The main reasons for the outbreak of the Crimean War 1853 1856. Caucasian and Balkan fronts. and the battle of Inkerman

The eastern or Crimean direction (including the territory of the Balkans) was a priority in Russian foreign policy of the 18th-19th centuries. The main rival of Russia in this region was Turkey, or the Ottoman Empire. In the 18th century, the government of Catherine II managed to achieve significant success in this region, Alexander I was also lucky, but their successor Nicholas I had to face great difficulties, since the European powers became interested in Russia's success in this region.

They feared that if the empire's successful eastern foreign policy continued, then Western Europe will lose full control over the Black Sea straits. How the Crimean War of 1853 1856 began and ended, briefly below.

Assessment of the political situation in the region for the Russian Empire

Before the war of 1853-1856... the Empire's policy in the East was quite successful.

1. With the support of Russia, Greece gains independence (1830).
2. Russia acquires the right to freely use the Black Sea straits.
3. Russian diplomats are striving for the autonomy of Serbia, and then a protectorate over the Danube principalities.
4. After the war between Egypt and the Ottoman Empire, Russia, which supported the Sultanate, seeks from Turkey a promise to close the Black Sea straits to any ships other than Russian in the event of any military threat (the secret protocol was valid until 1941).

The Crimean, or Eastern War, which broke out in the last years of the reign of Nicholas II, became one of the first conflicts between Russia and the coalition of European countries. The main reason for the war was the mutual desire of the opposing sides to gain a foothold in the Balkan Peninsula and the Black Sea.

Conflict Basics

Eastern war - complex military conflict, in which all the leading powers of Western Europe were involved. Statistics are thus very important. The prerequisites, causes and general reason for the conflict require detailed consideration, the course of the development of the conflict is rapid, at the same time, the fighting went on both on land and at sea.

Statistical data

Note! Historians and researchers of the military conflict noted that from a material and technical point of view, the Russian army was significantly inferior to the coalition forces. The command staff for training was also inferior to the command staff of the combined enemy forces. Generals and officials Nicholas I did not want to accept this fact and did not even fully realize it.

Prerequisites, causes and reason for the start of the war

Note! To weaken Russia by the European powers, even before the start of the war, the so-called Palmerston Plan was developed (Palmerston is the leader of British diplomacy), which provided for the actual seizure of part of the lands from Russia:

Combat actions and reasons for defeat

Crimean war (table): date, events, total

Note! The most fierce battles of the Eastern War took place near Sevastopol. The city and strongholds around it were subjected to large-scale bombing 6 times:

The defeat of the Russian troops is not a sign that the commanders-in-chief, admirals and generals made mistakes. On the Danube direction, the troops were commanded by a talented commander - Prince M.D. Gorchakov, in the Caucasus - by N.N. Muravyov, Vice-Admiral PS Nakhimov was in charge of the Black Sea fleet, and V.S. These are the heroes of the Crimean War(an interesting message or report can be made about them and their exploits), but even their enthusiasm and strategic genius did not help in the war against the superior forces of the enemy.

The Sevastopol catastrophe led to the fact that the new Russian emperor, Alexander II, foreseeing an extremely negative result of further hostilities, decided to start diplomatic negotiations for peace.

Alexander II, like no one else, understood the reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War):

• foreign policy isolation;
• a clear preponderance of enemy forces on land and at sea;
• the backwardness of the empire in military-technical and strategic terms;
• deep crisis in the economic sphere.

Results of the Crimean War of 1853−1856

Paris Peace Treaty

The mission was headed by Prince A. F. Orlov, who was one of the outstanding diplomats of his time and believed that Russia could not lose in the diplomatic field. After long negotiations that took place in Paris, 18 (30) .03. 1856 a peace treaty was signed between Russia on the one hand, and the Ottoman Empire, coalition forces, Austria and Prussia on the other. The terms of the peace treaty were as follows:

Foreign and domestic political consequences of defeat

The foreign and domestic political results of the war were also deplorable, although somewhat softened by the efforts of Russian diplomats. It was obvious that

The meaning of the Crimean War

But, despite the severity of the political situation inside the country and abroad, after the defeat, it was the Crimean War of 1853-1856. and the defense of Sevastopol became the catalysts that led to the reforms of the 60s of the XIX century, including the abolition of serfdom in Russia.

By the middle of the 19th century, the international situation in Europe remained extremely tense: on the border with Russia, Austria and Prussia continued to concentrate their troops, England and France, with blood and sword, asserted their colonial power. In this situation, a war broke out between Russia and Turkey, which went down in history as the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Causes of the military conflict

By the 50s of the XIX century, the Ottoman Empire finally lost its power. The Russian state, on the contrary, after the suppression of revolutions in European countries, rose to prominence. Emperor Nicholas I decided to further strengthen the power of Russia. First of all, he wanted the straits of the Black Sea, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, to become free for the Russian fleet. This led to hostilities between the Russian and Turkish empires. Besides, the main reasons were :

• Turkey had the right to let the fleet of the allied powers through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles in case of hostilities.
• Russia openly supported the Orthodox peoples under the yoke of the Ottoman Empire. The Turkish government has repeatedly expressed its indignation at Russia's interference in the internal politics of the Turkish state.
• The Turkish government, headed by Abdul-Majid, yearned for revenge for the defeat in two wars with Russia in 1806-1812 and 1828-1829.

