Dates and events in the history of the Middle Ages. What does the history of the Middle Ages study? Time frame and major events of the Middle Ages History of the Middle Ages main dates and events

Asia, Africa, America in the V - IX centuries. During the period of history, which we define for Europe as the early Middle Ages, Western European civilization was by no means the leader in terms of its level of development. A number of Asian civilizations, such as Chinese, Indian, Iranian, and later Arab-Islamic, far surpassed Western Europe both in economic development and in the sphere of culture. Unlike Europe, where the population lived compactly in a relatively small area, non-European civilizations were peculiar centers, often separated from one another by vast territories inhabited by people whose main occupations were still hunting, gathering, and nomadic cattle breeding. Contacts between civilizations were weak. For example, the civilizations of America until the end of the Middle Ages generally existed in isolation from the civilizations of other parts of the world.
The wealth of agricultural civilizations attracted nomads, and the invasions of militant nomadic tribes were a typical phenomenon, and above all for the medieval history of Asian civilizations. Most nomadic invasions were repulsed, but there are many cases when they managed to destroy one or another civilization, or the conquerors were included in the system of social relations of the country they conquered, which allowed them to overcome the existing barrier between barbarism and civilization.
The most advanced civilization of the early Middle Ages was the Chinese. Many nomadic tribes lived in the neighborhood of China, and therefore a characteristic phenomenon of the Chinese Middle Ages was an almost constant struggle with nomads.

Gradually, the Tobis abandoned their nomadic life, adopted the Chinese language, Buddhism, and Chinese customs. At the end of the VI century. China was again united under the Chinese emperors. From the beginning of the 7th century, the Tang dynasty began to rule in the country. The reign of the emperors of this dynasty lasted almost 300 years. In recent decades, Tang China has been shaken by civil strife, peasant uprisings, and nomadic invasions. The final blow was dealt by the peasant war led by Huang Chao. And although the uprising was crushed, the Tang dynasty fell a few years later. China broke up into many states. A long period of bloody and devastating civil strife ensued.
The highly developed Chinese civilization had a great influence on its neighbors. This was achieved through conquests (for example, Korea and Vietnam). When the Japanese created their own state, Tang China was taken as a model for its structure. For some time in Japan, Chinese was the language of communication among people from high society, the language of literature.
In the first half of the 7th c. Arab nomads began their conquests under the banner of Islam. For several decades, the rulers of the Arab Caliphate managed to subjugate many countries and peoples and create a huge power, the territory of which stretched from Northern India to the Iberian Peninsula. This power included peoples of different civilizations, including those that were formed in antiquity (for example, Egypt, Iran, part of India), as well as many tribes that still lived in the conditions of primitive society. All these diverse peoples with their different levels of social development, with their unique culture, different languages ​​were united under the rule of Arab rulers and Islam. Mutual influence, synthesis of cultures of peoples took place in the caliphate, as a result of which a peculiar culture developed, an Arab-Islamic civilization arose.
The Caliphate reached its greatest prosperity by the 9th century, but by the end of this century it had broken up into many States, of which the Fatimids (with its center in Egypt) and the Korlov Caliphate on the Iberian Peninsula were the most stable.
North India at the beginning of the 4th century. united under the rule of the Gupta dynasty. Several small states arose in the south of Hindustan. From the middle of the 5th c. the southern Huns began to attack the power of the Gupta, who at the beginning of the VI century. dealt her a devastating blow. In the first half of the 7th c. North India was again united under the rule of Harsha, but soon after his death this power was defeated by Chinese troops. This was followed by an Arab invasion, but the conquerors failed to advance beyond the Indus Valley. In the rest of India, there were many states that waged frequent wars among themselves.
On the African continent from the end of the II century. until the end of the ninth century. on the territory of modern Ethiopia there was a Christian (from the 4th century) state of Aksum. Internal turmoil and the onslaught of Muslim Arabs (this conflict began with the Ethiopian seizures in the south of the Arabian Peninsula) led to the collapse of this African power.
In the lower reaches of the Niger River in the VIII century. (perhaps much earlier) the state of Ghana was formed, which controlled the trade route along this African river to the Arabs of North Africa. Salt came from the Arabs, which the merchants of Ghana exchanged for gold.
During the early Middle Ages, the Toltec and Maya civilizations developed in America. The capital of the Toltec state was located on the site of the modern city of Mexico City. This civilization reached its heyday in the VI-VII centuries. At the end of the 7th c. the capital of the Toltecs was destroyed, apparently by the invasion of tribes from the north. And although in the ninth century. the Toltecs managed to revive their state with a new capital, yet under the new onslaught of neighboring tribes they were forced to leave the territory of Mexico.
On the Yucatan Peninsula and to the south of it, the Maya Indians created several of their states. But at the end of the 1st millennium AD. the Maya left their southern territories for unknown reasons, perhaps due to the invasion of neighboring tribes or the depletion of the land that provided the main food for agriculture! chesky population.
Non-European Civilizations in the High Middle Ages. For many Asian civilizations, this period was a time of fierce struggle against the nomads. The apogee of this struggle was the Mongol invasion in the 13th century.
After the fall of the Tang Dynasty in the north of China, nomads, the Khitans and Tanguts, who broke in there, created their own states. In the XII century. A new invasion of nomads followed - the Jurchens defeated the Khitans and formed their own state in the occupied Chinese territories. Long and out-; tedious wars were fought with the Jurchens by the rulers; Chinese Song Dynasty, which united under its rule the territories of China, free from foreign yoke. In fact, only South China remained under the rule of the Sung dynasty.

13th century brought disaster unprecedented in the history of China. Having subjugated all the Mongol nomadic tribes at the beginning of this century, Genghis Khan chose China, which seemed fabulously rich for the Mongols, as the first object of his aggression. Some Su emperors at first underestimated the enemy, hoping that in civil strife the barbarians would weaken each other, they even helped the Mongols in defeating the Jurchen-nei. The Mongols devastated Northern China (according to some estimates, before their conquest, about 50 million people lived there, and by the end of the 13th century - only about a million). Contrary to the calculations of the Sung emperors, the Mongols immediately after conquering the north of the country moved to the possessions of the Song dynasty. However, like no other country, the conquerors had to overcome the resistance of the Chinese for a long time. The generation of China by the Mongols lasted almost 70 years. The conquerors moved their capital from Mongolia to China. The foreign yoke was extremely heavy. Taxes have increased several times. The Chinese were forbidden to occupy places in the state administration, to have weapons, to turn on the light at night, to move at night.
Simultaneously with heavy wars in China, the Mongols launched devastating attacks in the western direction. They conquered Central Asia, Iran, Volga Bulgaria (here, after the victory on the Kalka River over the Russian-Polovtsian army, the Mongols suffered a severe defeat, for which in 1236 this Muslim country was literally wiped off the face of the earth), Ancient Russia. In 1241, under the command of Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, the Mongols moved into the depths of Europe. Their main onslaught fell on Hungary - such was the traditional path of the steppe nomads from the East, for the Hungarian steppes provided enough food for their horses. At the same time, the Mongols attacked Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Moldova, and Romania. The victories were given to the invaders with ever greater difficulty. In pursuit of the Hungarian king, they reached the Adriatic coast, and here the Mongol offensive bogged down. Batu withdrew his troops to the Volga, where he founded his own state, known as the Golden Horde.
After the completion of the Mongol conquest of Iran, another Mongol state arose there, ruled by the Hulagu dynasty, the grandson of Genghis Khan. The rulers of these Mongolian states, formed on the occupied lands, did not recognize the power of the great khan, who settled in Beijing, over themselves.
The Mongols failed to conquer Japan. When in 1274 they landed on the island of Kyushu, they met there unprecedented resistance from the samurai. The next landing of the conquerors was destroyed by a typhoon. Japan was one of the few countries of the Middle Ages that could not be conquered by any foreign conquerors.
The gri of the Mongols' campaign in Vietnam also ended in failure. The Vietnamese guerrilla tactics and the harsh jungle climate forced the Mongols to abandon their attempts to conquer this country, which had only recently achieved independence from China.
India was also attacked by the Mongols North of India by this time was captured by the rulers of the Muslim states based in Afghanistan and Iran. In 1206, the Muslim governors of the conquered Indian territories created their own state there - the Delhi Sultanate. The Mongols repeatedly invaded this country, reached Delhi, but could not capture it. At the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century. The Delhi sultans subjugated almost all of India.
The Muslim conquest from North Africa also swept into Tropical Africa. And although the domination of the Moroccans over Ghana did not last long, from the second half of the 11th century. Islam began to spread there. This conquest weakened Ghana, and in the XIII century. the most powerful state of the river basin. Niger becomes Mali.
In the east of the African continent in the XIII century. Ethiopia was again united under the rule of the Christian dynasty.
In America on the Yucatan Peninsula in the XI century. united the Mayan states. Along the Pacific coast of South America, other Indian peoples created their states, among which were the Incas.
Political map of Asia, Africa and America in the XIV - XV centuries. The Mongol yoke had a very detrimental effect on the fate of many Asian civilizations. The greedy conquerors were never able to maintain their dominance over the occupied lands. The Mongol conquests led to the decline not only of the conquered peoples and states, but also of Mongolia itself, which, after the collapse of the Mongol states created outside of it, turned out to be fragmented and became prey for neighboring nomadic tribes.
In neighboring Japan, which did not know the foreign yoke, the period of the XIV - XV centuries. was a time of strife, which unleashed princes who did not obey the central government with their samurai troops.
Central and Western Asia, freed from Mongol oppression, at the end of the XIV century. subjected to a new devastating invasion of the Central Asian conqueror Timur. His power collapsed shortly after the death of the leader, nicknamed "lame" because of a wound in his leg. This made it possible to strengthen the Turkish state in Asia Minor, which arose back in the 11th century. In the XIV - XV centuries. the Ottoman Turks, subjugating the Turkish states in Asia Minor, managed to capture the Balkan Peninsula, Moldova, the territory of present-day Romania. The event that shocked Europe was the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. This year (the year of the end of the Hundred Years War in Western Europe, the last stronghold of the Christian world in the Balkans collapsed. From now on, the main threat to Europe came from the growing power of the Ottoman Empire.
Timur's invasion of India put an end to the existence of the Delhi Sultanate, the country broke up into many small principalities.
By the end of the XV century. the Reconquista was completed on the Iberian Peninsula - the Spaniards defeated the last of the Arab states that existed there - the Emirate of Granada.
Africa in the fifteenth century. in the river basin Niger becomes the new hegemon instead of Mali, the Songhai state. In the XIII century. in the lower reaches of the Congo River, a state arose founded by the Bakongo tribes. At the end of the XV century. its king converted to Catholicism. Ethiopia also remained Christian.
In the region of Lake Chad, the state of Kanem existed since the early Middle Ages. Its heyday falls on the 13th century. At the end of the XIV century. under the onslaught of grays, the rulers of Kanem, together with their subjects, were forced to move from the eastern to the western shore of Lake Chad.
In America, by the time the Europeans appeared there, the state of the Incas was the most significant, ter. whose territory stretched in a long strip along the South American coast of the Pacific Ocean. During the XV century. the rulers of the Incas enslaved many neighboring peoples and created their own huge power with a diverse population, where the Incas formed the ruling layer.
In the same XV century. The once united Maya power broke up into many states. To the north of the Maya in the territory of modern Mexico at the beginning of the 15th century. the Aztecs created a league of three city-states, where the main role belonged to Tenochtitlan (now the city of Mexico City is located on this site), and soon conquered vast territories. The arrival of Western Europeans put an end to the independent development of the civilizations of the American Indians.

