III. The son of Isaac fled to Venice, where he promised the elderly on Enrico Dandolo money, assisting the Crusaders and the Union of Greek and Roman churches in exchange for support from Venetian in the restoration of his father's power. The 4th crusade organized by Venice with the support of the French military was turned against the Byzantine Empire. Crusaders landed at Constantinople, having met only symbolic resistance. Usurped the power of Alexey III ran, the emperor again became Isaac, and his son was crowned as Soviemaker Alexei IV. As a result of the erupted national uprising, the power was changed, the elderly Isaac died, and his son was killed in prison, where was concluded. Ground Crusaders in April 1204 took Constantinople storming (for the first time since its foundation) and destroyed the city of looting and destruction, after which the feudal state was created here, the Latin empire, led by the Balduin I Flanders. Byzantine lands were divided into feudal possessions and transferred to French baron. However, the Byzantine princes managed to maintain control over three districts: Epirus despotal in the North-West of Greece, the Nicea Empire in Malaya Asia and the Trapezund Empire on the southeastern coast of the Black Sea.
New takeoff and final collapse
Restoration of Byzantium. Latinan power in the Aegean Sea area was, generally speaking, not too durable. Epirus, the Nicene Empire and Bulgaria competed with the Latin Empire and each other, performing attempts by military and diplomatic means to return control over Constantinople and expel the Western feudalists who have secured in various districts of Greece, in the Balkans and in the Aegean Sea area. The winner in the struggle for Constantinople became the Nicea Empire. July 15, 1261 Konstantinopol without resistance surrendered to Emperor Mikhail VIII Paleologu. However, the ownership of the Latin feudalists in Greece was more persistent, and the Byzantines did not succeed with them. The victory in the struggle by the Byzantine Dynasty of Paleologists, by Constantinople, up to its fall in 1453. The possessions of the empire were significantly reduced, partly as a result of invasions from the West, in part due to the unstable situation in Malaya Asia, in the middle of the 13th century. Mongols invaded. Later, its large part was in the hands of small Turkic bayyliki (principalities). In Greece, Hispanic mercenaries were commissioned from the Catalan company, which one of Paleologists invited to fight the Turks. Within the limits of significantly shortened boundaries with splitting on the part of the empire, the Paleologists dynasty in the 14th century. We teleshed civil universities and discord on religious grounds. The imperial power was weakened and drove to the primacy over the semi-ferrous lotion system: instead of governors, responsible before the central government, the land was transferred to members of the imperial family. The financial resources of the empire were so exhausted that the emperors largely depended on loans provided by Venice and Genoa, or from assigning wealth in private hands, both secular and church. Most of the trade in the territory of the Empire was monitored by Venice and Genoa. At the outcome of the Middle Ages, the Byzantine Church strengthened significantly, and its strict confrontation of the Roman Church became one of the reasons why the Byzantine emperors did not succeed in achieving military assistance from the West.

Drop Byzantium. At the end of the Middle Ages, the power of Ottomans intensified, which initially ruled in a small Turkish dwarf (cross-border die away), removed from Constantinople, only 160 km. During the 14th century. The Ottoman state climbed to the hands of all other Turkish areas in Asia Minor and penetrated the Balkans that previously belonged to the Byzantine Empire. Wise Internal Consolidation Policy Together with Military Excellence provided the Ottoman sovereigns of domination over them with the contradictions of Christian opponents. Only the cities of Konstantinople and Thessaloniki plus small anklava in Southern Greece remained from the Byzantine Empire. Over the past 40 years of its existence, Byzantium was actually Vassal Ottomans. She was forced to supply recruits to the Ottoman army, and the Byzantine Emperor had to personally appear at the call of sultans. Manuel II (rules in 1391-1425), one of the brilliant representatives of Greek culture and Roman imperial traditions, visited the capital of European states in a futile attempt to achieve military assistance against Ottomans. On May 29, 1453, Constantinople was taken by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II, while the last Byzantine emperor Konstantin XI fell in battle. Athens and Peloponnese lasted a few more years, Trapezund fell in 1461. Turks renamed Constantinople to Istanbul and made it the capital of the Ottoman Empire.