Nicholas I, preparing for the war with Turkey, counted on the non-interference of the Western powers in the military conflict. However, the Russian emperor was cruelly mistaken - the Western countries, incited by Great Britain, came out openly on the side of Turkey. English policy has traditionally been to root out the slightest gain of any country by all means.

The beginning of hostilities

The reason for the war was a dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches over the right to possession of the holy lands in Palestine. In addition, Russia demanded that the Black Sea straits be recognized as free for the Russian navy. The Turkish Sultan Abdul-Majid, encouraged by the support of England, declared war on the Russian Empire.

If we talk briefly about the Crimean War, then it can be broken down into two main stages:

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• First step lasted from October 16, 1853 to March 27, 1854. The first six months of hostilities on three fronts - the Black Sea, Danube and Caucasian, Russian troops invariably defeated the Ottoman Turks.
• Second phase lasted from March 27, 1854 to February 1856. The number of participants in the Crimean War of 1853-1856 grew due to the entry into the war of England and France. A radical change is taking place in the war.

Military campaign progress

By the fall of 1853, events on the Danube Front were sluggish and indecisive for both sides.

• The Russian group of forces was commanded only by Gorchakov, who thought only about the defense of the Danube bridgehead. Omer Pasha's Turkish troops, after vain attempts to go on the offensive on the Wallachian border, also went over to a passive defense.
• Events in the Caucasus developed much more rapidly: on October 16, 1854, a detachment of 5 thousand Turks attacked the Russian border outpost between Batum and Poti. The Turkish commander Abdi Pasha hoped to crush the Russian troops in the Transcaucasus and unite with the Chechen imam Shamil. But the Russian general Bebutov thwarted the plans of the Turks, defeating them near the village of Bashkadyklar in November 1853.
• But the loudest victory was won at sea by Admiral Nakhimov on November 30, 1853. The Russian squadron completely destroyed the Turkish fleet located in the Sinop Bay. The commander of the Turkish fleet, Osman Pasha, was captured by the Russian sailors. This was the last battle in the history of the sailing fleet.

• The crushing victories of the Russian army and navy were not to the liking of England and France. The governments of Queen Victoria of England and French Emperor Napoleon III demanded that Russian troops be withdrawn from the mouth of the Danube. Nicholas I refused. In response, on March 27, 1854, England declared war on Russia. Due to the concentration of the Austrian armed forces and the ultimatum of the Austrian government, Nicholas I was forced to agree to the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Danube principalities.

The following table presents the main events of the second period of the Crimean War with dates and a summary of each of the events:

Many peasants tried to avoid conscription in order not to get into the army. This did not indicate their cowardice, it was just that many peasants were trying to avoid recruiting because of their families, which needed to be fed. During the Crimean War of 1853-1856, on the contrary, there was a surge in patriotic sentiments among the population of Russia. Moreover, people of various classes were recorded in the militia.

The end of the war and its consequences

The new Russian sovereign Alexander II, who replaced the suddenly deceased Nicholas I on the throne, directly visited the theater of military operations. After that, he decided to do everything in his power to end the Crimean War. The end of the war came at the beginning of 1856.

In early 1856, a congress of European diplomats was convened in Paris to conclude peace. The most difficult condition put forward by the Western powers of Russia was the prohibition of the maintenance of the Russian fleet in the Black Sea.

The main conditions of the Paris Treaty:

• Russia pledged to return the Kars fortress to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol;
• Russia was forbidden to have a fleet in the Black Sea;
• Russia lost part of the territories in the Danube Delta. Navigation along the Danube was declared free;
• Russia was forbidden to have military fortifications on the Aland Islands.

Rice. 3. Paris Congress of 1856.

The Russian Empire suffered a serious defeat. A powerful blow was dealt to the country's international prestige. The Crimean War exposed the rottenness of the existing system and the backwardness of industry from the leading world powers. The lack of rifled weapons in the Russian army, a modern navy and the lack of railways could not but affect the hostilities.

Nevertheless, such key moments of the Crimean War as the Battle of Sinop, the defense of Sevastopol, the capture of Kars or the defense of the Bomarzund fortress, remained in history as a sacrificial and majestic feat of Russian soldiers and the Russian people.

During the Crimean War, the government of Nicholas I introduced the most severe censorship. It was forbidden to touch upon military topics, both in books and in periodicals. Publications that wrote enthusiastically about the course of hostilities were also not allowed to print.

What have we learned?

Crimean War of 1853-1856 discovered serious shortcomings in the foreign and domestic policy of the Russian Empire. The article "Crimean War" tells about what kind of war it was, why Russia was defeated, as well as about the significance of the Crimean War and its consequences.

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• aggravation of the "Eastern question", that is, the struggle of the leading countries for the division of the "Turkish heritage";
• the growth of the national liberation movement in the Balkans, an acute internal crisis in Turkey and the conviction of Nicholas I of the inevitability of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire;
• the miscalculations of Nicholas 1's diplomacy, manifested in the hope that Austria, in gratitude for her salvation in 1848-1849, would support Russia, with England it would be possible to agree on the partition of Turkey; as well as disbelief in the possibility of an agreement between the eternal enemies - England and France, directed against Russia, "
• the desire of England, France, Austria and Prussia to oust Russia from the East, to the desire to prevent its penetration into the Balkans

The reason for the Crimean War 1853 - 1856:

Dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches over the right to control Christian shrines in Palestine. Russia was behind the Orthodox Church, and France was behind the Catholic Church.

