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Front Chronicle of the 16th century

Front Chronicle of the 16th century

Front Chronicle of the 16th century. Bible story. Book 1

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Front Chronicle of the 16th century. Bible story. Book 4

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Front Chronicle of the 16th century. The World History. Book 1

Front Chronicle of the 16th century. The World History. Book 2

Front Chronicle of the 16th century. The World History. Book 3Download Firm "AKTEON" together with the curators for the first time carried out a scientific facsimile edition of the "Facing Chronicle of the XVI century."
The proposed edition with translation - as an addition to the scientific apparatus of the above-mentioned facsimile - is presented in three sections: biblical history, world history, Russian chronicle history.
In this edition, the pages are arranged in chronological order of narration.
The outer field contains transliteration and translation into modern Russian.

Russian chronicle history 1114-1567. - is reflected in 6010 of the Illuminated Chronicle of the 16th century in its following volumes:
G - Golitsyn volume (Department of Manuscripts of the Russian National Library, F.IV.225),
L - Laptev TOM (Department of Manuscripts of the Russian National Library, F.IV.233),
O-I - Osterman's first volume (Department of Manuscripts of the Library of the Academy of Sciences, 31. 7. 30-1),
O-II - Ostermanov's second toy (Department of Manuscripts of the Library of the Academy of Sciences, 31, 7. 30-2),
Ш - Shumilovsky volume (Department of Manuscripts of the National Library of Russia, F, IY. 232),
C - Synodal Volume (Department of Manuscripts of the State Historical Museum. Sin. No. 962),
C - Royal Book (Department of Manuscripts of the State Historical Museum. Sin. No. 149).

The footnotes contain discrepancies from the PSRL census - the Complete Collection of Russian Chronicles - a book series fundamental for studying the history of ancient and medieval Russia (its texts were mainly published in typesetting, in the spelling of the 19th century).

The “Makarievskaya school” of painting, the “school of Grozny” are concepts that embrace a little more than three decades in the life of Russian art in the second half (or, more precisely, the third quarter) of the 16th century. These years are full of facts, rich in works of art, characterized by a new attitude towards the tasks of art, its role in the general way of life of the young centralized state, and, finally, they are notable for the attitude towards the creative personality of the artist and attempts to regulate his activity, more than ever to subordinate it to the tasks polemical, to involve in the tense dramatic action of public life. For the first time in the history of Russian artistic culture, questions of art become the subject of debate at two church councils (1551 and 1554). For the first time, a predetermined plan for the creation of numerous works of various types of art (monumental and easel painting, book illustration and applied art, in particular wood carving) predetermined themes, plots, emotional interpretation and, to a large extent, served as the basis for a complex set of images designed to reinforce, substantiate, glorify the reign and deeds of the first "crowned autocrat" who ascended the throne of the centralized Russian state. And it was at this time that a grandiose artistic project was carried out: the front chronicle of Ivan the Terrible, the Tsar-book - an annals of events in world and especially Russian history, written, probably in 1568-1576, especially for the royal library in a single copy. The word "facial" in the name of the Code means illustrated, with the image "in the faces." Consists of 10 volumes containing about 10 thousand sheets of rag paper, decorated with more than 16 thousand miniatures. Covers the period "from the creation of the world" to 1567. The grandiose "paper" project of Ivan the Terrible!

Front chronograph. RNB.

The chronological framework of these phenomena in the artistic life of the Russian centralized state in the second half of the 16th century. are determined by one of the most significant events of that time - the wedding of Ivan IV to the kingdom. The wedding of Ivan IV (January 16, 1547) opened a new period of assertion of autocratic power, being a kind of result of a long process of formation of a centralized state and the struggle for the unity of Russia, subject to the power of the Moscow autocrat. That is why the very act of crowning the kingdom of Ivan IV, which served as the subject of repeated discussions among future participants in the "chosen council", as well as among the inner circle of Metropolitan Macarius, was, as historians have repeatedly said, furnished with exceptional splendor. Based on the literary sources of the end of the previous century, Macarius developed the very ritual of the royal wedding, introducing the necessary symbolism into it. A convinced ideologue of autocratic power, Macarius did everything possible to emphasize the exclusivity ("chosen by God") of the power of the Moscow sovereign, the primordial rights of the Moscow sovereign by referring to historical analogies in the field of civil history and, above all, the history of Byzantium, Kievan and Vladimir-Suzdal Rus.