State device
Emperor. Throughout the Middle Ages, the tradition of monarchical authorities inherited by Byzantia from the Hellenistic monarchies and the Imperial Rome was not interrupted. The entire control system of Byzantium was based on the belief that the emperor is the chosen one of God, his governor on earth, and that the imperial power is reflected in the time and space of the highest power of God. In addition, in Byzantium, it was believed that her "Roman" empire had the right to universal power: in accordance with the widely spread legend, all state trucks in the world formed a single "tsarist family", headed by the Byzantine emperor. The autocratic form of government was the inevitable consequence. Emperor, from 7 c. Wearing the title "Basil" (or "Vasilev"), solely determined the internal and external policies of the country. He was the supreme legislator, the ruler, the defender of the Church and the commander-in-chief. Theoretically, the emperor was elected by the Senate, the people and the army. However, in practice, the decisive voice belonged to either a powerful party of the aristocracy, or what happened much more often, the army. The people burly approved the decision, and the elected emperor walked to the kingdom of Constantinople Patriarch. On the emperor, as a representative of Jesus Christ on Earth, a special duty to defend the church was entrusted. The church and the state in Byzantium were closely connected with each other. Their relationships are often determined by the term "Caesarepapism". However, this term that implies the subordination to the Church to the state or the emperor, in part in misleading: in fact, it was about interdependence, and not about submission. The emperor was not the head of the Church, he did not have the right to fulfill the religious duties of the clergy. However, the court religious ceremonial was closely connected with the divine service. There were certain mechanisms that supported the stability of the imperial power. Often, children crowded immediately after birth, which provided continuity dynasty. If the Emperor became a child or an unable ruler, it was customary to crown the younger emperors, or co-guards who could belong to the ruling dynasty, and could not belong to it. Sometimes commander's commanders or fleets became the co-guards, who first acquired control over the state, and then legalized their position, for example, by marriage. So the fleet of Roman I Lacipin and the commander Nikifor II Fock (rules in 963-969) came to power. Thus, the most important feature of the Byzantine system of government was the strict continuity of dynasties. Sometimes there were periods of the bloody struggle for the throne, civil wars and ineptly reigns, but they lasted a short time.
Right. The determining impulse by Byzantine law gave Roman law, although traces and Christian, and Middle Eastern influences are clearly felt. The legislative power belonged to the emperor: the changes in the laws were usually introduced by the imperial edicts. For codification and revision of existing laws from time to time, legal commissions were created. Older codes were in Latin, the most famous of them are the Digests of Justinian (533) with additions (novels). Obviously Byzantine in character was compiled in Greek a collection of basilica laws, work on which began in 9th century. With Vasily I. Up until the last stage of the history of the country, the church had a very small influence on the right. Basilica even canceled some privileges obtained by the Church of the 8th century. However, gradually the influence of the church increased. In 14-15 centuries. The head of the courts have already set both laity and clergy. The areas of activity of the church and state largely crossed from the very beginning. Imperial codes contained positions related to religion. Justinian Code, for example, included the rules of behavior in monastic communities and even tried to determine the goals of the monastic life. The emperor, like the Patriarch, was responsible for the proper administration of the church, and only the secular power had funds to maintain the discipline and execution of punishments, whether in church or in secular life.
Control system. The administrative and legal system of Byzantium was inherited from the late Roman Empire. In general, the authorities of the Central Government - the Imperial courtyard, the treasury, the court and the secretariat functioned separately. At the head of each of them stood a few dignitaries, directly responsible to the emperor, which reduced the danger of the appearance of too strong ministers. In addition to real posts, there was a carefully developed rank system. Some were assigned to officials, others were purely honorable. Each title corresponded to a certain uniform that was put on official events; The emperor personally paid an annual remuneration to the official. In the provinces, the Roman administrative system has been changed. In the late Roman Empire, civil and military management of the provinces was divided. However, since the 7th century, due to the needs of defense and territorial concessions, the Slavs and Arabs, both military and civilian power in the provinces focused in some hands. New administrative-territorial units were called fams (a military term denoting the Army Corps). Fammes often received the name on the corps based in them. For example, the case of the bookkelion received its name according to the bookkelor regiment. For the first time, the system of the FEM appeared in Asia Minor. Gradually, within 8-9 centuries, a local government system in Byzantine possessions in Europe was reorganized, similarly, was reorganized.
Army and fleet. The most important task of the empire, which practically continuously behaved, was the organization of defense. Regular military buildings in the provinces submitted to military leaders, simultaneously - governors of the provinces. These buildings, in turn, were divided into smaller subdivisions whose commanders were responsible both for the relevant army unit and for the order in this area. Along the borders, regular border posts were created, at the head of which stood so-called. "Acrylics", which have become actually undisguised borders in the constant struggle against the Arabs and Slavs. Epic poems and ballads about the hero of Digenis Acryite, "Mr. borders born from two peoples," they chased and exalted this life. The best troops were quartered in Constantinople and at a distance of 50 km from the city, along the Great Wall defended the capital. The Imperial Guard, who possessed special privileges and worship, attracted the best soldiers from abroad: at the beginning of the 11th century. These were warriors from Russia, and after the conquest of England by Normans in 1066 - many of the angles expelled from there. In the army served canonira, masters specializing in fortifications and sieges, had artillery to support infantry, as well as a heavy cavalry, which was the backbone of the army. Since the Byzantine Empire owned a multitude of islands and had a very extended coastline, it was vital for the fleet. The solution of naval tasks was entrusted to the seaside provinces in the south-west of Malaya Asia, the coastal districts of Greece, as well as the islands of the Aegean Sea, which were obliged to equip ships and provide them with sailors. In addition, the fleet under the command of a high rank fleet was based in the district of Konstantinople. Byzantine military vessels differed in size. Some had two rowing decks and up to 300 rowers. Others were smaller, but developed a greater speed. The Byzantine Fleet was famous for its destructive Greek fire, whose secret was one of the most important state secrets. It was an incendiary mixture prepared, probably made of oil, sulfur and nitrate and thrown into enemy ships with a catapult. The army and the fleet were completed part of the local recruits, part of foreign mercenaries. From 7 to 11 V. In Byzantium, the system was practiced in which residents were provided with land and a small fee in exchange for service in the army or fleet. Military service passed from his father to the eldest son, which provided the state a constant inflow of local recruits. At 11 c. This system was destroyed. The weak central government deliberately ignored the needs of the defense and allowed residents to bother off the military service. Moreover, local landlords began to assign themselves the land of poor neighbors, actually turning the latter in the fortress. In the 12th century, during the reign of the comNNIs and later the state had to make certain privileges and exemption from submissions in exchange for the creation of their own armies. Nevertheless, at all times of Byzantium, it was largely dependent on military mercenaries, although the funds for their maintenance laid a heavy burden on the treasury. It is even more expensive since the 11th century, the Empire was supported by the Military Fleet of Venice, and then Genoa, which was necessary to buy generous trade privileges, and later and direct territorial concessions.