Stages of military operations of the Crimean War:

1. Russian-Turkish war (May - December 1853). The Russian army, after the Turkish sultan rejected the ultimatum to grant the Russian tsar the right to patronize the Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire, occupied Moldavia, Wallachia and went to the Danube. The Caucasian corps went on the offensive. The Black Sea squadron achieved great success, which in November 1853 under the command of Pavel Nakhimov destroyed the Turkish fleet in the battle of Sinop.

2. The beginning of the war between Russia and the coalition of European countries (spring - summer 1854). the threat of defeat hanging over Turkey pushed the European countries to active anti-Russian actions, which led from a local war to a pan-European war.

March. England and France sided with Turkey (Sardinian). Allied squadrons fired on Russian troops; fortification on the Alan Islands in the Baltic, on the Solovki, in the White Sea, on the Kola Peninsula, in Petropavlovsk - Kamchatsky, Odessa, Nikolaev, Kerch. Austria, threatening Russia with war, moved troops to the borders of the Danube principalities, which forced the Russian armies to leave Moldavia and Wallachia.

3. Defense of Sevastopol and the end of the war. In September 1854 Anglo - French. The army landed in the Crimea, which has become the main "theater" of the war. This is the last stage of the Crimean War 1853 - 1856.

The Russian army, led by Menshikov, was defeated on the river. Alma and left Sevastopol defenseless. The defense of the naval fortress, after the sinking of the sailing fleet in the Sevastopol bay, was taken over by sailors led by admirals Kornilov, Nakhimov Istomin (all died). In early October 1854, the defense of the city began and was taken only on August 27, 1855.

Successful actions in the Caucasus in November 1855, the capture of the Kars fortress. However, with the fall of Sevastopol, the outcome of the war predetermined: March 1856. in Paris peace talks.

Terms of the Paris Peace Treaty (1856)

Russia was losing Southern Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube, and Kars returned to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol.

• Russia was deprived of the right of patronage to Christians of the Ottoman Empire
• The Black Sea was declared neutral and Russia lost the right to have a navy and fortifications there.
• Established freedom of navigation along the Danube, which opened the Baltic Peninsula to the Western powers

Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War.

• Economic and technical backwardness (armament and transport support of the Russian armies)
• The mediocrity of the Russian high ground command, who achieved ranks and ranks through intrigue, flattery
• Diplomatic miscalculations that led Russia and isolation in the war with the coalition of England, France, Turkey, with the hostile attitude of Austria, Prussia.
• An obvious inequality of power

Thus, the Crimean War of 1853 - 1856,

1) at the beginning of the reign of Nicholas 1, Russia managed to acquire a number of territories in the East and expand its spheres of influence

2) the suppression of the revolutionary movement in the West brought Russia the title of "gendarme of Europe", but did not answer her nat. interests

3) the defeat in the Crimean War revealed the backwardness of Russia; the rottenness of its autocratic serfdom. Revealed mistakes in foreign policy, the goals of which did not correspond to the country's capabilities

4) this defeat became a decisive and direct factor in the preparation and implementation of the abolition of serfdom in Russia

5) the heroism and dedication of Russian soldiers during the Crimean War remained in the memory of the people and influenced the development of the spiritual life of the country.

The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War was inevitable. Why?
“This is a war of cretins with scoundrels,” F.I. Tyutchev.
Too harsh? Perhaps. But if we take into account the fact that others perished for the sake of the ambitions of some, then Tyutchev's statement will be accurate.

Crimean War (1853-1856) also sometimes called Eastern War is a war between the Russian Empire and a coalition of the British, French, Ottoman empires and the Sardinian kingdom. The fighting took place in the Caucasus, in the Danube principalities, in the Baltic, Black, White and Barents Seas, as well as in Kamchatka. But the fighting reached the greatest tension in the Crimea, therefore the war was called Crimean.

I. Aivazovsky "Review of the Black Sea Fleet in 1849"

Causes of the war

Each side that took part in the war had its own claims and reasons for the military conflict.

Russian empire: sought to revise the regime of the Black Sea straits; increased influence on the Balkan Peninsula.

The painting by I. Aivazovsky depicts participants in the upcoming war:

Nicholas I peers intently at the order of the ships. He is being watched by the commander of the fleet, stocky admiral M.P. Lazarev and his pupils Kornilov (chief of staff of the fleet, behind Lazarev's right shoulder), Nakhimov (behind the left shoulder) and Istomin (on the far right).

Ottoman Empire: wanted the suppression of the national liberation movement in the Balkans; return of Crimea and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus.

England, France: hoped undermine the international authority of Russia, weaken its position in the Middle East; to tear away from Russia the territories of Poland, Crimea, the Caucasus, Finland; to strengthen its position in the Middle East, using it as a sales market.

By the middle of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in a state of decline, in addition, the struggle of the Orthodox peoples continued for liberation from the Ottoman yoke.

These factors led to the emergence of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I in the early 1850s of thoughts on the separation of the Balkan possessions of the Ottoman Empire, inhabited by Orthodox peoples, which was opposed by Great Britain and Austria. Great Britain, in addition, sought to oust Russia from the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus and from the Transcaucasus. The emperor of France Napoleon III, although he did not share the plans of the British to weaken Russia, considering them excessive, supported the war with Russia as revenge for 1812 and as a means of strengthening personal power.