7th century the rise of Islam. Creation of a single Muslim state in Arabia - the Arab Caliphate.
7th-8th centuries - the period of extensive Arab conquests. Accession to the Arab caliphate of Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Libya, Iran, the western part of North Africa, Spain, southern and southwestern regions of France.
681 - the emergence of the First Bulgarian kingdom.
732 - The defeat of the Arabs by the Franks at Poitiers. The advance of the Arabs into Western Europe was stopped.
768–814 - Reign of Charlemagne. Expanded the boundaries of the kingdom. He strove for the centralization of power (he controlled the activities of the counts with the help of "state envoys"). Encouraged the forced Christianization of the population of the conquered lands. Domestic policy contributed to the process of feudalization of Frankish society - the establishment of feudal land dependence of the peasantry and the growth of large land ownership.
800g. - the formation of the empire of Charlemagne. Presentation of the imperial crown to Charlemagne in Rome.
843 - Treaty of Verdun. The division of the empire of Charlemagne between the grandchildren of Charlemagne: Lothair received the territory of Italy and lands along the Rhine and Rhone - later Lorraine, Charles the Bald - lands west of the Rhine, Louis the German - lands east of the Rhine.
IX century - educational activities of Cyril and Methodius. Creation of Slavic writing - Cyrillic.
962 - the formation of the Holy Roman Empire, headed by the German Emperor Otto I. It included Germany, Northern and a significant part of Central Italy, some 1000g. - Establishment of the Kingdom of Hungary.
1054 - the division of the Christian Church into Western Roman Catholic and Eastern Greek Catholic (Orthodox).
1066 - Norman Conquest of England. The defeat by the Normans, led by William the Conqueror, of the Anglo-Saxon King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings. Establishment of direct vassalage of all feudal lords from the king and the king's ownership of the land. The final subordination of the peasants to the seigneurial power. Contributed to the completion of the process of feudalization.
1096 - Beginning of the Crusades. They were held under the slogan of the liberation of Christian shrines in Palestine from the rule of Muslims. Participants: chivalry, large seigneurs, peasantry, merchants.
The ideological inspirer and organizer of the campaigns was the Catholic Church.
1096–1099 - The First Crusade. Proclaimed by Pope Urban II in 1095. The first crusader states were formed: the county of Edessa and the principality of Antioch.
1099 - Conquest of Jerusalem by the crusaders. The creation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, in vassal dependence on it were the rest of the crusader states in the East.
XII century - the creation of the state and the Ncs in South America.
1192 - the seizure of power in Japan by shoguns from the samurai clan of Minamoto (ruled until 1333).
1147–1149 — The Second Crusade. Reason: the capture of the Seljuks in 1144. city ​​of Edessa. The campaign was led by the French king Louis VII and the German king Conrad III, failed.
1154–1189 - the reign of the English king Henry II Plantagenet Henry of Anjou), the first of the Plant Genet dynasty. Carrying out reforms to strengthen royal power and limit the power of feudal lords.
1180–1223 - reign of the French king Philip II Augustus. Pursuing a policy of centralization of the state, increasing the royal domain, limiting the independence of the feudal nobility). Return of Normandy and other areas in the north and south of the country that belonged to the English king.
1189–1192 - The Third Crusade, caused by the conquest of Jerusalem in 1187. Egyptian sultan Salah ad-din (Saladin). The campaign was led by the emperor of the "Holy Roman Empire" Frederick I Barbarossa, the French king Philip II Augustus and the English king Richard I the Lionheart. Jerusalem remained in Muslim hands.
1202–1204 - The Fourth Crusade. Organized by Pope Innocent III. Conquest of the Christian cities of Zadar in Dalmatia and Constantinople. Creation on the territory of the Byzantine Empire of the states of the crusaders is the largest - the Latin Empire).

Stone Age.

About 1.5 million years ago - The first archanthropes appeared in Europe

600-150 thousand years ago - the Lower Paleolithic

150-40 thousand years ago - the Middle Paleolithic

40-35 thousand years ago - The first Cro-Magnons - people of the modern type

40-10 thousand years ago - the era of the late Paleolithic

10-5 thousand years BC – warming since the last ice age

6-3 thousand years BC - Neolithic period. People move to a productive economy (cattle breeding and farming)

Bronze Age.

19th-18th centuries BC. - The birth of the first kingdoms on the island of Crete.

XVII-XV centuries BC. - Cretan Civilization.

XVII-XIII centuries BC. - Archean ancient Greek kingdoms.

XV-XIII centuries BC. - The origin and development of the Mycenaean civilization.

OK. 1470 BC - The decline of the Mycenaean civilization began.

1240-1230 BC. — War for Troy.

End of XIII-XII centuries. BC. - The end of the Mycenaean civilization.

Iron age.

Beginning of the 1st millennium BC The Iron Age began in Europe.

Ser. 8th-late 6th centuries BC. - Greek Archaic. The era of Greek colonization.

776 BC - The birth of the Olympic Games.

753 BC - Founding of Rome.

VII-II centuries. BC. – The settlement of the Eastern European steppes by the Scythians

616 BC - Capture of Rome by Etruscans from Lydia.

594-593 BC. - The Athenian reign of Solon.

451-450 AD BC. - The basic laws of the Roman Republic were adopted.

447-432 BC. - Construction of the Parthenon in Athens.

443-429 BC. - Years of the reign of Pericles in Athens.

431-404 BC. - War of Athens and Sparta (Peloponessian).

405-367 BC. - The reign of the Greek tyrant Dionysius the Elder.

359-336 BC. - The reign of Philip of Macedon.

343-290 BC. — Samnite Wars.

340-338 BC. — Second Latin War. The victory of Rome and the abolition of the Latin Union.

338-337 BC. - Corinthian Congress. Establishment of Macedonian hegemony in Greece. Formation of the Panhellenic Union.

336-323 BC. - The reign of Alexander the Great.

334-324 BC. - Eastern campaign of Alexander the Great.

323-322 BC. - Lamian war between Greece and Macedonia.

323 BC - Partition of the empire of Alexander the Great.

306-305 BC. - Agreement between Rome and Carthage on the division of spheres of influence.

301 BC — Battle of Ipsus. The second division of the empire of Alexander the Great.

Turn of IV-III centuries. BC. - Tribal formations of the Celts in Western Ireland.

280-275 AD BC. - The war of the Romans with Pyrrhus, king of Epirus.

OK. 280-146 AD BC. – Achaean Union

279 BC - "Pyrrhic victory" over the Romans at Ausculum.

267-262 AD BC. - Chremonid war. Siege of Athens by Antigonus Gonatus.

265 BC - Conquest of Italy by the Romans.

264-241 BC. The First Punic War between Rome and Carthage. Rise of Rome in Sicily.

238 BC Roman conquest of Sardinia and Corsica.

225-222 AD BC. — Rome's war with the Gauls. Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul.

219 BC — Second Illyrian War. Capture of Saguntum by Hannibal.

218-201 BC. Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage.

218 BC – Victory of Hannibal over the Romans at Ticinus and Trebia.

216 BC - Defeat of the Romans at Cannae.

215-205 AD BC. - The First Macedonian War, the struggle of the Greek cities for independence.

200-197 BC. - Second Macedonian War.

2nd century BC–II c. AD – Zarubinets culture in Eastern Europe.

192-188 BC. - The Syrian war of Rome with Antiochus III the Great.

171-167 years BC. - Third Macedonian War.

149-146 BC. - Third Punic War. Siege and destruction of Carthage.

148 BC The transformation of Macedonia into a Roman province.

146 BC The Achaean War of Greece against Rome. Capture and burning of Corinth. End of Greek independence.

133 BC Tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus in Rome. Agrarian law of Gracchus and his assassination.

133 BC - Accession by the Romans of the Kingdom of Pergamon.

123-122 AD BC. Tribunate of Gaius Gracchus.

111-63 AD BC. - The reign of the Pontic king Mithridates IV Eupator. The conquest of the Bosporan kingdom by him.

100-44 AD BC. - Gaius Julius Caesar.

89-84 years BC. - The first Mithridatic war of Rome with the Pontic kingdom.

88-82 years BC. - Civil war between the Marcians and the Sullans.

83-81 years BC. - Second Mithridatic War.

82-79 years BC. - The dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, proscraption, the restoration of the authority of the senate.

74-63 years BC. - The Third Mithraditic War.

73-71 years BC. - Rise of Spartacus

69 BC – The conquest of Tigranocerta, the capital of Armenia, by Lucullus.

65 BC - Victory of Pompey over Mithridates IV and Tigranes II.

64 BC - Establishing the power of Rome over all of Asia Minor. Formation of the provinces of Bithynia, Pontus and Syria.

63 BC - Consulate of Marcus Tullius Cicero.

63-62 years BC. - Catiline's conspiracy, his defeat and death.