Diplomacy. The principles of the defense of Byzantium attached a special role of her diplomacy. As long as it was possible, it was never saved to hit foreign states with luxury or to buy potential enemies. Embassies to foreign courtyards brought magnificent artworks or brickwear as gifts. Important envoys who arrived in the capital were accepted in a large palace with all the magnificence of imperial ceremonies. Young states from neighboring countries often brought up in the Byzantine yard. When a union was important for the policy of Byzantium, there was always an opportunity to propose a marriage with a member of the imperial family. In the late middle ages, marriages between the Byzantine Tsarevichi and Western European brides were the usual phenomenon, and since the crusades in the veins of many Greek aristocratic families, Hungarian, Norman or German blood flowed.
CHURCH
Rome and Constantinople. Byzantium was proud to be a Christian state. By mid 5 c. The Christian church was divided into five large areas under the control of the Supreme Bishops, or Patriarchs: Roman in the West, Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandrian - in the East. Since Constantinople was the eastern capital of the Empire, the corresponding Patriarchate was considered the second after Rome, the rest had lost importance after in the 7th century. They were traded by Arabs. Thus, Rome and Constantinople turned out to be the centers of medieval Christianity, but their rites, church policies and theological views were gradually more and more removed from each other. In 1054, the papal legate betrayed Anathema Patriarch Mikhail Kerulia and "His Followers", in response, he received Anathema Cathedral, who gathered in Constantinople. In 1089, Emperor Alexei I thought it seemed that the schism was easily overcome, but after the 4th crusade in 1204 discrepancies between Rome and Constantinople, there was so clearly that nothing could force the Greek church and the Greek people to abandon the split.
Clergy. The spiritual head of the Byzantine Church was the Patriarch of Constantinople. The decisive voice in his appointment was behind the emperor, but the Patriarchs were far from always turned out to be puppets of the imperial power. Sometimes the patriarchs could frankly criticize the actions of the emperors. Thus, the Patriarch of Polyevk was refused to crown Emperor John I Cimirius until he refuses to marry the widow of the opponent killed by him, Empress Fefano. Patriarch headed the hierarchical structure of the white clergy, where Metropolitans and bishops, which were held at the head of provinces and dioceses, "Autochefal" Archbishops who did not have bishops, priests, deacons and readers, special Cathedral ministers, such as the keepers of archives and treasury, And also rents that were responsible for church music.
Monasticism. An integral part of the Byzantine society was a monasticism. Arriving in Egypt at the beginning of the 4th century, the monastic movement over the long generations ignited the imagination of Christians. In organizational terms, it took different forms, and the Orthodox they were more flexible than Catholics. Two main types were a hostel ("film") monasticism and highlighting. Choosing a hostel monasticism lived in monasteries under the leadership of the rebels. Their main tasks were contemplation and committing a liturgy. In addition to monastic communities, there were associations called laurels, the lifestyle in which was an intermediate stage between film and lags: monks here were going together, as a rule, only on Saturdays and Sundays for the service and spiritual communication. Hermits put on various kinds of vows. Some of them, called stylists, lived on the pillars, others, dendrites - on the trees. One of the numerous centers of both earrings and monasteries was Cappadocia in Malaya Asia. The monks were inhabited in the cells cut down in rocks called cones. The aim of hermites was privacy, but they never refused to help those who suffer. And the more sainted a person was considered, the more the peasants appealed to him for help for all questions of everyday life. If necessary, help from monks received both rich and poor. In the monasteries were removed by widowed empress, as well as dubious persons in politically; Poor could count on free funeral; Orphans and elders monks surrounded care in special homes; patients were keen in monastic hospitals; Even in the poorest peasant hut, the monks provided needed friendly support and gave them advice.
Theological disputes. Byzantines inherited their love for discussions from the ancient Greeks, that the Middle Ages usually found an expression in disputes on issues of theology. This tendency to disputes led to the spread of heresies, accompanied the entire history of Byzantium. At the dawn of the empire, Ariana denied the divine nature of Jesus Christ; Nestorian believed that the Divine and human nature existed in it separately and apart, never fully merging into the same personality of the embodied Christ; Monophysites adhered to the opinions that only one nature is inherent in Jesus Christ - Divine. The Arianism has lost its position in the east after 4 century, but the eradication of Nestorianism and Monophizite has never been completely successful. These flows flourished in southeastern provinces - Syria, Palestine and Egypt. The split sects are preserved and at the Board of Muslims, after these Byzantine provinces were conquered by Arabs. In 8-9 centuries. The iconoborets opposed the reverence of images of Christ and Saints; Their teachings for a long time was the official teaching of the Eastern Church, which was shared by emperors and patriarchs. Dualistic heresses caused the greatest concern, which considered that only the spiritual world is the kingdom of God, and the material world is the result of the activities of the lowest devilian spirit. The reason for the last major theological dispute was the doctrine of Isihazme, which split the Orthodox Church in the 14th century. The speech was about the way, what a person could know God even in life.
Church cathedrals. All Ecumenical Cathedrals in the period before the division of churches in 1054 were held in the largest Byzantine cities - Constantinople, Nija, Halkidone and Ephesus, which testified both the important role of the Eastern Church and the wide distribution of heretical teachings. The 1st Ecumenical Cathedral was constructed by Konstantin Great in Nica in 325. Thus, a tradition was created, in accordance with which the emperor was responsible for preserving the purity of the creed. These cathedrals were at the advantage of church assembly of bishops, which were responsible for developing rules relating to the creed and church discipline.
Missionary activity. The eastern Church gave missionary at least forces than Roman. The Byzantines turned into the Christianity of the Southern Slavs and Russia, they began its spread among the Hungarians and the Velikomolevsky Slavs. Traces of influence of Byzantine Christians can be found in the Czech Republic and Hungary, are undoubted their huge role in the Balkans and in Russia. Starting from 9 c. Bulgarians and other Balkan peoples were closely in contact with the Byzantine Church, and with the civilization of the empire, since the church and the state, missionaries and diplomats operated hand in hand. The Orthodox Church of Kievan Rus was directly subordinate to Patriarch Konstantinople. The Byzantine Empire fell, but her church survived. As the Middle Ages approached the end, the church of the Greeks and the Balkan Slavs acquired more and more authority and was not broken by even the domination of the Turks.