Russia and France had a diplomatic conflict over control of the Church of the Nativity of Christ in Bethlehem, Russia, in order to put pressure on Turkey, occupied Moldova and Wallachia, which were under Russian protectorate under the terms of the Adrianople Peace Treaty. The refusal of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I to withdraw his troops led to the declaration of war on Russia on October 4 (16), 1853 by Turkey, followed by Great Britain and France.

The course of hostilities

The first stage of the war (November 1853 - April 1854) - these are Russian-Turkish military operations.

Nicholas I took an irreconcilable position, hoping for the might of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). But he miscalculated. The Russian army numbered over 1 million people. However, as it turned out in the course of the war, it was imperfect, primarily in technical terms. Its armament (smoothbore guns) was inferior to the rifled weapons of the Western European armies.

Artillery is also outdated. The Russian fleet was predominantly sailing, while the European naval forces were dominated by ships with steam engines. There were no well-established communications. This did not make it possible to provide the place of hostilities with a sufficient amount of ammunition and food, human replenishment. The Russian army could successfully fight against a similar Turkish army, but could not resist the united forces of Europe.

The Russian-Turkish war was fought with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854. The main event of the first stage was the Battle of Sinop (November 1853). Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in the Sinop Bay and suppressed the coastal batteries.

As a result of the Battle of Sinop, the Russian Black Sea Fleet under the command of Admiral Nakhimov defeated the Turkish squadron. The Turkish fleet was defeated within a few hours.

During the four-hour battle in Sinop Bay(the naval base of Turkey) the enemy lost a dozen ships and over 3 thousand people were killed, all coastal fortifications were destroyed. Only 20-gun fast steamer "Taif" with an English adviser on board, he was able to escape from the bay. The commander of the Turkish fleet was captured. The losses of Nakhimov's squadron were 37 killed and 216 wounded. Some ships left the battle with severe damage, but one was not sunk ... The battle of Sinop is inscribed in golden letters in the history of the Russian fleet.

I. Aivazovsky "Sinop battle"

This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. An Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea, attacking Kronstadt and Sveaborg. British ships entered the White Sea and bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery. A military demonstration was also held in Kamchatka.

Second stage of the war (April 1854 - February 1856) - the Anglo-French intervention in the Crimea, the appearance of warships of the Western powers in the Baltic and White Seas and in Kamchatka.

The main goal of the joint Anglo-French command was the capture of the Crimea and Sevastopol - the naval base of Russia. On September 2, 1854, the allies began to land an expeditionary corps in the region of Evpatoria. The battle on the r. Alma in September 1854 Russian troops lost. By order of the commander A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and went to Bakhchisarai. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by sailors from the Black Sea Fleet, was actively preparing for the defense. It was headed by V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov.

After the battle on the river. Alma the enemy laid siege to Sevastopol. Sevastopol was a first-class naval base, impregnable from the sea. Before the entrance to the roadstead - on the peninsulas and capes - there were powerful forts. The Russian fleet could not resist the enemy, so some of the ships were sunk in front of the entrance to the Sevastopol Bay, which further strengthened the city from the sea. More than 20 thousand sailors went ashore and joined the ranks along with the soldiers. Two thousand ship guns were also transported here. Eight bastions and many other fortifications were built around the city. They used earth, boards, household utensils - everything that could hold the bullets.

But for the work there were not enough ordinary shovels and picks. Theft flourished in the army. During the war years, this turned into a disaster. In this regard, a famous episode is recalled. Nicholas I, outraged by all kinds of abuses and embezzlement that were revealed almost everywhere, in a conversation with the heir to the throne (future emperor Alexander II) shared his discovery and shocked him: “It seems that only two people do not steal in all of Russia - you and me”.

Defense of Sevastopol

Defense led by admirals Kornilova V.A., Nakhimova P.S. and Istomin V.I. lasted 349 days by the forces of a 30-thousandth garrison and naval crews. During this period, the city was subjected to five massive bombings, as a result of which part of the city was practically destroyed - the Ship Side.

On October 5, 1854, the first bombardment of the city began. The army and the navy took part in it. 120 guns fired at the city from the land, and 1340 ship guns from the sea side. During the shelling, over 50 thousand shells were fired at the city. This fiery tornado was supposed to destroy the fortifications and suppress the will of their defenders to resist. However, the Russians responded with accurate fire with 268 guns. The artillery duel lasted five hours. Despite the huge superiority in artillery, the allied fleet was severely damaged (8 ships were sent for repair) and was forced to retreat. After that, the Allies abandoned the use of the fleet in bombing the city. The city's fortifications were not seriously damaged. The decisive and skillful rebuff of the Russians came as a complete surprise to the allied command, which expected to take the city with little blood. The defenders of the city could celebrate a very important not only military, but also a moral victory. Their joy was overshadowed by the death during the shelling of Vice Admiral Kornilov. The defense of the city was headed by Nakhimov, who for his distinction in the defense of Sevastopol was promoted to admiral on March 27, 1855. Roubaud. Panorama of the defense of Sevastopol (detail)

A. Roubaud. Panorama of the defense of Sevastopol (detail)

In July 1855, Admiral Nakhimov was mortally wounded. The attempts of the Russian army under the command of Prince Menshikov A.S. pull off the forces of the besiegers ended in failure (the battle under Inkerman, Evpatoria and Black River). The actions of the field army in the Crimea did little to help the heroic defenders of Sevastopol. Around the city, the enemy's ring was gradually shrinking. Russian troops were forced to leave the city. The enemy offensive ended there. The subsequent hostilities in Crimea, as well as in other regions of the country, were not decisive for the allies. Things were somewhat better in the Caucasus, where Russian troops not only stopped the Turkish offensive, but also occupied the fortress Kars... During the Crimean War, the forces of both sides were undermined. But the selfless courage of the Sevastopol people could not compensate for the shortcomings in weapons and supplies.