Royal book.

The ideology of autocracy, according to Macarius, should have been reflected in the written sources of the era and, first of all, the chronicle, the books of the royal genealogy, the circle of annual reading, which were the Menaia compiled under his leadership, and also, apparently, it was supposed to turn to the creation of befitting occasions works of fine art. That the intentions of appealing to all kinds of artistic culture from the very beginning were grandiose, shows the scope of the literary works of that time. It is difficult, however, to imagine what forms the implementation of these ideas in the field of fine arts would have taken and in what terms they would have been realized if it were not for the fire in June 1547, which devastated the vast territory of the city. As the chronicle tells, on June 21, on Tuesday, “at 10 o’clock on the day of the third week of Peter’s Lent, the Church of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross behind Neglimnaya on Arbatskaya Street caught fire ... And there was a great storm, and fire flowed, like lightning, and the fire was strong faster ... And the storm turned to a greater city, and it caught fire in the city near the cathedral churches of the Most Holy Top, and in the royal court of the Grand Duke on the ceilings, and wooden huts, and ceilings decorated with gold, and the Treasury yard and with the royal treasury, and the church in the royal court at royal treasuries The Annunciation of the Golden Dome, the deesis of Andreev’s letter of Rublev, overlaid with gold, and the images adorned with gold and beads of the valuable Greek letters of his forefathers collected from many years ... And in many churches the stone burnt deesis and images, and church vessels, and many human stomachs , and the court of the Metropolitan. “... And in the city all the courtyards and wards are burning hot, and the Chudov Monastery is all burnt out, the relics of the holy great miracle worker Alexei by God’s mercy were preserved by God’s mercy... And the Ascension Monastery is also all burnt out, ... and the Church of the Ascension is burnt out, images and vessels church and the stomachs of many people, only one image of the Most Pure Archpriest endured. And all the courtyards in the city burned down, and in the city the roof of the city, and the potion of the cannon, where in the city, and those places the city walls were bursting ... people along Tferskaya Street, and along Dmitrovka, and in Bolshoy Posad, along Ilyinskaya Street, in gardens. The fire on June 21, 1547, which began in the first half of the day, continued until night: "And at the third hour of the night the fiery flame ceased." As it is clear from the given chronicle evidence, buildings in the royal court were badly damaged, numerous works of art were destroyed and partly damaged.

Battle on the Ice. Annalistic miniature from the 16th century Facial Code.

But Moscow residents suffered even more. On the second day, the tsar and the boyars gathered at the bedside of Metropolitan Macarius, who had suffered during the fire, “for a thought” - the mindset of the masses was discussed, and the tsar’s confessor, Fyodor Barmin, reported rumors spreading about the cause of the fire, which black people explained by the witchcraft of Anna Glinskaya. Ivan IV was forced to appoint an investigation. In addition to F. Barmin, it was attended by Prince Fyodor Skopin Shuisky, Prince Yuri Temkin, I. P. Fedorov, G. Yu. Zakharyin, F. Nagoi and "others". Excited by the fire, Moscow black people, as the course of further events explains the Continuation of the Chronograph of 1512 and the Chronicler Nikolsky, gathered at the Veche and on Sunday morning, June 26, entered the Cathedral Square of the Kremlin "to the sovereign's court", seeking trial over the perpetrators of the fire (the perpetrators of the fire , as mentioned above, the Glinskys were revered). Yuri Glinsky tried to hide in the Dmitrovsky aisle of the Assumption Cathedral. The rebels penetrated the cathedral, despite the ongoing divine service, and during the “cherubic song” they took Yuri out and killed him against the metropolitan place, dragged him outside the city and left him at the place of execution of the criminals. The people of the Glinskys were "countlessly beaten and the prince's belly ripped apart." One might have thought that the murder of Yuri Glinsky was an "execution", clothed in the form of "traditional" and "legal".

Mityai (Michael) and St. Dionysius before led. book. Dimitry Donskoy.