Socio-economic life of Byzantium
A variety inside the empire. The population of the Byzantine Empire, diverse on ethnic composition, was combined with an affiliation to the empire and Christianity, as well as to some extent were influenced by Hellenistic traditions. Armenians, Greeks, Slavs had their own linguistic and cultural traditions. However, the Greek language has always remained the main literary and state language of the Empire, and their free possession of them was certainly required from an ambitious scientist or politics. There was racial or social discrimination in the country. Among the Byzantine emperors were Illyrians, Armenians, Turks, Frigians and Slavs.
Constantinople. The center and focus of the whole life of the empire was its capital. The city was ideally located at the intersection of two great trade routes: land between Europe and South-West Asia and the sea between the black and Mediterranean seas. The sea route led from black to the Aegean Sea through a narrow strait of the Bosphorus (Bosporus), then through a small, gritted marble sea and, finally, another strait - Dardanelles. Immediately before leaving the Bosphorus to the Marmara Sea to the shore, a narrow sick-shaped bay, which is called the Golden Horn. It was a magnificent natural harbor who defended the ships from dangerous headsturies in the strait. Constantinople was erected on triangular cavity between the Golden Horn and the Marmara. On both sides, the city was protected by water, and from the West, from the Sushi side, - durable walls. In 50 km west passed another strip of fortifications, known as a large wall. The majestic residence of the imperial power was also a shopping center for merchants of all conceivable nationalities. More privileged had their own neighborhoods and even their churches. The same privilege was given by the Anglo-Saxon Imperial Guard, which at the end of the 11th century. She belonged to a small Latin Church of St. Nicholas, as well as Muslim travelers, merchants and ambassadors who had their own mosque in Constantinople. Residential and trade neighborhoods are mostly adjacent to the Golden Rogue. Here, as well as on both sides of the beautiful, covered in the forest, the steep slope, towering over the Bosphorus, residential neighborings rose and monasteries and chapels were erected. The city grew up, but the heart of the empire remained a triangle, at which the city of Konstantin and Justinian originally arose. There was a complex of imperial buildings, known as a big palace, and next to him the temple of St. Sofia (Ayia Sofia) and the Church of St. Irina and St. Sergius and Vakha. Nearby were the hippodrome and the building of the Senate. From here Mesa (mid-street), the main street, led to the western and southwest part of the city.
Byzantine trade. In many cities of the Byzantine Empire, trading flourished, for example, in Thessaloniki (Greece), Ephesus and Trapezund (Small Asia) or Chersonese (Crimea). Some cities had their specialization. Corinth and Fiva, as well as Constantinople himself, were famous for the production of silk. As in Western Europe, merchants and artisans were organized in the guild. A good idea of \u200b\u200btrade in Constantinople gives up 10 V. The book of the Epara, containing a list of rules for artisans and traders as goods of everyday consumption, such as candles, bread or fish, and luxury objects. Some luxury items, such as the best silk and brocade, could not export. They were intended only for the imperial yard and could only be exported abroad as imperial gifts, for example kings or caliphs. The importation of goods could only be carried out in accordance with certain agreements. A number of trading agreements were concluded with friendly peoples, in particular with the eastern Slavs, created in the 9th century. Own state. In the great Russian rivers, Eastern Slavs descended to the south, in Byzantium, where they found ready-made markets for their goods, mainly fur, wax, honey and slaves. The leading role of Byzantium in international trade was based on income from port services. However, in the 11th century. Nased economic crisis. Golden Solid (famous in the West as "Besant", the monetary unit of Byzantium) began to depreciate. In the Byzantine trading, the Italians are dominated by the Italians, in particular Venetians and Genoesers who have achieved such excessive trading privileges, which was seriously exhausted by an imperial treasury, which lost control over most of the customs fees. Even trading paths began to bypass Constantinople side. At the end of the Middle Ages, the Eastern Mediterranean flourished, but all the riches were not in the hands of the emperors.
Agriculture. Even more important than customs fees and trade articles, there have been agriculture. One of the main sources of revenue in the state was land tax: they were subject to large land tenure and agricultural communities. Fear of tax collectors pursued small landowners, who could easily go broke due to poor crop or loss of several cattle heads. If the peasant threw the land and escaped, the share of the tax, as a rule, was charged with his neighbors. Many small landowners preferred to become dependent tenants from major landowners. Attempts by the central power to turn this trend did not have much success, and by the end of the Middle Ages, agricultural resources were focused in the hands of large landlords or were owned by large monasteries.
Wikipedia