60 BC - First triumvirate: Pompey, Crassus, Caesar.

59 BC - Consulate of Caesar.

58-51 BC - Caesar's conquest of Gaul.

55-54 BC — Caesar's campaigns in Britain.

53 BC - The defeat and death of Crassus in the battle with the Parthians at Kara.

49-45 BC Civil war between Caesar and Pompey.

44 BC - Caesar's dictatorship for life. Assassination of Caesar.

44-31 years BC. - Civil wars.

34 BC - Accession of the Armenian kingdom to Rome.

32 BC - Octavian's war against Egypt.

30 BC - Suicide of Antony and Cleopatra.

End of the 1st century BC. - beginning of the 1st c. AD - The unification of the Germanic tribes under the rule of Marobod.

The Roman Empire.

27 BC-14 AD – Principate of Augustus (Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian)

19 BC - Completion of the conquest of Spain by Rome.

12-9 years BC. - Campaigns of Drusus in Germany, the formation of the Roman province of Germany. Conquest of Pannonia.

OK. 4 BC-65 AD — Lucius Anaeus Seneca, Roman Stoic philosopher.

0 year - Nativity of Jesus Christ. The beginning of a new era.

6 AD - The transformation of Judea into a Roman province.

10g. - The law on the execution of all slaves in the event of the murder of one of their master.

14-68 years - Board of Julius - Claudius.

33 - The crucifixion of Jesus Christ on Golgotha ​​on the outskirts of Jerusalem. The beginning of the preaching of Christianity by the apostles.

43 - Campaign of Claudius to Britain and conquest by the Romans of its southern part.

77-83 years - Campaigns of Yuri Agricola in Britain, the conquest of Northern Britain.

79 - Vesuvius eruption. The death of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabiae.

OK. 90 - approx. 160 - Claudius Ptolemy - ancient Greek astronomer and geographer.

96-122 years — Antonine rule.

2nd century - The displacement of the Sarmatians from the Northern Black Sea region by the Alans.

II-V centuries. – Wide spread of heresies in Christianity (Manichaeism, Arianism, Nestorianism, etc.)

101-106 AD - Trajan's wars with Decebalus. Conquest of Dacia.

106 - the conquest of the Nabataean kingdom by the Romans, the formation of the provinces of Arabia, Adiabene, Ctesiphon.

115 - Formation of the provinces of Mesopotamia and Assyria.

167-180 AD - Marcomannic wars of the Romans with the barbarian tribes of the Marcomanni, Dacians, Sarmatians, etc.

185-187 years - Unrest in northern Italy, Gaul, Spain, the Danube regions, Africa, Egypt.

193-235 - Dynasty of the North.

213 - Wars of the Romans with the Germans and the Danubian tribes.

250, 257 - Edicts against Christians. Persecution of Christians.

251 - The defeat of the Romans in the battle with the Goths, the death of Emperor Decius.

OK. 260 - Conquest of the ancient cities of the Northern Black Sea region by the Goths; formation of alliances between the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths.

260s - Barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire.

284-305 - The reign of Diocletian. Military, monetary, tax and administrative reforms.

293 - Establishment of the tetrarchy of the board of four.

III-IV centuries. - Settlement is ready in the Northern Black Sea region.

III-IV centuries. – Chernyakhov culture in Eastern Europe.

306-337 - The reign of Constantine the Great.

313 - Edict of Milan on the freedom of Christianity.

325 - First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea

330 - Foundation of Constantinople.

337 - The resumption of the onslaught of the Germanic and Sarmatian tribes. Death of Constantine the Great. The division of the empire into East and West.

350-375 AD - The Kingdom of Germanarich in the Northern Black Sea region.

354-430 AD – Aurelius Augustine theologian, philosopher, Father of the Church.

361 - Edict of Emperor Julian the Apostate on the restoration of paganism.

364-375 AD - The division of the empire.

Great Migration of Nations.

375 - Defeat by the Huns is ready in the Northern Black Sea region. Escape ready for the Danube

378 - The defeat of the Romans in the battle with the Goths at Adrianople.

381 - Second Ecumenical Council of Constantinople.

395 - The final division of the empire into Western and Eastern.

4th-8th centuries – Tushemla archaeological culture on the Upper Dnieper (Balts)

5th-8th centuries – Monuments of Prague culture (Slavs) in Eastern Europe.

410 - Capture of Rome by Alaric.

418 - Formation of the Visigothic kingdom in Gaul with its capital in Toulouse.

431 - Third Ecumenical Council of Ephesus. Condemnation of the heresy of Nestorius.

434-453 - Attila's reign over the Huns.

449 – Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain begins.

451 - Battle of the Catalaunian fields. Defeat of the Huns.

452 - Attila's campaign against northern Italy.

453 - The collapse of the power of Attila.

463 - Penetration of the Proto-Bulgarians and Savirs into the Northern Black Sea region.

470-80s - The movement of the Ostrogoths from Pannonia to Italy, the creation of the Ostrogothic kingdom.

476 - The deposition of Romulus Augustulus by the barbarian leader Odoacer. Fall of the Western Roman Empire.

481-511 Clovis is the king of the Franks.

486 - The emergence of the Frankish state in Northern Gaul.

493-526 - The heyday of the Ostrogothic kingdom (capital in Ravenna) under Theodoric the Great.

Early Middle Ages.

Beginning of the 6th century – Recording of Salich Pravda

6th-8th centuries – Culture of the Pskov long mounds (Balts)

VI-VII centuries. - Prague-Penkovsky monuments (Slavic tribe of Ants) on the Dniester and Dnieper.

529 - The emergence of the first monastic order - the Order of the Benedictines.

534 - Subjugation of the Burgundian kingdom by the Franks.

535-555 - The war of Byzantium with the Ostrogoths, the annexation of Italy with Rome and Ravenna to Byzantium.

550s - Campaigns of the Slavs and Bulgarians in the northern provinces of the Byzantine Empire.

557 - Defeat of the Ants by the Turkic tribes of the Avars.

561 Avars invade Germany.

560-796 - Avar Khaganate.

568 - Beginning of the Lombard invasion of Italy.

597 - Beginning of the Christianization of England.

Late 6th-7th century - Settlement by the Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula.

End of the 6th century - The collapse of the Frankish kingdom.

623-662 - The first Slavic state of Samo.

711-714 - The conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by the Arabs.

715-741 - Karl Martell - Major of the Frankish state.

732 - Charles Martel's victory over the Arabs at Letye.

740 - The victory of the Byzantine emperor Leo I the Isaurian over the Arabs, the beginning of the expulsion of the Arabs from Asia Minor.

756 - formation of the secular state of the popes.

768-814 - The reign of Charlemagne.

772-804 - Wars of Charlemagne with the Saxons.

774 - Conquest of the Lombard kingdom by Charlemagne.

793 - Beginning of Norman expansion into Europe.

800 - Coronation of Charlemagne with the imperial title.

812 - Campaign of Charlemagne to subjugate the Slavs-Luticians in the interfluve of the Elbe and Oder.

812-813 - Campaigns of Charlemagne against the Arabs in Corsica.

829 - Unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the kingdom of England.

843 - Treaty of Verdun. Division of Charlemagne's empire.

845 Normans capture Paris.

855 - The collapse of the state of Lothair. Formation of the kingdoms of Italy, Provence, Lorraine.

863 - Creation of the Slavic alphabet by the Enlighteners Cyril and Methodius.

End of the ninth century - Settlement of the Hungarians in Pannonia.

End of IX-beginning of X centuries. – Formation of the Czech state.

911 - Formation of the Duchy of Normandy

919-1024 - Saxon dynasty in Germany.

936-973 - Reign of Otto I in Germany. Formation of the Holy Roman Empire.

987-1328 - The Capetian dynasty in France.

988 - Adoption of Christianity in Russia.

990s-1022 - Rule of Olof Schötkonung in Sweden.

End of X-beginning of XI centuries. – Formation of the united kingdoms in Denmark, Sweden and Norway.

OK. 1000 - Formation of the Kingdom of Hungary.

1016-1035 - The reign of Knut the Great - the king of England, Denmark and Norway.

1024-1125 - The Franconian dynasty in Germany.

1032-1034 - Accession of Burgundy to the Holy Roman Empire.

1054 - Division of the Christian Church into Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodoxy)

1066 - Battle of Hastings, Norman conquest of England.

1066-1087 - The reign of William I the Conqueror in England.

1071 Norman conquest of southern Italy.

1075-1122 - The struggle for investiture between the popes and the German kings.

1076-1077 - The defeat of the German Emperor Henry IV in the fight against Gregory VII

1085 - Reconquest of Toledo during the Reconquista in the Iberian Peninsula.

1095 Pope Urban II calls for the conquest of Palestine.

1096-1099 - The 1st Crusade, accompanied by the robberies of the crusaders of Constantinople and other cities of the Empire. Formation of the crusader states in the Middle East.

Developed Middle Ages.

1100 - Magna Carta in England.

1130 - Unification of the southern Italian Norman states into the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

1137 - Unification of Catalonia and Aragon into the Kingdom of Aragon.

1138-1254 - The Hohenstaufen dynasty in Germany.

1143-1155 - Antipapal revolt in Rome.

1147 - Reconquest of Lisbon from the Arabs.

1152-1190 - The reign of the German Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa.

1154-1399 The Plantagenet dynasty in England.

1169-1171 The beginning of the English conquest of Ireland.

1176 - The defeat of Manuel I Komnenos by the Seljuk Turks at Miriokefal, which stopped the advance of the Byzantines in Asia Minor.

1180-1223 - The reign of Philip II Augustus in France.

1189-1192 - The 3rd Crusade, in which the German emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, the French king Philip I Augustus and the English king Richard I the Lionheart took part.

1199-1204 – 4th Crusade called by Pope Innocent III

End of the XI-beginning of the XII centuries. - Rise of the Inquisition.

OK. 1200 - Foundation of the University of Paris.