Miniature from the Illuminated Chronicle. 70s 16th century

This is evidenced by the fact that the body of Glinsky was put up for auction and thrown "before the stake, where they will be executed." This performance of black people did not end there. On June 29, armed, in battle order, they (by the “cry of the executioner” or “birich”) moved to the royal residence in Vorobyevo. Their ranks were so formidable (they were with shields and spears) that Ivan IV was "surprised and horrified." Black people demanded the extradition of Anna Glinskaya and her son Mikhail. The scale of the actions of black people turned out to be quite large, the readiness for a military action testified to the strength of the people's anger. This uprising was preceded by protests by the dissatisfied in the cities (in the summer of 1546, the Novgorod pishchalniks came out, and on June 3, 1547, the Pskovites complained about the royal governor Turuntai), and it is clear that the size of the popular unrest should have made a formidable impression not only on Ivan IV. They had to be considered by the inner circle of the young king, who determined the policy of the 30s - 50s. The organized uprising of the Moscow lower classes was mainly directed against the boyar autocracy and arbitrariness, which was especially painfully reflected in the years of Ivan IV's youth on the fate of the broad masses of the people, and had a certain influence on the further development of domestic policy.

One of the books of the Facial Code of the 16th century.

Most likely, those of the historians who consider the Moscow uprising after the fire of 1547 inspired by the opponents of the boyar autocracy are right. Attempts to find the inspirers of the uprising in the immediate environment of Ivan IV are not without foundation. However, inspired from outside, it, reflecting the protest of the broad masses of the people against the boyar oppression, as you know, took on an unexpected scope, although it coincided in its direction with the new trends of the emerging government of the 50s. But at the same time, its scale, the speed and strength of the popular reaction to the events were such that it was impossible not to take into account the significance of the speech and those of its deep social causes, which, regardless of the influence of the ruling political parties, caused popular unrest. All this aggravated the complexity of the political situation and in many respects contributed to the breadth of the idea and the search for the most effective means of ideological influence, among which works of fine art, new in content, occupied a significant place. It can be thought that in developing a plan of political and ideological measures to influence the broad circles of the people, it was decided to turn to one of the most accessible and familiar educational means - to standing and monumental painting, due to the capacity of its images, capable of leading from the usual edifying themes to more broad historical generalizations. A certain experience of this kind took shape already in the reign, first of Ivan III, and later of Vasily III. In addition to influencing the Moscow black people, as well as the boyars and service people, the paintings were intended to have a direct educational effect on the young tsar himself. Like many literary undertakings carried out in the circle of Metropolitan Macarius and the "chosen council" - and the leading role of Macarius, as the ideologist of autocratic power, should not be underestimated - the works of painting in their essential part contained not only "justifications for the policy" of the king, but also revealed those basic ideas that were supposed to inspire Ivan IV himself and determine the general direction of his activities.

Ivan the Terrible at the wedding of Simeon Bekbulatovich.

It was important to interest Ivan IV in the general plan of restoration work to such an extent that their ideological orientation was, as it were, predetermined by the sovereign himself, came from him (recall that the Stoglavy Cathedral was similarly organized a little later). The initiative for restoration work was divided between Metropolitan Macarius, Sylvester and Ivan IV, who, of course, was supposed to officially lead. All these relationships can be traced in the very course of events, as they are described in the chronicle, and most importantly, as evidenced by the materials of the Viskovaty case. The interior decoration of the temples burned out, the fire did not spare both the royal dwelling and the royal treasury. It was not in the custom of Muscovite Russia to leave temples without shrines. First of all, Ivan IV “sent around the cities holy and honest icons, to Veliky Novgorod, and to Smolensk, and to Dmitrov, and Zvenigorod, and from many other cities, many and wonderful holy icons were brought and placed on the Annunciation for worship by the tsar and all the peasants ". Following this, restoration work began. One of the active participants in the organization of restoration work was Priest Sylvester, who himself served in the Annunciation Cathedral - as you know, one of the most influential figures in the "chosen council". Sylvester tells in detail about the progress of the work in his “Complaint” to the “consecrated cathedral” of 1554, from which you can get information about the organization and performers of the work, and about the sources of iconography, and about the process of ordering and “accepting” works, as well as about the role and relationships Metropolitan Macarius, Ivan IV and Sylvester himself during the creation of new monuments of painting.