After falling the Western Roman Empire in 476, under the blows of the German tribes, the Eastern Empire was the only surviving power to preserved the tradition of ancient world. Eastern or Byzantine Empire managed to save the tradition of Roman culture and statehood during the years of its existence.

Base of Byzantium

The history of the Byzantine Empire is adopted by the foundation of the Roman emperor by the Konstantin Great Cities of Constantinople in 330. He was also called new Rome.

The Byzantine Empire turned out to be much more stronger than the Western Roman Empire for a number of reasons :

• The slave-ownership structure in Byzantium in the Epoch of the early Middle Ages was developed weaker than in the Western Roman Empire. The population of the Eastern Empire was 85% free.
• The Byzantine Empire continued to maintain a strong relationship between the village and the city. A fine land farm has been developed, which instantly adapts to the changing market.
• If you see what territory is the Byzantium, you can see that the state included extremely developed economically, for those times, regions: Greece, Syria, Egypt.
• Thanks to the strong army and fleet, the Byzantine Empire has quite successfully withstood the onslaught of barbaric tribes.
• In the major cities of the empire, trade and craft have been preserved. The main productive force was free peasants, artisans and small merchants.
• The Byzantine Empire accepted Christianity as the main religion. This made it possible to quickly establish a relationship with neighboring countries.

Fig. 1. Map of the Byzantine Empire in the 9th and early 11th centuries.

The internal device of the political system of Byzantium was not very different from the early-conductive barbaric kingdoms in the West: the power of the emperor relied on large feudalists, who were from military leaders, know Slavs, former slave owners and officials.

Chronology of the Byzantine Empire

The history of the Byzantine Empire is customary to divide into three main periods: the Runnevizante (IV-VIII centuries), the Meshdvyzansky (IX-XII centuries) and the Lienszantine (XIII-XV BB).