On August 27, 1855, French troops seized the southern part of the city by storm and captured the hill dominating over the city - the Malakhov Kurgan.

The loss of Malakhov's mound decided the fate of Sevastopol. On this day, the defenders of the city lost about 13 thousand people, or more than a quarter of the entire garrison. In the evening of August 27, 1855, by order of General M.D. Gorchakov, the Sevastopol residents left the southern part of the city and crossed the bridge to the northern one. The battles for Sevastopol ended. The allies did not succeed in his surrender. The Russian armed forces in Crimea survived and were ready for further battles. They numbered 115 thousand people. against 150 thousand people Anglo-French-Sardinians. The defense of Sevastopol was the culmination of the Crimean War.

F. Roubaud. Panorama of the defense of Sevastopol (fragment "The battle for the Gervais battery")

Military operations in the Caucasus

In the Caucasian theater, hostilities developed more successfully for Russia. Turkey invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered a major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress Kare fell.

The extreme exhaustion of the allies' forces in the Crimea and the Russian successes in the Caucasus led to the cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.

Paris world

At the end of March 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed. Russia did not suffer significant territorial losses. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from it. However, she lost the right of patronage to the Danube principalities and Serbia. The most difficult and humiliating condition was the so-called "neutralization" of the Black Sea. Russia was banned from having naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses on the Black Sea. This dealt a significant blow to the security of the southern borders. The role of Russia in the Balkans and the Middle East was reduced to naught: Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia passed under the supreme power of the Ottoman Sultan.

The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment of international forces and on the internal situation in Russia. The war, on the one hand, exposed its weakness, but on the other, it demonstrated the heroism and unshakable spirit of the Russian people. The defeat summed up the sad outcome of the Nikolaev rule, shook the entire Russian public and made the government come to grips with reforming the state.

Heroes of the Crimean War

Kornilov Vladimir Alekseevich

K. Bryullov "Portrait of Kornilov aboard the brig" Themistocles "

Kornilov Vladimir Alekseevich (1806 - October 17, 1854, Sevastopol), Russian vice-admiral. From 1849 he was chief of staff, and from 1851 he was actually the commander of the Black Sea Fleet. During the Crimean War, one of the leaders of the heroic defense of Sevastopol. Mortally wounded at the Malakhov Kurgan.

He was born on February 1, 1806 in the family estate of Ivanovo, Tver province. His father was a naval officer. Following in his father's footsteps, Kornilov Jr. entered the Naval Cadet Corps in 1821, graduated two years later, becoming a midshipman. Richly gifted by nature, an ardent and enthusiastic young man was burdened by coastal combat service in the Guards naval crew. He could not stand the routine of parades and drills of the end of the reign of Alexander I and was expelled from the fleet "for lack of vigor for the front." In 1827, at the request of his father, he was allowed to return to the navy. Kornilov was assigned to the newly built and arrived from Arkhangelsk ship M. Lazarev "Azov", and from that time began his real naval service.

Kornilov took part in the famous Navarino battle against the Turkish-Egyptian fleet. In this battle (October 8, 1827) the crew of the "Azov", carrying the flagship flag, showed the highest valor and was the first of the ships of the Russian fleet to deserve the stern St. George flag. Lieutenant Nakhimov and midshipman Istomin fought alongside Kornilov.

On October 20, 1853, Russia declared a state of war with Turkey. On the same day, Admiral Menshikov, appointed commander-in-chief of the sea and land forces in the Crimea, sent Kornilov with a detachment of ships to reconnaissance of the enemy with permission to "take and destroy Turkish warships wherever they met." Having reached the Bosphorus Strait and not finding the enemy, Kornilov sent two ships to reinforce Nakhimov's squadron cruising along the Anatolian coast, the rest he sent to Sevastopol, he himself switched to the steam frigate Vladimir and stayed at the Bosphorus. The next day, November 5, "Vladimir" discovered an armed Turkish ship "Pervaz-Bahri" and entered into battle with it. This was the first battle of steam ships in the history of naval art, and the crew of the "Vladimir" headed by Lieutenant-Commander G. Butakov won a convincing victory in it. The Turkish ship was captured and taken in tow to Sevastopol, where after repairs it entered the Black Sea Fleet under the name "Kornilov".