Shchelkanovshchina. Popular uprising against the Tatars in Tver. 1327.

Miniature from the Illuminated Chronicle of the 16th century

The “Complaint” allows us to judge the number of invited masters, as well as the very fact of inviting masters, and most importantly, about those art centers where the cadres of painters were drawn from: “the sovereign sent icon painters to Novgorod, and to Pskov and other cities, the icon painters gathered , and the tsar ordered them to write icons, to whom it was ordered, and to others he ordered them to sign and at the city above the gates of the saints to write images. Thus, the areas of activity of painters are immediately determined: easel painting (icon painting), secular chamber painting, the creation of over-the-gate icons (it is possible to understand them as wall painting and as easel painting). As the main artistic centers where the masters come from, two cities are called Sylvester: Novgorod and Pskov, and it is very interesting how the relationship between the masters and the organizers of the order develops. All from the same Sylvester's Complaint, as well as from his message to his son Anfim, one can judge about the leading role of Sylvester in organizing the leadership of the squad itself, which carried out painting works after the fire of 1547. In particular, with the Novgorod masters, Sylvester, apparently, long established relationships. He himself determines what they should order, where they can get the sources of iconography: “And I, reporting to the sovereign tsar, ordered the Novgorod icon painters to write the Holy Trinity Life-Giving in deeds, and I believe in one God, praise the Lord from heaven, yes Sophia, Wisdom God, yes, it is worthy, and the translation from the Trinity had icons, why write, but on Simonov. But this was done only if the plots were traditional. The situation was much more complicated when there were no such transfers.

Defense of Kozelsk, miniature of the 16th century from the Nikon chronicle.

Another part of the work was entrusted to the Pskovites. Their invitation was not unexpected. They turned to the Pskov masters at the end of the 15th century. True, at that time skillful builders were invited, while now they are icon painters. Macarius, in the recent past the archbishop of Novgorod and Pskov, himself, as you know, a painter, in all likelihood, struck up relations with the Pskov masters in his time. In any case, on the basis of completed orders, one can judge the rather significant size of the workshop at the archbishop's court in Novgorod. It is generally accepted that this whole workshop, following Macarius, moved to the metropolitan court in Moscow. Maintaining relations with the Pskovites, being already a metropolitan, Macarius could through the priest of the Cathedral of the Annunciation, the Pskovite Semyon, the same one who submitted his “Complaint” to the “consecrated cathedral” together with Sylvester. Obviously, for the execution of such a complex order, the best masters from different cities were convened, which laid the foundation for the "royal school" of painters. The Pskovites, without explaining the reasons, did not want to work in Moscow and pledged to fulfill the order, working at home: “And the Pskov icons of Ostanya, yes Yakov, yes Mikhail, yes Yakushko, yes Semyon the High Verb and comrades, ask for leave to Pskov and went there to write four large icons":

1. Last Judgment

2. Renovation of the Cathedral of Christ our God of Resurrection

3. Passion of the Lord in the Gospel parables

4. The icon, there are four holidays on it: "And God rest on the seventh day from all his works, yes, the Only Begotten Son, the Word of God, yes, come people to the threefold Deity, let us worship, but in the tomb of the flesh"

So, at the head of the whole grandiose plan of restoration work was the king, “reporting” to whom or “having asked” whom (partly nominally), Sylvester distributed orders among painters, especially if there was a direct opportunity to use samples.

Battle on the Ice. Flight of the Swedes to the ships.

It should be emphasized that the Moscow sources of traditional iconography were the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and the Simonov Monastery. (In written sources until the second half of the 16th century, there was no information about the art workshop in Simonov, despite the mention of the names of several masters who left this monastery). It should also be recalled that Novgorod and Pskov churches are also mentioned among the authoritative sources of iconography, in particular, the murals of St. Sophia of Novgorod, the church of St. George in the St. characteristic of Novgorod connections and Sylvester and Macarius. Despite the fact that it would seem natural to consider Metropolitan Macarius himself the main inspirer of the paintings, it is clear from the text of the Complaint that he played a rather passive role in the organizational side of the order. On the other hand, he carried out the “acceptance” of the order, “performing a prayer service with the entire consecrated cathedral,” for the most important act of approbation from the point of view of church ideology was the moment of consecration of finished works, primarily easel, as well as monumental painting. Not without the participation of Ivan IV and at this stage - he distributed the new icons in the temples. Restoration work after the fire of 1547 was considered a matter of national importance, as long as Ivan IV himself, Metropolitan Macarius and Sylvester, the closest member of the "chosen council" to Ivan IV, took care of their implementation.