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In summary of the capital of the Byzantine Empire of Constantinople, it should be noted that the main city of Byzantium was further raised after the absorption by the barbaric tribes of the Roman provinces. Up to the IX century, buildings of ancient architecture are built, accurate sciences are developing. In Constantinople, the first highest school was opened in Europe. A real miracle of the creation of human hands was the temple of St. Sophia.

Fig. 2. Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople.

Earlyzantine period

At the end of the IV-early V centuries, the borders of the Byzantine Empire covered Palestine, Egypt, Frakia, Balkans and Maly Asia. The Eastern Empire was significantly ahead of the Western barbaric kingdoms on the construction of large cities, as well as on the development of crafts and trade. The presence of shopping and military fleet made Byzantium the largest naval power. The flourishing of the empire continued until the XII century.

• 527-565 The Board of Emperor Justinian I.
  The emperor proclaimed an idea or recorder: "Restoring the Roman Power". For the sake of achieving this goal, Justinian led conquest war with barbaric kingdoms. Under the blows of the Byzantine troops, the states of Vandals in North Africa were defeated in Italy.

On the captured territories, Justinian I introduced new laws that were called "Justinian Code", slaves and columns were transmitted to previous owners. This caused extreme discontent of the population and was in the future one of the reasons for the sunset of the Eastern Empire.

• 610-641 The Board of Emperor Irakli.
  As a result of the invasion of Arabs, Byzantium has lost Egypt in 617. In the east, Irakli refused to fight with Slavic tribes, giving them the opportunity to strive along the borders using them as a natural shield against nomadic tribes. One of the main merits of this emperor is the return of the life-giving cross in Jerusalem, which was removed from the Persian king Hoshrov II.
• 717 year. Siege Arabs Konstantinople.
  Almost a whole year of the Arabs unsuccessfully stormed the capital of Byzantium, but in the end and not taking the city and throwing away with great losses. In many ways, the siege was repulsed thanks to the so-called "Greek fire".
• 717-740. Leo Board III.
  The reign of this emperor was noted by the fact that Byzantium not only successfully led war with Arabs, but also that the Byzantine monks were trying to spread the Orthodox faith among Jews and Muslims. With the Emperor, Lield III was forbidden to reveal the icons. Hundreds of most valuable icons and other works of art related to Christianity were destroyed. The iconocringence continued until 842 years.

In the late VII-early VIII centuries, the reform of self-government bodies was held in Byzantium. The empire began to share not on the province, but on the chaff. So the administrative districts began to be called, who headed stratags. They possess the authorities and independently peaked the court. Each FEMA was obliged to set a stratia militia.

The Meshnevyazansky period

Despite the loss of the Balkan lands Byzantium, still, consider the mighty power, because its military fleet continued to dominate the Mediterranean. The highest power of the empire continued from 850 to 1050 and is considered the era of "classical Byzantium".

• 886-912 The reign of Lion Vi Wise.
  The emperor pursued the policy of previous emperors, Byzantia during the reign of this emperor continues to defend themselves from external enemies. Inside the political system, the crisis was called, which was expressed in the confrontation of the patriarch and the emperor.
• 1018 The joining of Bulgaria to Byzantium.
  The northern borders will be strengthened by the baptism of Bulgaria and the Slavs of Kievan Rus.
• 1048 The years of Seljuk Turks under the leadership of Ibrahim Inalla invaded the Transcaucasus and took the Byzantine city of Erzemum.
  The Byzantine Empire lacked forces to protect southeastern borders. Soon the Armenian and Georgian rulers recognized themselves dependent on the Turks.
• 1046 year. Peace treaty between Kievan Rus and Byzantia.
  The emperor Byzantium, Vladimir Monomakh, married his daughter Anna for Kiev Prince Vsevolod. The relationship between Russia with Byzantium was friendly, there were many conquering campaigns of ancient Russian princes against the Eastern Empire. At the same time, it is impossible not to note the huge influence that the Byzantine culture has provided for Kievan Rus.
• 1054 year. Great schism.
  There was a final split of the Orthodox and Catholic churches.
• 1071 year. Normans were taken by the city of Bari in Apulia.
  The last support point of the Byzantine Empire in Italy fell.
• 1086-1091 War of the Byzantine Emperor Alexey I with the Union of Pecheneg Tribal and Kuman.
  Thanks to the cunning politics of the emperor, the union tribes of nomads broke up, and the pechenegs were decisive defeat in 1091.

Since the XI century, the gradual decline of the Byzantine Empire begins. The division on the fems has heal itself due to the growing number of large farmers. The state was constantly subjected to sides of the outside, unable to fight numerous enemies. The main danger was the Selzhuki. During the clashes, Byzantines managed to clear from them the southern bank of Malaya Asia.