1202 - Formation of the Order of the Sword in the Baltics

1202-1294 - 4th Crusade. The capture and destruction of Constantinople by the crusaders.

1212 - The crusade of children, which ended in the death and capture by Muslims of most of its participants.

1215 - Establishment of the monastic order of the Dominicans.

1215 - Magna Carta in England.

1217-1221 - 5th Crusade led by Andrew II of Hungary, Austrian and Bavarian knights.

1228-1229 - 6th Crusade led by Emperor Frederick II Hohenstaufen.

1229 - Treaty of Frederick II with Sultan Al-Kamil on the return to Christians of Jerusalem, Nazareth, Bethlehem and other holy places.

1230-1263 – Board of Mindaugas in Lithuania. Formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

1241-1242 - The Mongol invasion of Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic.

1248-1254 - The 7th Crusade of the French king Louis IX, the capture of Damietta, then the defeat and capture of the king.

1249 - Completion of the Reconquista in Portugal.

1250-1364 - The Folkung dynasty in Sweden.

1251 - The peasant uprising of the "shepherds" in France.

1254 - Formation of the Rhine Confederation of cities in Germany.

1261 - Restoration of the Byzantine Empire by the Nicaean Emperor Michael VIII.

1261-1453 - The Palaiologos dynasty in Byzantium.

1265 - The emergence of the English Parliament.

1272-1307 - The reign of Edward I in England.

1274 - Union of Lyons between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches.

1282 - "Sicilian Vespers" - a popular uprising in Sicily against French oppression.

1285-1314 - The reign of Philip IV the Handsome in France.

1291 - Formation of the Confederation of the Swiss Cantons (Swiss Union)

1293 - "Establishment of justice" in Florence - deprivation of the political rights of the feudal lords.

1296-1314 — Scotland's struggle for independence.

Early 14th century - Establishment of the Principality of Wallachia.

1302 - Beginning of the Estates General in France.

1304-1307 - The Dolcino uprising in northern Italy.

1309-1378 - "Avignon captivity" popes.

1315 - The victory of the Swiss over the troops of the Habsburgs at Morgarten. Beginning of Swiss independence.

1319-1363 - The reign of Magnus Eriksson - King of Sweden, Norway and Finland. "The Magna Carta of Sweden".

1323 – British recognition of Robert the Bruce as King of Scotland.

1327-1377 - The reign of Edward III in England.

1328-1589 - The Valois dynasty in France.

1331-1355 - The reign in Serbia of King Stefan Dusan, who conquered Macedonia, Thessaly and Albania from Byzantium.

1337-1453 The Hundred Years' War between England and France.

1347-1378 - Reign of the German Emperor and King of Bohemia Charles IV.

1348-1353 – Plague epidemic (“black death”) in Western, Central and Eastern Europe. The death of 25 million inhabitants.

1348 - Foundation of the University of Prague.

1356 - The "Golden Bull" of Emperor Charles IV, which secured the independence of the electors.

1356 - The defeat of the French by the British, led by Prince Edward of Wales (Black Prince), the capture of King John the Good.

1359 - Formation of the Principality of Moldavia.

1367-1370 - The war of the Germanic peoples (Hanse) with Denmark.

1382-1387 - Tukin uprising in northern Italy.

1385 - Kreva union of Lithuania and Poland.

1385 - Battle of Aljubarrota. The victory of the Portuguese over the Castilians and their supporters.

1389 - Battle of Kosovo. The defeat of the Serbian army by the Turks.

1393 - The conquest of the Bulgarian Tarnovo kingdom by the Turks.

1396 - The defeat of European chivalry by the Turks near Nikopol on the Danube.

1397 - Kalmar Union of Sweden, Norway and Denmark.

1410 - Battle of Grunwald. The defeat of the Teutonic Order by the combined forces of Lithuanians, Poles, Czechs and Russians.

1411-1435 - Civil war in France, Armagnacs and Bourguignons.

1414-1418 - Cathedral of Constance.

1415 - Burning of Jan Hus.

1415-1701 - The Hohenzollern dynasty in Brandenburg.

1419-1434 - Hussite wars.

1428-1429 — Siege of Orleans by the British.

1431 Burning of Joan of Arc in Rouen.

1434 - The establishment of the tyranny of the Medici in Florence.

1435 - Beginning of the Riksdag in Sweden.

1438 - Consolidation of the throne of the Holy Roman Empire for the Habsburgs.

OK. 1445 - Invention of printing by Johannes Gutenberg.

1450 - "Eternal Union" of Norway and Denmark.

1453 - The capture of Constantinople by the Turkish Sultan Mehmed II Fatih. Fall of the Byzantine Empire.

1453 - End of the Hundred Years' War.

1455-1485 - The War of the Scarlet and White Roses in England.

1459 - Capture of Serbia by the Turks.

1461-1485 - The York dynasty in England.

1463 - Capture of Bosnia by the Turks.

1466 - Peace of Torun, recognition by the Teutonic Order of vassalage from Poland.

1468 - Beginning of estate representation in Denmark.

1474-1477 - The Burgundian War in France.

1475 - Establishment of Turkish suzerainty over the Crimean Khanate.

1476 - Establishment of Turkish suzerainty over Wallachia.

1478 - The fall of the independence of Novgorod.

1478-1479 - The conquest of Albania by the Turks.

1479 - The unification of Aragon and Castile, the emergence of a single Spanish state.

1485 - Beginning of the Tudor dynasty in England.

1491 - Accession of Brittany to France.

1492 - The conquest of the Emirate of Granada by Spain, the end of the Reconquista.

1492 - Discovery of America by H. Columbus.

1494-1498 - The Republic of D. Savanarola in Florence.

1494-1559 - Italian wars.

1497-1498 - Expedition of Vasco Da Gama around Africa to India.

1499 - Separation of the Swiss Union from the Holy Roman Empire.

Late Middle Ages.

1501-1504 - Spanish conquest of the Kingdom of Naples.

1514 - Gyori Dozsa's uprising in Hungary.

1514 - Recapture of Smolensk from Lithuania by Russian troops.

1516-1700 - The Habsburg dynasty in Spain.

1517 Martin Luther delivered 95 theses against indulgences. Beginning of the Reformation.

1523 - Termination of the Castile Union between Denmark and Sweden.

1523-1560 - The reign of Gustav I Vasa in Sweden.

1524-1525 - Peasant uprising in Germany.

1525 - Secularization of the Teutonic Order.

1526 - The defeat of the Hungarian troops by the Turks in the battle of Mohacs, the formation of the Austrian Habsburg monarchy in Central Europe.

1527-1539 - Reformation in Sweden.

1530 - "Augsburg Confession"

1532 - The final annexation of Brittany to France. Completion of the unification of the country.

1533-1584 – Board in Russia of Ivan IV the Terrible (since 1547 – Tsar)

1534 - "Act of Supremacy" in England - recognition of the king as the head of the English church.

1534 - Founding of the Jesuit order.

1534-1535 – Anabaptist commune in Münstrey (Germany)

1536-1542 - Accession of Wales to England.

1537-1574 - The reign of Duke Cosimo I de Medici in Florence.

1541 Partition of Hungary between the Ottoman Empire and the Austrian Habsburgs.

1545-1563 - Cathedral of Trent.

1555 - Peace of Augsburg.

1556-1598 - Reign of King Philip II of Spain.

1557-1559 - The war of England in alliance with Spain against France.

1558-1583 - The Livonian war of Russia with the Livonian Order, the Commonwealth and Sweden.

1558-1603 - The reign of Elizabeth I Tudor in England.

1559 - The first "index of forbidden books" in Rome.

1560-1598 - Wars of Religion in France.

1562 - Beginning of the English slave trade in America.

1566-1609 - The Dutch bourgeois revolution, the struggle against Spanish rule.

1569 - Union of Lublin between Lithuania and Poland. Formation of the Commonwealth.

1572 - "St. Bartholomew's Night" in France.

1572-1584 - The reign of the first stathouter of the Netherlands, William I of Orange.

1572-1573 - Expeditions of the English corsair Francis Drake to the Spanish West Indies.

1575 - State bankruptcy of Spain.

1579 – Union of Arras for the southern provinces of the Netherlands and Union of Utrecht for the northern provinces of the Netherlands.

1581 - Accession of Portugal to Spain.

1585 - The capture of Antwerp by the Spanish troops.

1587 - The execution of the Scottish Queen Mary Stuart in England.

1588 - Campaign of the Spanish fleet ("Invincible Armada") against England and its death.

1588 - "Statute of Lithuania"

1588-1648 - The reign of King Christian IV in Denmark.

1589-1792, 1814-1815, 1815-1830 - Bourbon dynasty in France.

1592-1598 - The uprising of the "crocans" in France.

1596 - Brest Union of the Orthodox Church in Ukraine and the Catholic Church.

1600 Burning of Giordano Bruno in Italy.

1600 - Founding of the English East India Company.

1601 - Conflict of Parliament with Queen Elizabeth I in England over the distribution of privileges and monopolies. Statute "On Charity of the Poor". Riot in Essex.

1603 - Accession to the English throne of the King of Scotland, James I Stuart. Union between England and Scotland.

1603-1649, 1660-1714 — The Stuart dynasty in England.

1604 Founding of the first East India Company in France. The beginning of the French colonization of the Atlantic coast of North America.

1606-1609 - Rokosh (mutiny) Zebrzydowski in Poland.

1608 - Foundation of the Protestant princes in the Holy Roman Empire of the Evangelical Union.

1609 - Expulsion of the Moriscos (Moorish Christians of Aquitaine and Granada) from Spain.

1609 - Formation by Maximilian of Bavaria of the Catholic League in the Holy Roman Empire. The struggle for dominance in the duchies of Cleve and Jülich, which remained after the death of Duke Johann-Wilhelm.

1610 - Assassination of the French King Henry IV.

1610-1617 - Russo-Swedish war.

1611 - Beginning of the colonization of Wexford, Longford and other counties of Ireland.

1611-1613 The Kalmar War between Sweden and Denmark.

1611-1617 - Regency of Marie de Medici in France under the infant Louis XIII.

1611-1632 - The reign of King Gustav II Adolf in Sweden.