Ivan the Terrible and the royal icon painters.

It is in the era of Grozny that art is “deeply exploited by the state and the church”, and the role of art is being rethought, the importance of which as an educational principle, a means of persuasion and an irresistible emotional impact increases immeasurably, at the same time, the usual way of artistic life changes dramatically. The possibility of "free creative development of the artist's personality" is reduced. The artist loses the simplicity and freedom of relationships with the customer-parishioner, the church keeper or the abbot - the builder of the monastery. Now the order of state importance is strictly regulated by the ruling circles, who consider art as a conductor of certain political trends. Themes, plots of individual works or integral ensembles are discussed by representatives of state and church authorities, become the subject of debate at councils, and are stipulated in legislative documents. During these years, ideas were developed for grandiose monumental ensembles, cycles of easel works and illustrations in handwritten books, which in general have common trends.

Construction of St. Basil's Cathedral (Protection on the Moat) on Red Square.

There is a desire to link the history of the Muscovite state with world history, to show the “chosenness” of the Muscovite state, which is the subject of the “divine economy”. This idea is supported by numerous analogies from the Old Testament history, the history of the Babylonian and Persian kingdoms, the monarchy of Alexander the Great, Roman and Byzantine history. It is not for nothing that the chronographic volumes of the Illuminated Chronicle were created with special attention and such thoroughness in the circle of the Makaryev scribes. It is not for nothing that in the monumental ensembles of temple murals and the murals of the Golden Chamber such a significant place was given to historical and Old Testament subjects, selected on the principle of direct analogy. At the same time, the whole cycle of works of fine art was permeated with the idea of ​​the divinity of the sovereign power, its divine establishment, its originality in Russia and the direct succession of royal dignity from the Roman and Byzantine emperors and the continuity of the dynasty of “God-approved scepter holders” from the princes of Kiev and Vladimir to the sovereign of Moscow. All this taken together was intended to reinforce and justify the very fact of the wedding to the kingdom of Ivan IV, to justify the further course of the autocratic policy not only in the Muscovite state itself, but also in the face of the “Orthodox East”.

Ivan the Terrible sends ambassadors to Lithuania.

This was all the more necessary because the "approval" of the wedding of Ivan IV by the Patriarch of Constantinople was expected, which, as you know, was carried out only in 1561, when a "conciliar charter" was received. An equally important place in the overall plan was occupied by the idea of ​​glorifying the military actions of Ivan IV. His military performances were interpreted as religious wars in defense of the purity and inviolability of the Christian state from infidels, freeing Christian captives and civilians from the Tatar invaders and oppressors. Finally, the topic of religious and moral education was no less significant. It was interpreted in two ways: more in-depth with a certain philosophical and symbolic connotation in the interpretation of basic Christian dogma and more directly - in terms of moral purification and improvement. The last topic was also of a personal nature - it was about the spiritual education and self-correction of the young autocrat. All these trends, or, more precisely, all these facets of a single ideological concept, were realized in different ways in individual works of art throughout the Grozny reign. The culmination in the disclosure and implementation of this concept was the period of restoration work in 1547-1554. and more broadly - the time of the activity of the "chosen one".