At the council of flagships and commanders, which decided the fate of the Black Sea Fleet, Kornilov spoke in favor of the ships going out to sea in order to fight the enemy for the last time. However, by a majority vote of the council members, it was decided to flood the fleet, excluding steam frigates, in the Sevastopol Bay and thereby block the enemy's breakthrough to the city from the sea. On September II, 1854, the flooding of the sailing fleet began. All the guns and personnel of the lost ships were sent by the chief of the city's defense to the bastions.
On the eve of the siege of Sevastopol, Kornilov said: "Let them first tell the troops the word of God, and then I will give them the word of the king." And around the city was a procession with banners, icons, chants and prayers. Only after that did the famous Kornilov call sounded: "The sea is behind us, the enemy is ahead, remember: do not believe in retreat!"
On September 13, the city was declared a state of siege, and Kornilov attracted the population of Sevastopol to the construction of fortifications. The garrisons of the southern and northern sides were increased, from where the main attacks of the enemy were expected. On October 5, the enemy launched the first massive bombardment of the city from land and sea. On this day, while bypassing the defensive formations, V.A. Kornilov was mortally wounded in the head at the Malakhov Kurgan. “Defend Sevastopol,” were his last words. Nicholas I, in his letter to the widow of Kornilov, pointed out: "Russia will not forget these words, and your children will pass on a name that is venerable in the history of the Russian fleet."
After the death of Kornilov, a will was found in his casket, addressed to his wife and children. "I will bequeath to the children," the father wrote, "to the boys, having chosen the service of the sovereign once, not to change it, but to make every effort to make it useful to society ... Daughters follow their mothers in everything." Vladimir Alekseevich was buried in the crypt of the Naval Cathedral of St. Vladimir next to his teacher, Admiral Lazarev. Soon Nakhimov and Istomin will take their place next to them.

Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov

Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov was born on June 23, 1802 in the Gorodok estate of the Smolensk province in the family of a nobleman, retired major Stepan Mikhailovich Nakhimov. Of the eleven children, five were boys, and they all became sailors; at the same time, Pavel's younger brother, Sergei, finished his service as vice admiral, director of the Naval Cadet Corps, in which all five brothers studied in their youth. But Paul surpassed everyone with his naval glory.

He graduated from the Marine Corps, and was among the best midshipmen on the Phoenix brig, who took part in the sea voyage to the shores of Sweden and Denmark. After graduating from the corps, with the rank of midshipman, he was assigned to the 2nd naval crew of the Petersburg port.

Tirelessly engaged in training the crew of "Navarin" and polishing his combat skills, Nakhimov skillfully led the ship during the period of Lazarev's squadron actions against the blockade of the Dardanelles in the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829. For his excellent service, he was awarded the Order of St. Anna, 2nd degree. When the squadron returned to Kronstadt in May 1830, Rear Admiral Lazarev wrote in the certification of the Navarin commander: "An excellent and perfectly knowledgeable sea captain."

In 1832, Pavel Stepanovich was appointed commander of the Pallada frigate built at the Okhten shipyard, on which, as part of the squadron of the vice admiral F. Bellingshausen he sailed in the Baltic. In 1834, at the request of Lazarev, then the chief commander of the Black Sea Fleet, Nakhimov was transferred to Sevastopol. He was appointed commander of the battleship Silistria, and eleven years of his further service were spent on this battleship. Giving all his strength to work with the crew, instilling in his subordinates a love of naval affairs, Pavel Stepanovich made the Silistria an exemplary ship, and made his name popular in the Black Sea Fleet. In the first place, he put the naval training of the crew, was strict and demanding of his subordinates, but he had a kind heart, open to sympathy and manifestations of naval brotherhood. Lazarev often kept his flag on the Silistria, setting the battleship as an example for the entire fleet.

Nakhimov's military talents and naval skills were most clearly manifested during the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Even on the eve of Russia's clash with the Anglo-French-Turkish coalition, the first squadron of the Black Sea Fleet under his command was vigilantly cruising between Sevastopol and the Bosphorus. In October 1853 Russia declared war on Turkey, and the squadron commander emphasized in his order: “In the event of a meeting with an enemy superior in strength, I will attack him, being absolutely sure that each of us will do his job. In early November, Nakhimov learned that the Turkish squadron under the command of Osman Pasha, heading to the shores of the Caucasus, left the Bosphorus and, due to a storm, entered the Sinop Bay. The commander of the Russian squadron had 8 ships and 720 guns at the disposal of the commander of the Russian squadron, while Osman Pasha had 16 ships with 510 guns under the protection of coastal batteries. Without becoming to wait for the steam frigates, which the vice admiral Kornilov led the Russian squadron to reinforce, Nakhimov decided to attack the enemy, relying primarily on the fighting and moral qualities of the Russian sailors.

For the victory at Sinop Nicholas I honored Vice-Admiral Nakhimov with the Order of St. George, 2nd degree, writing in a personal rescript: "With the extermination of the Turkish squadron, you decorated the chronicle of the Russian fleet with a new victory, which will forever remain memorable in maritime history." Evaluating the Battle of Sinop, Vice Admiral Kornilov wrote: “The battle is glorious, higher than Chesma and Navarin ... Hurray, Nakhimov! Lazarev is happy with his student! "

Convinced that Turkey was not in a position to wage a successful fight against Russia, Britain and France brought their fleet into the Black Sea. Commander-in-Chief A.S. Menshikov did not dare to prevent this, and the further course of events led to the epic of the Sevastopol defense of 1854-1855. In September 1854, Nakhimov had to agree with the decision of the council of flagships and commanders on the sinking of the Black Sea squadron in the Sevastopol Bay in order to make it difficult for the Anglo-French-Turkish fleet to enter it. Moving from sea to land, Nakhimov voluntarily became subordinate to Kornilov, who led the defense of Sevastopol. Seniority in age and superiority in military merit did not prevent Nakhimov, who recognized the mind and character of Kornilov, from maintaining good relations with him, based on a mutual ardent desire to defend the southern stronghold of Russia.