1617-1629 - The Swedish-Polish war for dominance in the Baltics, which ended with the establishment of Swedish domination in the Baltics.

1618 - Inclusion of the Duchy of Prussia into Brandenburg.

1618-1648 - Thirty Years' War.

1619 Treaty of alliance between Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II and the Catholic League.

1620 - Speech against King Louis XIII Marie de Medici and rebellious princes. Victory of the king at the Pont de Sé.

1621 - Resumption of the Spanish-Dutch War.

1624-1642 - The reign of Cardinal de Richelieu in France.

1625 - Anglo-Spanish War.

1628 - Presentation by the English Parliament to King Charles I of the "Petition for Rights"

1628-1631 - Franco-Austrian War for the Mantua Succession.

1629 - Edition of the "Edict of Grace" by Louis XIII, depriving the Huguenots of political rights, but preserving their freedom of religion.

1629 - Deprivation of Protestant cities and principalities of the Holy Roman Empire of secularized lands and properties.

1629-1640 – Unparliamentary reign of Charles I.

1632 - The defeat of the Austrian commander A. Wallenstein from the Swedes at Lutzen. The death of the Swedish king Gustav II Adolf in the battle of Lützen.

1634 - The defeat of the Swedish troops at Nördlingen.

1635 - Separate peace between the Saxon Elector Johann George and Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II.

1635-1659 - Franco-Spanish War.

1640 - "Short Parliament" in England and its dissolution by the king. The Long Parliament and the beginning of the English Revolution.

1640 - Separation of Portugal from Spain.

1640-1652 - Revolt in Catalonia.

1640-1668 - Portugal's War of Independence.

1642 - The capture of Leipzig by the Swedish army.

1642-1646 — Civil War in England.

1643-1661 (intermittently) - The reign of Cardinal Giulio Mazarin in France.

1646-1648 - Revolt in Naples and Sicily against Spanish domination.

1648 - Peace of Westphalia.

1648 - Civil War in England.

New Time.

1649 - The execution of the English king Charles I, the abolition of the royal title and the House of Lords in England.

1649-1650 - Campaign of O. Cromwell to Ireland.

1649-1653 - Republican government in England.

1650-1651 - O. Cromwell's campaign in Scotland, the annexation of Scotland.

1651-1653 - "Fronde of Princes" in France.

1652-1653 - Peasant uprisings in Sweden.

1653 - The defeat of the "Long Parliament" by O. Cromwell

1653-1658 - O. Cromwell's protectorate in England.

1654-1656, 1658-1667 - Russian-Polish war.

1655-1659 - The Anglo-Franco-Spanish war, which ended with the Peace of the Pyrenees, which gave large territorial gains to France at the expense of Spain.

1657 - Termination of the vassal dependence of East Prussia on Poland.

1658 - Formation of the Confederation of the Rhine (Holy Roman Empire, France, Sweden) against the Habsburgs.

1659 Formal restoration of the republic in England.

1660 War of Sweden against Denmark and Brandenburg.

1660 - Restoration of the Stuarts (Charles II) in England.

1662 - Sale of the city of Dunkirk by England to France, West Indies campaign.

1665 - "Great Plague" in England.

1665-1667 — Anglo-Dutch War.

1667 - Secret treaty between the English king Charles II and the French king Louis XIV.

1667-1668 - Devolutionary war between France and Spain, the transition of France of the Flanders cities.

1672-1679 - The war of France and Sweden against the coalition of Holland, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, Brandenburg and Denmark.

1674 - Revolt against Spanish rule in Sicily.

1675 - The peasant uprising of the "red caps" in Brittany (France)

1675-1682 - Activities of the Green Ribbon Club in England - the center of future Whigs.

1679 - The adoption of the law on the inviolability of the person by the English Parliament.

1683 - The siege of Vienna by the Turkish army, the lifting of the siege and the defeat of the Turks by the Polish king Jan III Sobieski.

1683-1684 - Franco-Spanish War.

1684 - Treaty of Regensburg, recognition of the territorial acquisitions of France by the Holy Roman Empire and Spain.

1685 Duke of Monmouth rises in England.

1685 - Adoption of the Potsdam Ejikt, allowing the Huguenots to settle in Brandenburg and Prussia and presenting benefits to them.

1685-1688 - The accession to the throne of the English king James II and his measures aimed at restoring Catholicism and the unlimited power of the king.

1686 - Creation of the League of Augsburg between the Holy Roman Empire and Spain in order to stop the expansion of France.

1688 - "Glorious Revolution" in England. The flight of James II Stuart and the proclamation of William III of Orange as king of the Stadthaller of the Netherlands. Constituent Parliament - Convention, "Bill of Rights"

1688-1697 – War of France with the League of Augsburg (Holy Roman Empire, Spain, England, Sweden, Bavaria, Saxony)

1689-1690 - The landing of James II Stuart and the French troops in Ireland, their defeat.

1697 Peace of Ryswick between France and the League of Augsburg. The return of the territories captured by France during the war. Recognition by Louis XIV of William III as king of England.

1700-1721 - Northern Russia vs. Sweden.

1701 - Proclamation of Prussia as a kingdom.

1701-1714 - War of the Spanish Succession between France, Austria and England.

1702-1705 Peasant war of the Camisars in France.

1702-1714 - The reign of the English Queen Anne Stuart.

1704 - Capture of the Strait of Gibraltar by England.

1705 - Establishment of the Vienna Academy of Arts.

1705-1706 - Peasant uprising in Bavaria.

1705-1711 - Bashkir uprising.

1706 - The capture of Madrid by the Austrian troops.

1707 - Act of Union of England and Scotland, the formation of Great Britain.

1708 - The victory of the British over the French at Oudenarde, the capture of the island of Menorca by England.

1709 - Founding of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin.

1709 - The defeat of the Swedish army near Poltava.

1710 - Opening of the first porcelain manufactory in Europe in Meissen (Germany)

1711-1740 - The reign of Charles VI of Habsburg in Austria. Secret negotiations between England and France, the weakening of the anti-French coalition.

1712-1715 - Cossack-peasant uprisings in Poland.

1713 Peace of Utrecht in the War of Spanish Succession between England, Holland, Prussia and France. Philip V of Anjou recognized as King of Spain with waiver of French crown rights; England received Gibraltar, possessions in North America and the island of Menorca and the right to trade in the Spanish colonies.

1714 - The victory of the Russian fleet over the Swedish at Cape Gangut.

1714 Peace of Rashtad ending the War of the Spanish Succession; Austria renounces the rights to the Spanish crown, but receives Belgium, the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples.

1715-1716 — Jacobite Rebellion in Scotland.

1715-1774 - The reign of Louis XV in France.

1716 - Campaign of the Swedish king Charles XII to Norway.

1718-1772 – “Era of freedoms” in Sweden (Riksdag rule)

1718 - Treaty of Pozharevatsky between Austria and Turkey, transfer to Austria of Lesser Wallachy and part of Serbia with Belgrade.

1718-1720 — Anglo-Spanish war.

1720 - The victory of the Russian fleet over the Swedish at Cape Grengam.

1720 - Stockholm Peace Treaty between Prussia and Sweden, according to which Stettin and Western Pomerania went to Prussia.

1721 - Treaty of Nystadt between Russia and Sweden, which secured Russian acquisitions in the Baltics; Finland returned to Sweden; Sweden's loss of great power status.

1725 - Franco-Prussian treaty of alliance.

1727 Deprivation of the Irish right to elect Parliament.

1727-1732 – Peasant uprising in the Black Forest (Germany)

1731 - Regulations on workshops in Austria, subordinating workshops to the authorities and prohibiting strikes of artisans and unions of apprentices.

1733-1735 - War of the Polish Succession.

1736-1739 – Russian-Turkish war (in alliance with Austria)

1737 - Establishment of the University of Göttingen in Germany.

1738-1765 The stay in power of Sweden by the “hat party”

1739 - Creation of the Swedish Academy of Sciences.

1739-1748 — Anglo-Spanish war.

1740 - Russian-Prussian union treaty.

1740-1780 - Reign of Empress Maria Theresa in Austria.

1740-1742 - The Silesian war between Austria and Prussia for the possession of Silesia, which ended with the transition of Silesia to Prussia.

1740-1786 - The reign of the Prussian king Frederick II the Great.

1740-1748 - War of the Austrian Succession.

1741-1743 - The Russian-Swedish war, which ended with the Peace of Abov, according to which part of Finland retreated to Russia.

1742 - Swedish astronomer and physicist A. Celsius proposed a new temperature scale, named after him.

1744-1745 - The Second Silesian War of Austria and Prussia on the territory of Poland.

1746 - Defensive Russian-Austrian and Russian-Danish alliances.

1747 - Anglo-Russian subsidy treaty, under which Russia received annually 100,000 pounds sterling in the armament of the army.

1756-1763 - The Seven Years' War.

1759 - Opening of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences in Munich.

1761 Family pact between French and Spanish Bourbons.

1765 - Foundation of the Berlin Royal - Girobank and Loan Bank.

1767 - Expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain.

1768 France purchases the island of Corsica from Genoa.

1768-1772 - Confederation of Bars against Stanisław Poniatowski in Poland.

1772 - The coup d'état of Gustav III in Sweden, the adoption of a new constitution that limits the power of the Riksdag.

1772 - First partition of Poland between Austria, Prussia and Russia.

1773 - Abolition of the Jesuit Order by the Pope.

1774-1792 - Reign of King Louis XVI of France.

1775-1783 - England's war with the North American colonies.

1779-1783 - Anglo-Spanish war, the return of Florida and Menorca to Spain.

1780-1784 - Anglo-Dutch war for the redistribution of colonial possessions.

1783 - Treaty of Versailles. British recognition of US independence.

1788 - The abolition of the military registration system in Denmark.

1788-1792 - The four-year Sejm in Poland.

1788-1789 - Russo-Swedish war.

1789-1794 - The French Revolution.

1789 - Peasant unrest in Germany.

1791 - Proclamation by the Poles of a new constitution, preparations for war with Russia.

1791 Establishment of the United Irishmen patriotic society in Belfast.

1792-1797 - The war of France with the I coalition.