Kulikovo battle. 1380

After 1570, until the end of the reign of Ivan IV, as is known, the volume of works in the field of fine arts was sharply reduced, the intensity of the emotional content, the feeling of uniqueness and chosenness gradually faded away. It is replaced by another, more severe, mournful, sometimes tragic. Echoes of triumph, self-affirmation, so characteristic of the early days, only occasionally make themselves felt in individual works as belated reflections of the past, only to fade away completely in the early 80s. At the end of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, applied art came to the fore in artistic life. If it becomes impossible to assert and glorify the idea of ​​autocracy as such, then it is natural to give splendor to palace life, palace utensils, like royal clothes, covered with patterns and jewelry, often turn into unique works of art. The nature of the literary works undertaken in the course of "preparation" for the wedding in the circle of Metropolitan Macarius draws attention. Among them, one should especially single out the rite of the wedding to the kingdom, with its direct connection with the "Tale of the Princes of Vladimir". The story of Vladimir Monomakh receiving the royal crown and his crowning "to the kingdom" is contained in the Book of Degrees and the Great Menaia of the Four, that is, literary monuments of the Makaryev circle. The initial volumes of the chronographic part of the Illuminated Chronicle, as well as the extended (in comparison with other lists of the Nikon Chronicle) edition of the text of the first six sheets of the Golitsyn volume of the Illuminated Chronicle, also contain a story about the beginning of the reign of Vladimir Monomakh in Kyiv and about his wedding "to the kingdom" with regalia sent by the Byzantine emperor. In direct connection with them are the miniatures that adorn the chronographic part of the Obverse Vault, as well as the miniatures of the first six sheets of the Golitsyn volume. In the miniatures of the chronographic part of the Personal Chronicle, in turn, they find further disclosure of the theme of the establishment of the sovereign power by God, the introduction of Russia into the general course of world history, as well as the idea of ​​the chosenness of the Moscow sovereign. Thus, a certain range of literary monuments is designated. The same themes are further developed in the paintings of the Golden Chamber, in the reliefs of the royal place (“Monomakh's Throne”), erected in the Assumption Cathedral, in the painting of the portal of the Archangel Cathedral. The icons made by the Pskovites, seemingly purely dogmatic in their content, carry the plot, and perhaps the disclosure of the theme of the sacred nature of the wars waged by Ivan IV, the chosen by God of the feat of warriors, awarded the crowns of immortality and glory, which culminates in the icon " Militant Church" and in the image of Christ - the winner of death in the "Four-part" of the Cathedral of the Annunciation.

Battle of Kosovo. 1389

This theme, in its programmatic, most developed form, is embodied in the first Russian "battle picture" - "The Militant Church". The direct disclosure of its subtext is the murals of the tomb of Ivan IV (in the deacon of the Archangel Cathedral), as well as the system of murals of the cathedral as a whole (assuming that its murals that have survived to this day completely repeat the murals carried out no later than 1566). Even if we remain within the most cautious assumptions about the preservation of the earlier painting, one cannot fail to see that the military themes that make up the wall painting lead directly to a cycle of Old Testament battle scenes in the painting of the Golden Chamber, in which contemporaries found direct analogies with the history of Kazan and Astrakhan taking. To this we should add personal, “autobiographical” themes, if we can talk like that about the plots of the murals of the Archangel Cathedral (chapter about the tomb of Grozny) and the Golden Chamber, and partly the icon-painting “The Militant Church”. Finally, the main Christological, or symbolic-dogmatic, cycle of icons, made according to the “sovereign order”, is associated with the main compositions of the painting of the Golden Chamber, being a clear expression of the entire system of religious and philosophical views of that group, which is usually called the “government of the 50s” and which included both representatives of the "chosen council" and the head of the Russian church, Metropolitan Macarius. Being addressed to a relatively wide circle of people, this painting also had another purpose - a constant reminder of the basic religious and philosophical principles to the young king, whose "correction" was undertaken by his closest members of the "chosen council". This is also evidenced by the presence in the painting system of the Golden Chamber of compositions on the theme of the Tale of Barlaam and Joasaph, in which contemporaries were inclined to see the story of the moral renewal of Ivan IV himself, and by Varlaam they meant the same all-powerful Sylvester. Thus, before us are, as it were, links of a single plan. The themes, starting in one of the monuments, continue to be revealed in subsequent ones, being read in direct sequence in works of different types of fine art.