In the spring of 1855, the second and third assaults of Sevastopol were heroically repulsed. In March, Nicholas I granted Nakhimov for military distinction with the rank of admiral. In May, the valiant naval commander was awarded a life lease, but Pavel Stepanovich was annoyed: “What do I need it for? It would be better if they sent me bombs. "

On June 6, the enemy began active assault actions for the fourth time through massive bombing and attacks. On June 28, on the eve of the day of Saints Peter and Paul, Nakhimov once again went to the forward bastions to support and inspire the defenders of the city. On the Malakhov Kurgan, he visited the bastion where Kornilov died, in spite of warnings about strong rifle fire, he decided to go up to the parapet banquet, and then an aimed enemy bullet hit him in the temple. Without regaining consciousness, Pavel Stepanovich died two days later.

Admiral Nakhimov was buried in Sevastopol in the Cathedral of St. Vladimir, next to the graves of Lazarev, Kornilov and Istomin. In front of a large crowd of people, admirals and generals carried his coffin, seventeen in a row stood an honor guard from the army battalions and all the crews of the Black Sea Fleet, drumming and a solemn prayer sounded, a cannon salute thundered. In the coffin of Pavel Stepanovich, two admiral's flags were overshadowed and the third, priceless - the stern flag of the battleship "Empress Maria", the flagship of the Sinop victory, torn by cannonballs.

Nikolay Ivanovich Pirogov

The famous doctor, surgeon, participant in the defense of Sevastopol in 1855. NI Pirogov's contribution to medicine and science is invaluable. He created anatomical atlases of exemplary precision. N.I. Pirogov was the first to come up with the idea of ​​plastic surgery, put forward the idea of ​​bone grafting, applied anesthesia in military field surgery, applied a plaster cast for the first time in the field, suggested the existence of pathogenic microorganisms that cause suppuration of wounds. Already at that time, N.I. Pirogov called for abandoning early amputations for gunshot wounds of the limbs with bone injuries. The mask he designed for ether anesthesia is still used in medicine. Pirogov was one of the founders of the nursing service. All his discoveries and achievements have saved the lives of thousands of people. He did not refuse to help anyone and devoted his whole life to unlimited service to people.

Dasha Alexandrova (Sevastopol)

She was sixteen and a half when the Crimean War began. She lost her mother early, and her father, a sailor, defended Sevastopol. Dasha ran to the port every day, trying to find out something about her father. In the chaos that reigned around, it turned out to be impossible. Desperate, Dasha decided that she had to try at least to help the fighters in some way - and together with everyone else, her father. She exchanged her cow - the only thing she had of value - for a decrepit horse and cart, got vinegar and old rags, and, along with other women, joined the train. Other women cooked and washed for the soldiers. And Dasha turned her cart into a dressing station.

When the situation of the troops worsened, many women left the train and Sevastopol, went north, to safe areas. Dasha stayed. She found an old abandoned house, cleaned it out and turned it into a hospital. Then she unhitched her horse from the cart, and spent whole days walking with it to the front line and back, taking out two wounded for each "walk".

In November 1953, in the battle of Sinop, the sailor Lavrenty Mikhailov, her father, was killed. Dasha found out about this much later ...

The rumor about a girl who takes out the wounded from the battlefield and provides them with medical assistance spread throughout the belligerent Crimea. And soon Dasha had associates. True, these girls did not risk going to the front line, like Dasha, but they completely took upon themselves dressing and caring for the wounded.

And then Pirogov found Dasha, who embarrassed the girl with expressions of his sincere delight and admiration for her feat.

Dasha Mikhailova and her assistants have joined the "Cross Exaltation" We studied professional treatment of wounds.

The younger sons of the emperor, Nikolai and Mikhail, came to Crimea "to raise the spirit of the Russian army". They also wrote to their father that in the fighting Sevastopol "a girl named Daria is taking care of the wounded and sick, with exemplary diligence." Nicholas I ordered her to welcome a gold medal on the Vladimir ribbon with the inscription "For diligence" and 500 silver rubles. According to the status, the gold medal "For diligence" was awarded to those who already had three medals - silver. So we can assume that the Emperor highly appreciated the feat of Dasha.

The exact date of death and the resting place of the ashes of Daria Lavrentievna Mikhailova have not yet been discovered by researchers.

Reasons for Russia's defeat

• The economic backwardness of Russia;
• Russia's political isolation;
• Lack of a steam fleet in Russia;
• Poor supply of the army;
• Lack of railways.

For three years Russia lost 500 thousand people in killed, wounded and prisoners. The allies also suffered great losses: about 250 thousand killed, wounded and died from diseases. As a result of the war, Russia ceded its positions in the Middle East to France and England. Its prestige in the international arena was badly undermined... On March 13, 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, under which the Black Sea was declared neutral, the Russian fleet was reduced to minimum and fortifications were destroyed... Turkey has also made similar demands. In addition, Russia lost the mouth of the Danube and the southern part of Bessarabia, was supposed to return the Kars fortress, and also lost the right to patronize Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia.

The Crimean War of 1853-1856 is a war between the Russian Empire and a coalition of the British, French, Ottoman Empires and the Kingdom of Sardinia. The war was prompted by Russia's expansionist plans towards the rapidly weakening Ottoman Empire. Emperor Nicholas I tried to take advantage of the national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples to establish control over the Balkan Peninsula and the strategically important straits of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. These plans threatened the interests of the leading European powers - Great Britain and France, which were constantly expanding their sphere of influence in the Eastern Mediterranean, and Austria, which was striving to establish its hegemony in the Balkans.