1792 - Targowice Confederation in Poland; the abolition of the new constitution and the halt of military preparations.

1793 - Execution of Louis XVI

1793 - Russo-English Convention on Common Action against Revolutionary France.

1793 - Second partition of Poland between Russia and Prussia.

1794 - Foundation of the Polytechnic School in Paris - the first technical institution of higher education.

1794-1795 - The Polish uprising T. Kosciuszko, suppressed by Russian troops led by A. V. Suvorov.

1795-1799 - Directory in France.

1795 - Abdication of Stanisław Poniatowski from the throne and the third division of Poland between Prussia. Russia and Austria, ending the existence of Poland as an independent state.

1796-1797 The Italian campaign of Napoleon Bonaparte.

1798-1801 – The war of France with the II coalition (England, Turkey, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Russia, Austria, Portugal)

1799 - Capture of Corfu, Naples and Rome by F. F. Ushakov. Swiss and Italian campaigns of A. V. Suvorov

1799 - Coup of the 18th Brumaire by General Napoleon Bonaparte. Transfer of power in France to the first consul Bonaparte

1799-1804 - Consulate in France.

1800 - The defeat of the Austrian troops by Napoleon Bonaparte at Marengo.

1803-1805 – The war of France with the III coalition (England, Austria, Russia)

1804 - Execution of Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien. "Civil Code of the French" (Napoleon Code). Adoption of the title of emperor by Napoleon Bonaparte.

1805 - The victory of the English fleet over the Franco-Spanish at Trafalgar. The death of Vice Admiral G. Nelson.

1806-1807 – War of France with the IV coalition (England, Prussia, Russia)

1806 - Formation of the Confederation of the Rhine 16 German states under the protectorate of Napoleon.

1806 - The refusal of Franz II from the crown of the Holy Roman Empire, the cessation of its existence.

1807 Prohibition of the slave trade in England.

1808-1813 - French occupation of Spain. Guerrilla warfare in Spain.

1809 - War of France with the V coalition. Schönbrunn world. Austrian loss of Illyria, parts of Tyrol and Western Galicia. Rebellion against French rule in Germany.

1812 - Napoleon's campaign in Russia. Patriotic war in Russia.

1812-1814 – The war of France with the VI coalition (England, Russia, Prussia, Austria)

1814 - The betrayal of the French minister Ch. M. Talleyrand, the entry of the allies into Paris.

1814 - Restoration of the Jesuit order by Pope Pius VII.

1814-1815 — Congress of Vienna. Restoration in France.

1815 - Napoleon's Hundred Days.

1815 - War of France with the VII coalition. Battle of Waterloo.

1815-1830 - Restoration in France.

1821 - Austrian military intervention in the Kingdom of Naples and Piedmont.

1821-1829 - Greek national liberation revolution.

1827 - Navarino battle of the united Russian-English-French fleet against the Turkish fleet.

1830 - July Revolution in France.

1830-1831 - The Belgian Revolution. Formation of the Kingdom of Belgium.

1830-1831 - Polish uprising in the Russian Empire.

1830-1848 - July Monarchy in France.

1832 - Parliamentary reform in England.

1834 - Vienna conference on the fight against revolutionary movements.

1837-1901 - The reign of Queen Victoria I in England.

1848 - February revolution in France. Fall of the July Monarchy.

1848 - Publication in London of the "Manifesto of the Communist Party".

1848-1849 - Revolution in the Austrian Empire. The suppression of the Hungarian revolution by Russian troops, and the Italian revolution by the Austrian.

1848-1849 - Bourgeois-democratic revolution in Germany.

1851 - Coup in France by Louis Napoleon, restoration of the monarchy (since 1852)

1852-1871 – The Second Empire in France.

1853-1856 – Crimean War: Turkey, England, France, Sardinia against Russia.

1858 - Liquidation of the East India campaign, declaration of India as the possession of the crown.

1859 - Austro-Franco-Sardinian war.

1861 - Proclamation of the Italian kingdom.

1861 - Founding of the First International in London.

1861 - The abolition of serfdom in Russia.

1864 - War of Austria and Prussia against Denmark for Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg.

1866 - Austro-Prussian ("Thirty Days") War for hegemony in Germany. Prussian victory.

1867 - The invasion of D. Garibaldi at the head of the "red shirts" in the Papal States.

1867-1868 - The war of England against Ethiopia.

1870-1871 - Franco-Prussian War. Fall of the Second Empire.

1870-1940 - Third Republic in France.

Recent history.

1871 - Communes in Lyon, Marseille, Paris. May "bloody week" in Paris.

1871 - Formation of a unified German Empire.

1871-1890 - Otto Bismarck - Chancellor of the German Empire.

1871-1878 - Kulturkampf in Germany.

1873 - "Union of the Three Emperors" (Austria, Germany, Russia)

1877-1878 - Russian-Turkish war.

1879 - Austro-German Union.

1880 Dissolution of the Jesuit Order in France.

1881 - Renewal of the "Union of the Three Emperors"

1881 French conquest of Tunisia. The beginning of the colonial advance of France in Africa.

1882 Triple Alliance of Austria, Germany and Italy.

1882 - Occupation of Egypt by England.

1884 - Legalization of trade unions in France.

1884 - Beginning of German colonial conquests in Africa.

1885 - Construction of automobiles with internal combustion engines in Germany.

1887 - The collapse of the "Union of the Three Emperors"

1890 - Anglo-French treaty on the delimitation of spheres of influence in Africa.

1891-1921 - The Erfurt Program of the German Social Democrats.

1893 - The first congress of free trade unions in Austria-Hungary.

1894-1906 - The Dreyfus espionage case in France, which had a great public outcry.

1895 - Invention of the motion picture camera by the Lumiere brothers.

1895 - Anglo-Russian delimitation treaty in Central Asia.

1896 - Creation of the Irish Socialist Republican Party.

1898 Anglo-French colonial conflict in Africa.

1899 - Anglo-French convention on the division of colonial possessions in Africa.

1899 - The Hague International Conference on the Limitation of Arms, convened at the initiative of Russia.

1899-1902 — Anglo-Boer War.

1903 - The first flight of the brothers W. and O. Wright in an aircraft designed by them with an internal combustion engine.

1904 - Anglo-French agreement. The beginning of the formation of the Entente.

1907 - Anglo-Russian agreement on Asian policy. Registration of the Entente Union (England, France, Russia)

1908 - Revolution of the Young Turks in the Ottoman Empire.

1908 - Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary.

1909 - An attempted counter-revolutionary coup in Turkey.

1911 - General strike of workers in Great Britain.

1911-1912 - Italo-Turkish war. Capture of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica by Italy.

1912-1913 - The Balkan Crisis.

1912-1913 - War of Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece against Turkey. Potrya Turkey Macedonia, Thrace, Albania and Elephant.

1913 - War of Serbia, Greece, Romania and Turkey against Bulgaria.

1913-1920 - The Presidency of R. Poincaré ("Poincaré-War") in France.

The world between two world wars.

1914-1918 - World War I. The death of 9.5 million people.

1914 - Battle of the Marne.

1914 - The encirclement of the Russian armies in East Prussia. The offensive of Russian troops in Galicia.

1915 - Warsaw-Ivangorod operation. The advance of German troops into the depths of the Russian Empire.

1915 - Italy enters the war on the side of the Entente countries, and Bulgaria on the side of Germany and Austria.

1915 - Zimmerwald Conference of the Left Socialists Against the War.

1916 - Franco-German battle for Verdun. Anglo-German battle on the Somme.

1916 - Galicia operation (Brusilovsky breakthrough) of Russian troops.

1916 - Romania's entry into the war, its defeat by the Germans and the formation of the Romanian Front.

1916-1922 - Lloyd George David - Prime Minister of Great Britain.

1917 - February bourgeois-democratic revolution in Russia. The overthrow of the monarchy. Transfer of power to the Provisional Government.

1917 - US entry into the war on the side of the Entente countries.

1917 - October Revolution in Russia.

1918 - Brest-Litovsk separate peace between Soviet Russia and Germany.

1918 - "Second Marne". The retreat of German troops from positions on the Marne.

1918 - Berlin Revolution. Fall of the German Empire.

1918-1919 - The Bavarian Republic.

1918-1923 - National liberation revolution in the Ottoman Empire.

1919 - Hungarian Republic.

1919 - Slovak Republic.

1919 - Formation of the Comintern.

1919 - Signing of the Treaty of Versailles and the adoption of the Weimar Constitution in Germany.

1919 - Peace treaty in Saint-Germain. Collapse of Austria-Hungary.

1919-1946 - The League of nations.

1920 - Treaty of Sevres between Turkey and the countries of the Entente. The transition of a significant part of the former Ottoman Empire to England, France, Italy and Greece.

1922 - Genoa conference on economic and financial issues.

1922 - Establishment of the fascist regime in Italy.

1922 - Lausanne peace conference. Signing of a peace treaty with Turkey.

1923 - Formation of the Workers' Socialist International.

1925 - Locarno Conference. The conclusion by Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain and Italy of the Rhine Guarantee Pact on the inviolability of the German-French and Belgian-German borders and the preservation of the demilitarized Rhine zone.

1926 - The coup d'état in Poland. Establishment of the Yu. Pilsudski regime.

1928 - Signing by 15 states (France, USA, Germany, Great Britain, Japan, etc.) in Paris of the Kellogg-Briand pact on the rejection of war as an instrument of national policy.

1931 - The adoption by the British Parliament of the Statute of Westminster, which gave the dominions sovereign rights in the field of foreign and domestic policy. The transformation of the British Empire into the British Commonwealth of Nations.

1931 - Proclamation of Spain as a republic.

1933 - The victory of the National Socialist Workers' Party of Germany in the elections to the Reichstag, the leader of the party - Adolf Hitler - Reich Chancellor. The establishment of the fascist regime in Germany.

1934 - "Night of the Long Knives" in Germany. Hitler proclaims himself the Fuhrer (leader) of the German nation.

1934 - The defeat of the anti-fascist uprising in Vienna and the victory of the anti-fascists in Paris.

1935 - Creation of the Popular Front in France.