LEVERNIZATION period

Since the XI century, the activity of Western European countries has increased. Crusader's troops, raising the flag of the "Defenders of the Merry Coffin", attacked Byzantium. Unable to fight numerous enemies, the Byzantine emperors use mercenaries army. At the Sea of \u200b\u200bByzantium used the fleet Pisa and Venice.

• 1122 year. The forces of Emperor John II Comnina reflected the invasion of Pechenegs.
  Continuous wars with Venice are underway to the sea. However, Selzhuki was the main danger. During the clashes, Byzantines managed to clear from them the southern bank of Malaya Asia. In the fight against the Crusaders, the Byzantines managed to clean the Northern Syria.
• 1176 year. The defeat of the Byzantine troops at Miriochefal from the Turks-Seljuk.
  After that, the defeat of Byzantium finally proceeds to the defensive wars.
• 1204 year. Constantinople fell under the blows of the Crusaders.
  The basis of the troops of the Crusader was the French and the Genoese. Central Byzantium occupied by Latinians is formed into separate autonomy and is referred to as the Latin Empire. After the fall of the capital, the Byzantine Church was under the jurisdiction of Pope, the Supreme Patriarch was appointed Tomazo Freezing.
• 1261 year.
  The Latin Empire is completely cleaned from the Crusaders, and Constantinople was liberated by the Nicene Emperor Mikhail VIII Paleologic.

Byzantium during the reign of Paleologists

During the reign of Paleologists in Byzantium, there is a complete decline of cities. Dilapidated cities looked especially slaughter on the background of flowering villages. Agriculture experienced a rise, caused by the high demand for the products of feudal victuchin.

The dynastic marriages of Paleologists with the Royal Yards of Western and Eastern Europe and the constant close contact between them were the reason for the appearance of their own heraldry at the Byzantine rulers. The genus of Paleologists was the first to have their own coat of arms.

Fig. 3. The coat of arms of the Paleologists dynasty.

• In 1265, Venice monopolized almost all the trade in Constantinople.
  Between Genoa and Venice launched a trade war. Often, the stabbing between foreign merchants occurred in the eyes of a local sevahouse on urban areas. Strangling the domestic market of sales Emperor Byzantine rulers caused a new wave of hate to themselves.
• 1274 year. The conclusion of Mikhail VIII Paleologus in Lyon New Ulya with Pope.
  The exercise was the conditions of the rule of Roman's Pope over the Christian world. This finally split society and caused a number of unrest in the capital.
• 1341 year. The uprising in Adrianopol and the Dessalonics of the population against magnates.
  The uprising was headed by Zlotto (jealous). They wanted to take away the land and property in the church and magnates for the poor.
• 1352 year. Osmans are captured by Adrianopol.
  From him they made their capital. They were taken by Tsimpe's fortress on the Gallipol Peninsula. Further promotion of the Turks to the Balkans did not prevent anything.

By the beginning of the 15th century, the territory of Byzantium was limited to Constantinople with districts, part of central Greece and the islands in the Aegean Sea.

In 1452, the Omman Turks began the siege of Constantinople. May 29, 1453, the city fell. The last Byzantine Emperor Konstantin II Paleologist died in battle.

Despite the prisoner of Byzantium with a number of Western European countries, it was not necessary to count on military assistance. So, during the siege of Constantinople, Turks in 1453, Venice and Genoa sent six military vessels and several hundred people. Naturally, they could not have any essential help.

What did we know?

The Byzantine Empire remained the only ancient power to preserved his political and social system, despite the great resettlement of peoples. With the fall of Byzantium, a new era begins in the history of middle ages. From this article, we learned how many years did the Byzantine Empire existed, and what influence it was the state to the countries of Western Europe and Kievan Rus.

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Maximum territorial expansion of Roman (Green) and Byzantine Empires (blue). The red line demonstrates the separation of the Roman Empire to the eastern and western parts.

First period

The first period extends to the beginning of the VIII century, its initial moments are chronologically definition, just as the date, distinguishing the end of the ancient and the beginning of a new story. In the sense of the volume and content of historical material, there should be facts that characterize and prepare Byzantinism, at least they chronologically treated the blooming pore of the Roman Empire. The same ethnographic coup, which in the West prepared the transition from an ancient history to the middle, gradually accomplished in the east. The difference lies in the fact that the West has fully made the extraction of new peoples, being absorbed by German immigration, the East found more adaptability to new historical conditions and experienced a critical era with less loss for himself. In the fight against Goths and Gunns, the empire suffered only temporary losses. It was more harder to position in the VI and VII centuries, when the Empire, on the one hand, was experiencing an Natisk on the part of Avar and Slavs, on the other - Persians. The victories of Justinian (527-565) and Heraclia (610-641) detained the head of external enemies and determined the political tasks of the empire for the future. The most important thing of the kings of this period was the organization of the relationship of Slavs to the Empire. This task was achieved by the system for placing the Slavic tribes in Western and Eastern provinces, providing free land for agricultural culture and non-interference in the internal order of the Slavic community. As a result, the outskirts of the empire acquired a settled agricultural population, which was a barrier against unexpected invasions of new enemies; Military and economic funds have increased so much that the hazardous danger of Arabic conquest had no disastrous consequences for the empire.