The reason for the war was the conflict between Russia and France, connected with the dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches for the right of custody of the holy places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem, which were in Turkish possessions. The growth of French influence at the Sultan's court caused concern in St. Petersburg. In January-February 1853, Nicholas I proposed to Great Britain to agree on the division of the Ottoman Empire; however, the British government preferred an alliance with France. During his mission to Istanbul in February-May 1853, the Tsar's special representative, Prince A.S. Menshikov, demanded that the Sultan agree to a Russian protectorate over the entire Orthodox population in his domain, but he, with the support of Great Britain and France, refused. On July 3, Russian troops crossed the river. Prut and entered the Danube principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia); the Turks made a sharp protest. On September 14, the combined Anglo-French squadron approached the Dardanelles. On October 4, the Turkish government declared war on Russia.

Russian troops, under the command of Prince M.D. Gorchakov, entered Moldavia and Wallachia, occupied in October 1853 a very scattered position along the Danube. The Turkish army (about 150 thousand), commanded by the sardarekrem Omer Pasha, was located partly along the same river, partly in Shumla and Adrianople. There were less than half of the regular troops; the remainder consisted of the militia with little or no military education. Almost all the regular troops were armed with rifled or smooth-bore percussion guns; the artillery is well organized, the troops are trained by European organizers; but the officer corps was unsatisfactory.

On October 9, Omer Pasha informed Prince Gorchakov that if after 15 days a satisfactory answer was not given about the cleansing of the principalities, then the Turks would open hostilities; however, even before the expiration of this period, the enemy began to shoot at the Russian outposts. On October 23, the Turks opened fire on the Russian steamships Prut and Ordinarets passing along the Danube past the Isakchi fortress. 10 days after that, Omer Pasha, having collected 14 thousand people from Turtukai, crossed to the left bank of the Danube, occupied the Oltenitsky quarantine and began to build fortifications here.

On November 4, the battle at Oltenitz followed. General Dannenberg, who was in command of the Russian troops, did not complete matters and retreated with the loss of about 1,000 people; however, the Turks did not take advantage of their success, but burned down the quarantine, as well as the bridge on the Ardzhis River, and withdrew again to the right bank of the Danube.

On March 23, 1854, the crossing of Russian troops to the right bank of the Danube began, near Brailaa, Galats and Izmail, they occupied the fortresses: Machin, Tulcha and Isakcha. Prince Gorchakov, who commanded the troops, did not immediately move to Silistria, which would have been relatively easy to capture, since its fortifications at that time were not yet fully completed. This slowdown in action, which began so successfully, was due to the orders of Prince Paskevich, who was prone to exaggerated caution.

Only as a result of the energetic demand of the emperor Nikolai Paskevich ordered the troops to march forward; but this offensive was carried out extremely slowly, so that only on May 16 did the troops begin to approach Silistria. The siege of Silistria began on the night of May 18, and the chief of engineers, the highly talented General Schilder, proposed a plan according to which, subject to the complete taxation of the fortress, he would take it in 2 weeks. But Prince Paskevich proposed another plan, extremely unprofitable, and at the same time did not block Silistria at all, which, thus, could communicate with Ruschuk and Shumla. The siege was fought against the strong forward fort of Arab Tabia; on the night of May 29, they already managed to lay a trench 80 fathoms away from it. The assault, undertaken without any order by General Selvan, ruined the whole business. At first, the Russians were successful and climbed the rampart, but at this time Selvan was mortally wounded. In the rear of the assault forces there was a retreat, a difficult retreat began under the pressure of the enemy, and the whole enterprise ended in complete failure.

On June 9, Prince Paskevich, with all his might, made an intensified reconnaissance to Silistria, but, being shell-shocked at the same time, he handed over the command to Prince Gorchakov and left for Yassy. From there, he still sent orders. Soon afterwards, General Schilder, who was the soul of the siege, received a serious wound and was forced to leave for Kalarash, where he died.

On June 20, siege work moved so close to Arab Tabia that an assault was scheduled for the night. The troops prepared, when suddenly, at about midnight, the field marshal's order came: to immediately burn the siege and go to the left bank of the Danube. The reason for this order was a letter received by Prince Paskevich from Emperor Nicholas, and the hostile measures of Austria. Indeed, the sovereign allowed the siege to be lifted if the siege corps were threatened by an attack by superior forces before the capture of the fortress; but there was no such danger. Thanks to the measures taken, the siege was lifted completely unnoticed by the Turks, who almost did not pursue the Russians.
Now on the left side of the Danube the number of Russian troops reached 120 thousand, with 392 guns; in addition, there were 11/2 infantry divisions and a cavalry brigade in Babadag, under the command of General Ushakov. The forces of the Turkish army extended to 100 thousand people, located near Shumla, Varna, Silistria, Ruschuk and Vidin.

After the Russians left Silistria, Omer Pasha decided to go on the offensive. Having concentrated more than 30 thousand people at Ruschuk, on July 7 he began to cross the Danube and, after a battle with a small Russian detachment, stubbornly defending the island of Radoman, captured Zhurzha, losing up to 5 thousand people. Although he then stopped his offensive, Prince Gorchakov also did nothing against the Turks, but, on the contrary, began to gradually purify the principalities. Following him, the special detachment of General Ushakov, which occupied Dobrudzha, returned to the borders of the Empire and settled on the Lower Danube, near Ishmael. As the Russians retreated, the Turks slowly advanced forward, and on August 22, Omer Pasha entered Bucharest.