1936 - Cooperation agreement between Germany and Italy (creation of the axis "Berlin-Rome")

1936 - German occupation of the Rhine demilitarized zone.

1936 - The victory of the Popular Front in the elections in Spain.

1936 - Abdication of the English King Edward VIII from the throne because of his love for Wallis Simpson.

1936-1939 - The Spanish Civil War.

1938 - "Kristallnacht" (Jewish pogrom) in Germany.

1938 - Munich agreement between England, France, Germany and Italy on the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia.

1938 - Creation of the Fourth International in Paris.

1939 - German occupation of Czechoslovakia and Klaipeda.

1939 - Italian occupation of Albania.

1939 - Establishment of a fascist regime led by Francisco Franco in Spain.

1939 - Signing of the Soviet-German Non-Aggression Pact ("Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact"). USSR annexation of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus.

1939-1940 - Soviet-Finnish war.

1940 - The invasion of German troops in Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg and France. Capitulation of Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Norway and France.

1940-1945, 1951-1955 - Winston Churchill - Prime Minister of Great Britain.

1940 – USSR annexation of Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina.

1940 - Italy enters the war on the side of Germany.

1940 - Establishment of the fascist regime in Romania.

1940 - Signing in Berlin of the Tripartite Pact between Germany, Italy and Japan. Creation of the axis "Berlin-Rome-Tokyo".

1941 - German invasion of Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Greece. Division of Yugoslavia between Italy, Bulgaria and Hungary. Formation of Serbia and Croatia.

1941 - German attack on the USSR along the entire line of the western border.

1941 - Soviet counteroffensive near Moscow. The failure of the myth of the invincibility of the German troops.

1942 - Washington Conference. Signing by representatives of 26 countries of the Declaration of the United Nations. Legal registration of the anti-Hitler coalition.

1942 - The beginning of the Holocaust - the mass extermination of Jews in Europe.

1943 - The beginning of the general offensive of the Soviet troops. A turning point in the course of the war.

1943 - The collapse of the fascist regime in Italy. Capitulation of Italy and her declaration of war on Germany. Formation of the Fascist Republic of Salo led by Mussolini in northern Italy.

1943 - Tehran Conference of the "Big Three".

1944 - Restoration of the state border of the USSR. The entry of Soviet troops into Poland, Romania and Bulgaria.

1944 Allied landings in France. Opening of the second front.

1944 - dissolution of the Comintern.

1944 - Liberation of Florence, Paris, Brussels, Antwerp, Belgrade, Warsaw.

1944 - Armistice agreement between the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition and Romania, Bulgaria, Finland and Poland.

1945 - The Yalta Conference of the Heads of State of the "Big Three", which determined the foundations of the post-war world order.

1945 - Berlin operation. Meeting on the Elbe in the Torgau region of Soviet and allied troops.

1945 - United Nations Conference in San Francisco. Development and adoption of the UN Charter.

1945 - Formation of the provisional government of Austria, which restored the state independence of the country.

1945 - Mussolini's execution and Hitler's suicide.

1945 - Signing of the act of complete and unconditional surrender of Germany. End of the Great Patriotic War of the USSR.

1945 - Berlin (Potsdam) conference.

1945 - Americans first test a nuclear bomb in an attack on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

1945 - Surrender of Japan. End of World War II.

Europe after World War II.

1945 - Proclamation of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia.

1945-1946 - The International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg, which condemned the crimes of fascism.

1946 - Proclamation of the People's Republic of Bulgaria.

1946 - Winston Churchill's speech in Fulton. Beginning of the Cold War.

1946 - Formation of the People's Republic of Albania.

1946 - Proclamation of the Republic of Hungary (since 1949 - the Hungarian People's Republic)

1947 - Proclamation of the Romanian People's Republic.

1948 - Adoption by 17 European countries of a program to restore the development of Europe after the Second World War by providing it with US economic assistance.

1949 - Creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): USA, UK, Belgium, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, France and Canada in order to jointly defend against the enemy within the framework of the UN Charter.

1949 - Formation of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA): USSR, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Czechoslovakia.

1949 - Adoption of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the proclamation of the German Democratic Republic (GDR)

1949 - Creation of the Council of Europe (CE), an inter-parliamentary body of European countries in order to protect "Western principles and ideals."

1951-1964 - The Conservatives in power in the UK, who retained most of the Labor reforms, but reduced the scale of the public sector and reduced social spending in order to strengthen the financial system.

1952 - Accession to NATO of Greece and Turkey.

1953 - Anti-communist unrest of the workers of the GDR.

1953-1958 - Algerian war.

1953-1980 - Josip Broz Tito - President of Yugoslavia.

1955 - Germany joins NATO.

1955 - Conclusion of the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance between the USSR, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania and Czechoslovakia (Warsaw Pact Organization)

1956 - Anti-communist unrest in Poland and Hungary. The entry of Soviet troops into Hungary.

1957 - Establishment of the European Economic Community (EEC) or "Common Market" (France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg) under the Treaty of Rome

198 - Adoption of the constitution of the V Republic in France.

1958 - Establishment of the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM), whose main task was to coordinate the development of nuclear energy in Western Europe.

1958-1968 Charles de Gaulle is the President of France.

1960 - World Conference in Moscow, in which representatives of 81 communist parties participate.

1961 - Soviet-American conflict. The threat of a third world war.

1961 - Construction of the Berlin Wall.

1963 - Treaty banning nuclear tests in the atmosphere and under water.

1966 - Visit of Charles de Gaulle to Moscow.

1968 - "Prague Spring". The invasion of Czechoslovakia by five countries - members of the Warsaw Pact.

1968 - Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.

1968 - Conclusion by the countries of the EEC of an agreement on the creation of a customs union, which assumed the free movement of goods, capital, services and labor.

1972 - Opening of preliminary meetings in Helsinki for the preparation of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE)

1973 - Accession to the EEC of Great Britain, Denmark, Ireland.

1975 - signing by 33 European states, the United States and Canada of the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), which consolidated the principles of interstate relations of countries with different social systems.

1977 - Belgrade conference on monitoring the implementation of the Helsinki Accords.

1979 - The EEC countries signed an agreement on the creation of the European Monetary System and on the formation of an advisory body of the European Parliament.

1979-1990 - Margaret Thatcher - Prime Minister of Great Britain.

1982 - Spain joins NATO.

1986 - Adoption by the countries of the EEC (since 1986 of the European Community [EC]) of the Single European Act - a program for the further development of integration. Accession to the EU of Spain, Portugal.

1986-1991 - "Perestroika" in the USSR.

1988 - The resignation of the head of the communist regime in Hungary J. Kadar.

1989 - Holding of free democratic elections in Poland.

1989 - "Velvet Revolution" in Czechoslovakia. The fall of the communist regime in the country.

1989 - The resignation of the head of the communist regime in Bulgaria T. Zhivkov.

1989 - Resignation of the head of the communist regime in the GDR, E. Honecker.

1989 - Reduction of Soviet nuclear weapons in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. 1989 - Revolution in Romania. The arrest of the head of the communist regime N. Ceausescu, his trial and execution.

1990 - Victory in the presidential elections in Poland Lech Walesa, leader of the Solidarity movement.

1990 - German unification.

1990 - Paris Conference of OSCE Leading Countries. The adoption of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, the Joint Declaration and Charter for a New Europe, which consolidated the new principles of European security, taking into account the changes that have taken place in the countries of Eastern Europe since 1989.

1990 - The collapse of the Union of Communists of Yugoslavia (SKYU). Creation of the Socialist Party of Yugoslavia (SPY), the successor to the SKY. SPY leader Slobodan Milosevic is head of Yugoslavia.

1991 - First free democratic elections in Albania.

1991 - Formation of the European Union.

1991 - Declaration of the state independence of Macedonia.

1991 - Proclamation of the state independence of Slovenia and Croatia. The invasion of the Yugoslav army in Croatia. The beginning of the civil war in Yugoslavia.

1991 - The collapse of the USSR and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), which included 11 of the 15 republics of the former Soviet Union.

1991 - Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact and CMEA.

1992 - Formation of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) as part of Serbia and Montenegro. ethnic cleansing. The adoption of international sanctions against Yugoslavia and its exclusion from the CSCE.

1992 - Proclamation of the state independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Beginning of a military confrontation between Bosnian Muslims, Catholic Croats and Orthodox Serbs

1993 The breakup of Czechoslovakia into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

1994 Creation of political, economic, monetary union "Europe without borders". EU accession agreements signed for Austria, Norway, Finland, Sweden

1995 Signing in Paris by the delegations of Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina of the Dayton Agreement on the Bosnian Question. The proclamation of Bosnia and Herzegovina as a single state and the deployment of UN troops to it.

1995 NATO aircraft bombardment of Serb positions in Bosnia.

1996 Russia's accession to the Council of Europe

1996 Creation of the Union of Russia and Belarus

1997 Signing by Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg, Holland and Portugal of the Schengen agreement on visa-free travel

1998 The creation of the Kosovo Liberation Army (OAK), which launched a partisan struggle in Kosovo (a region of Serbia populated by Albanians) to separate the region from Yugoslavia. Ethnic cleansing in Kosovo

1999 Bombing of Serbia by NATO countries. Entering the UN peacekeeping forces in Kosovo. Break Yugoslavia diplomatic relations with NATO countries

1999 Accession to NATO of Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic

1999 The transition of 12 EU member states to a single non-cash currency - the euro.

2000 "Velvet Revolution" in Yugoslavia. Fall of the Milosevic regime

2000 Signing of an agreement between Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan on the establishment of the Eurasian Economic Union and a collective security system for joint: reflection of external aggression and counter-terrorism operations

2001-2002 Participation of European NATO countries in the US counter-terrorist operation against the Taliban in Afghanistan. Support

counter-terrorist operation by all European countries, including the CIS countries.

2002. Cancellation of national currencies of the EU countries. Introduction of cash euro.

What does the history of the Middle Ages study? In order to form an idea of ​​the essence of the issue, it is necessary to familiarize yourself with the subject of its study, the periodization of the main events that occurred in this period of human history, and various points of view on the period under consideration.