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Second period

Third period

The period of the scenes ended in 867 by the coming to power of the Macedonian dynasty. The third period lasts from the entry into the throne of Vasily I Macedonian to Alexey I Comnotine (867-1081). From the side of the East, the most important event was the conquest of Crete Island from Arabs in 961. An essential feature of this period in the field of foreign policy history is the most expressive and passing after the entire period of war with Bulgarians. Then the first time was the question of the political role of the Slavic element. Simeon Bulgarian adoption of the royal title and the device of an independent church administration claimed to transfer the primacy into the Slavs in the Empire. The theater of hostilities was transferred from Adrianopol and Filippopol to Greece and to Dardanelles. The participation of the Kiev Prince Svyatoslav in this war was accompanied by the disastrous consequences for the Slavic movement. In 1018, the Byzantines captured the capital of the first Bulgarian kingdom, the city of Ohrid, Bulgarians were defeated and their territory became part of the empire.

Temporary strengthening of the empire (11th century)

Byzantine Empire by 1025.

In 1019, won Bulgaria, Armenia [ ] and Iberia [ ], Vasily II celebrated the Great Triumph the greatest strengthening of the empire since the time preceding the Arab conquest. Finished the picture the brilliant state of finance and the flowering of culture. However, at the same time, the first signs of weakness began to appear, which was expressed in strengthening feudal fragmentation. Knowing who controlled huge territories and resources often successfully opposed itself to the central government.

The decline began after the death of Vasily II, when he was brother Konstantine VIII (1025-1028) and under the daughters of the latter - first with the wise and three consistently changed each other husband - novel III (1028-1034), Mikhail IV (1034-1041), Konstantine Monomakh (1042-1054), with which she divided the throne (Zoya died in 1050), and then at the farodore (1054-1056). The weakening manifested themselves even more sharply after the cessation of the Macedonian dynasty.

The fourth period

Byzantine Empire in 1180

The fourth period - from the entry into the throne of Alexey I Comnin to 1261. All interest in the period is mainly focused on the struggle of the European West with the Asian East. Crusading movement (see Crusades) inevitably had to touch on the Byzantine Empire and put it in the need to take care of their own possessions. The leaders of the crusaded militias lose little losing sight of the initial goal of the movement - the Holy Earth and the weakening of the power of Muslims and come to the thoughts on the conquest of Constantinople. All the wisdom of the politicians of the kings of the kings (Alexey and Manuel) focused on keeping the elements hostile empires in equilibrium and prevent the predominance of one of them over the other. As a result, political unions concluded alternately with Christians against Mohammedan, then back; From here, especially the crusaders of the first campaign, the phenomenon - Polovtsy and Pechenezh hordes in the Empire Service.

In 1204, the crusaders of the fourth hike were traded by Constantinople and divided the empire among themselves. But the handful of Patriots, led by Theodore I Laskaris, retired in Nice, and there was a grain of political movement against Latinians and the hearth of freedom, to which the thoughts of all Hellenes rushed. Mikhail VIII Paleologists in 1261 pushed Latinan from Constantinople.

In more or less close connection with the events of crusades, there are secondary facts of this period. In the East, Selzhuki Turks appear, which use cross campaigns to spread their power by the Byzantine Empire. In the West - on the one hand, the Normans, established in southern Italy and Sicily, make personal scores with the empire in the crusading movement and threaten the sea possessions of Byzantium, on the other - Bulgarians produce a full revolution of cases in the Balkan Peninsula. Peter and Asen's uprising at the end of the XIIV was accompanied by the liberation of Bulgaria and the formation of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom, which had a tendency to unite the interests of the entire Slavs in the Balkan Peninsula. The interests of the Bulgarian kingdom and the Nicea Empire coincided for some time due to the general danger from Latinan; But with the transfer of the capital back to Constantinople, the political antagonism, which was successfully used by Ottoman Turks.

Fifth period

The fifth period covers time from 1261 to 1453. The facts of the external and internal history of this last period are determined by the exceptional conditions in which the kingdom of Paleologists was located. By the conquest of Constantinople, Mikhail VIII Paleologist uses every effort to connect under its authority those who were alien to the domination of the province of the Empire. To do this, it enters into very grave and burdensome agreements with Genoa and Venice, sacrificing in favor of these trade republics by the essential interests of the empire; In the same considerations, he made very important concessions to the dad, giving consent to the Ulya with the Roman Church (