The term "Middle Ages"

This term (more precisely, "Middle Age") originated in Italy. It was invented by humanists at the end of the 15th-beginning of the 16th centuries. ad. Historians of the XVII-XVIII centuries finally consolidated and divided the history of mankind into ancient, middle and modern times. According to their deep conviction, and at their suggestion, the opinion began to roam, which is sometimes supported by some modern scientists that it was an era of cultural and spiritual decline, obscurantism, and humanity took a step back. Whether this statement is true, we will consider later in the article.

Now it is necessary to elucidate the question of why scientists of modern times introduced this term. Everything is very simple here. They extolled Antiquity to the skies - the era, in their opinion, the heyday of science, art and culture. Then the Great Roman Empire collapsed, and Europe plunged into chaos for centuries.

Wars, epidemics, religious intolerance and fanaticism have had a negative impact on humanity. But now the era of the New Age began, and then the successive epochs of the Renaissance and Enlightenment gave humanity new hope for the reign of reasonable, humane and justified laws.

On the question of periodization

The time frame of the Middle Ages is considered differently by historians of different countries. And this is not surprising, since different parts of the globe had their own characteristics and specifics. However, the beginning of the Middle Ages does not cause disputes and disagreements.

It is believed that this era came into its legal rights with the collapse of the Roman Empire and this happened on September 4, 476. The Senate of Rome, under pressure, announced that the Western Empire no longer needed an emperor, and the diadem and scepter left for Constantinople. Symbols of imperial power and greatness of Rome.

When it came to where to end this significant period in the history of mankind, then opinions were divided. Each side offered its own version and gave substantiated arguments. This is both (1455), and the beginning of the Reformation (1517) and many other equally significant and unique events.

History, unfortunately, is used as one of the most important instruments of ideological influence. At the same time, its most important and main task is forgotten - the study and analysis of the experience of mankind in order to prevent offensive and terrible mistakes. Therefore, disagreements in chronology, and most importantly, the fact that the term "Middle Ages" is practically inapplicable to the history of all the peoples of the world, consolidated its conventionality.

periodization

However, despite the conventionality of periodization, it is still necessary to single out three main periods, which are followed in Russian historiography and in most Western countries:

Early Middle Ages

High, developed, or classical Middle Ages

This is the middle of the XI century - the time of the emergence of medieval cities and the beginning of the Crusades, and this period of history ends with the era of developed European trade, the flourishing of crafts and art.

Late Middle Ages or Early Modern

The end of the XIV-XVI centuries. - the heyday of the era of great geographical discoveries.

It is necessary to make a small reservation. In the West, there are other time frames of the Middle Ages. It ends happily after the famous discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492.

Middle Ages: the subject of study

What does history study and what is the subject of its study? These are the features, patterns and conditions for the development of society of that period. First of all, this is the origin, formation and development of feudal relations. It was they who became the main factor that influenced social relations in society and its cultural development. Thanks to feudal relations, the political map of that time was redrawn. National cultures and characters known in modern times were born.

Source classification

Answering the question "what does the history of the Middle Ages study", it would be appropriate to characterize and classify the sources that are used in the study of this issue. These are five types of sources that differ in the way information is captured. We list these sources:

• Natural geographic (due to its study, you can get all the necessary data about the environment: climate, soil, landscape, etc. This is necessary to understand the natural specifics of the region under study.).
• Ethnographic (studied folklore, customs, traditions, national costumes, dwellings, etc.).
• material (this includes objects of material culture. These are weapons, utensils, jewelry, etc. Everything that has come down to our days from the past in the form of material objects.).
• Artistic - graphic (paintings, architectural monuments, various sculptures, mosaics, etc.).
• Written (these are texts, and it does not matter how they are written - notes, letters, hieroglyphs, cuneiform or numbers.).

Classes of written sources for the study of the history of the Middle Ages

Written sources, in turn, are divided into classes for convenience. It is necessary to briefly describe each of them. Here's what they look like:

• Narrative, or narrative (narrate about events in an arbitrary form, sometimes using fiction).
• Documentary (such a class of source in a formalized language covers narrow and individual points in the socio-economic, legal or political spheres).
• Legislative (this class of source touches on issues on the history of the Middle Ages, purely in the legal field. But there is one interesting feature - they very often reflect not only legislative practice. You can very clearly trace how the legislator is trying to change it, sometimes for a specific situation.) .

Middle Ages in Russia

As already mentioned, the periodization of the Middle Ages is a convention, therefore, understanding this phenomenon creates the conditions when it is necessary to take into account the historical specifics of the region. It is no coincidence that medieval Russia is considered by historians as a territory where feudal relations arose more slowly, based on the data available to modern science. So here the periodization looks like this:

• IX-XII centuries - Kievan Rus, led by Kyiv - "the mother of Russian cities."
• XII-XIII centuries - the era of civil strife between individual principalities and the beginning of the establishment of the Tatar-Mongol yoke in some Russian lands.
• XIV-XVII centuries - the unification of Russian lands under the rule of Moscow.

Why medieval Russia held societies much later than its European neighbors is a topic for additional research. And the final point on this issue has not yet been set.

Feudalism

The emerging feudalism and the establishment of the universal power of the Church entered into a clear antagonism with the ancient slave system that existed at that time, but was gradually dying out. There was a change of a new socio-economic formation. Which resulted in a huge surge of violence and cruelty.

This was expressed not only in the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, but on its ruins new players arose in the form of barbarian kingdoms. And the Great Migration of Peoples, which lasted from the 4th to the 7th centuries, added to the confusion. Changes occurred, first of all, in the very environment of the barbarian tribes.

The birth of barbarian kingdoms, the strengthening of the power of their kings inevitably led to stratification within their society. Feudal relations were the tool that strengthened the power of the "suzerain". For this, the vassals received not only land, but also the people who cultivate it. Gradually, their descendants also received this status, with the right to further transfer by inheritance.

Enslavement of the peasantry

It is necessary to touch briefly on the main events in the history of mankind, which not only influenced the way of life of medieval society, but also created a prerequisite for further development. A textbook on the history of the Middle Ages gives a brief chronology of those events that occurred in more than a thousand years of history.

At the end of the V-beginning of the VI centuries. (481-511) tough and ambitious king Clovis is nominated among the Franks. He not only became the ancestor of the Merovingian dynasty. Under him, perhaps on his direct orders, the Salic Truth was drawn up. Thanks to it, it is possible to study and analyze the existing archaic orders. And the most important thing is the emerging property and social inequality. Clovis and his successors stubbornly conquered lands in the territory of modern France.

But the dynasty changed and Charles I created a huge empire, however, it did not last long. But under him, the dispossession of land and the enslavement of the peasantry finally took shape.

The Christian religion contributed to this process. The Church received huge allotments and wealth and became so strong that it itself interfered in the affairs of European rulers and even sanctioned the predatory Crusades, hiding behind a plausible pretext. The most important events of the Middle Ages include many episodes, one way or another, that influenced the course of modern history.

Cities and trade

If one dispassionately examines the history of mankind, one can come to the conclusion that the basis of any conflict is economic interests. It is then that the necessary ideology takes shape, sometimes pushing entire nations to mutual extermination. Medieval wars, and modern ones, illustrate this perfectly. But it is also true that it is economic benefit that is the necessary engine that not only changes society, but also moves it towards progress. Trade and economic ties inevitably lead to cultural and technical borrowing.

Cities formed on major trade routes and around fortified fortresses (burghs) became centers of trade, crafts, science and culture. Sometimes people traveled to other countries to learn and excel in their field or to bring back exotic goods.

Finally

What does the history of the Middle Ages study? It is considered to be decline and decay. At first glance, one can partially agree with this. Medieval wars, unsanitary conditions, burning people and other "charms" do not inspire optimism. However, it should be understood that this was the necessary path of mankind when changing the socio-economic formation. The history of formation has come a long and thorny path, but history cannot be abandoned: no matter how bitter and terrible lessons it may give.

The events of the Middle Ages, a period that lasted from the second half of the 5th century to the end of the 15th century, are rich in their diversity. The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD marked the beginning of this faith. under attack from the barbarians. After 10 years, the state of the Franks arose, which eventually occupied the territory of almost all of Western and Central Europe. At the same time, the eastern Roman Empire was transformed into the Byzantine. In 800, Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Frankish Empire by the Pope, which was to inherit the rights of the departed Roman Empire. However, the state fell apart already in 843, modern France and Germany were formed from its fragments.

While in Europe the formation of "barbarian" kingdoms was taking place, Islam was born in the east. The states professing it quite quickly began active aggressive activity, as a result of which the Khorezmian state fell. In Central Asia, the expansion of China was stopped by the Turkic tribes, after which the Chinese emperors hit the defensive, but already in the 13th century, their state was captured by the Mongols of Genghis Khan. The appearance of the Golden Horde is one of the most serious events of the Middle Ages. This state captured a huge territory, conquered Khorezm, China and most of the Russian principalities. Their active conquest fell on 1223-1242. For Eastern Europe, the events of the Middle Ages ended with the liberation from the rule of the Golden Horde in 1480.

In the 10th century, events in the Middle Ages in Europe began to heat up. In the 10th century, the Holy Roman Empire was founded, the emperors of which entered into an active struggle against the Papal Throne. In 1080, the Norman conquest of England took place, which predetermined the entire future history of the development of Great Britain. Also, the Western and Eastern worlds entered into an active confrontation on religious grounds. The apogee of these conflicts was the massive crusades in the Holy Land, which lasted from 1096 to 1270. At the same time, one of these campaigns was carried out against the principality of Lithuania, which managed to fight back only with the help of Novgorod.

One of the most difficult centuries in the Middle Ages was the 14th. England unleashed the Hundred Years' War against France, which ended from 1337 to 1453. In the same century, from 1347 to 1350, one of the worst epidemics in European history took place - the bubonic plague, which was popularly called the black death. Scientists have not singled out a specific date for the end of the Middle Ages, since each region developed according to its own laws. For Europe, this event was the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1492. It is interesting that in the same year the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks were founded on the territory of modern Ukraine (ataman Bayda Vyshnevetsky), the Reconquista in Spain was completed and the New Land was opened.