Front Chronicle(The personal chronicle of Ivan the Terrible, the Tsar-book) is a chronicle of events in world and especially Russian history, created in the 40-60s of the 16th century (probably in 1568-1576) especially for the royal library in a single copy. The word "facial" in the name of the Code means illustrated, with the image "in the faces." Consists of 10 volumes containing about 10 thousand sheets of rag paper, decorated with more than 16 thousand miniatures. Covers the period "from the creation of the world" to 1567. The front (that is, illustrated, with the image “in faces”) chronicle is not only a monument to the Russian handwritten book and a masterpiece of ancient Russian literature. It is a literary, historical, artistic monument of world significance. It is no coincidence that it is unofficially called the Tsar-Book (by analogy with the Tsar-Cannon and the Tsar-Bell). The front annalistic code was created in the 2nd half of the 16th century by order of Tsar Ivan IV Vasilyevich the Terrible in a single copy for his children. Metropolitan and "sovereign" artisans worked on the books of the Facial Code: about 15 scribes and 10 artists. The codex consists of about 10,000 sheets and over 17,000 illustrations, and the visual material occupies about 2/3 of the entire volume of the monument. Miniature drawings (landscape, historical, battle and everyday genres) not only illustrate the text, but also complement it. Some events are not written, but only drawn. The drawings tell readers what clothes, military armor, church vestments, weapons, tools, household items, and so on looked like in antiquity. In the history of world medieval writing there is no monument similar to the Illuminated Chronicle both in terms of breadth of coverage and volume. It includes sacred, ancient Hebrew and ancient Greek stories, stories about the Trojan War and Alexander the Great, plots from the history of the Roman and Byzantine empires, as well as an annals covering the most important events in Russia for four and a half centuries: from 1114 to 1567. (It is assumed that the beginning and end of this chronicle, namely, the Tale of Bygone Years, a significant part of the history of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, as well as some other fragments, have not been preserved.) In the Facial Code, the history of the Russian state is considered inseparably from world history.

The volumes are grouped in relatively chronological order:

• bible story
• History of Rome
• History of Byzantium
• Russian history

Contents of volumes:

1. Museum collection (GIM). 1031 sheets, 1677 miniatures. Presentation of the sacred, Hebrew and Greek history from the creation of the world to the destruction of Troy in the XIII century. BC e.
2. Chronographic collection (BAN). 1469 sheets, 2549 miniatures. Presentation of the history of the ancient East, the Hellenistic world and ancient Rome from the 11th century. BC e. until the 70s. 1st century n. e.
3. Front chronograph (RNB). 1217l., 2191 miniatures. Outline of the history of the ancient Roman Empire since the 70s. 1st century until 337 and Byzantine history until the 10th century.
4. Golitsyn volume (RNB). 1035 l., 1964 miniatures. Statement of national history for 1114-1247 and 1425-1472.
5. Laptev volume (RNB). 1005 l., 1951 miniature. Statement of national history for 1116-1252.
6. Ostermanovsky first volume (BAN). 802 sheets, 1552 miniatures. Statement of national history for 1254-1378.
7. Ostermanovsky second volume (BAN). 887 sheets, 1581 miniature. Statement of national history for 1378-1424.
8. Shumilovsky volume (RNB). 986 sheets, 1893 miniatures. Statement of national history for 1425, 1478-1533.
9. Synodal volume (GIM). 626 l, 1125 miniatures. Statement of national history for 1533-1542, 1553-1567.
10. Royal Book (GIM). 687 sheets, 1291 miniatures. Statement of national history for 1533-1553

The history of the creation of the vault:

The vault was probably created in 1568-1576. (according to some sources, work began in the 1540s), by order of Ivan the Terrible, in the Alexander Sloboda, which was then the residence of the king. In particular, Alexey Fedorovich Adashev took part in the work. The creation of the Illuminated Chronicle lasted intermittently for more than 30 years. The text was prepared by scribes from the entourage of Metropolitan Macarius, the miniatures were executed by the masters of the metropolitan and "sovereign" workshops. The presence in the illustrations of the Front Chronicle of images of buildings, structures, clothing, handicraft and agricultural tools, household items, corresponding in each case to the historical era, indicates the existence of more ancient illustrated chronicles that served as models for illustrators. of the entire volume The front annalistic code contains a developed system of illustrating historical texts. Within the illustrations of the Obverse Chronicle, one can speak about the origin and formation of the landscape, historical, battle and actually everyday genres. Around 1575, amendments were made to the text regarding the reign of Ivan the Terrible (apparently, under the leadership of the tsar himself). Initially, the vault was not bound - the binding was carried out later, at different times.

Storage:

The only original copy of the Code is stored separately, in three places (in different "baskets"):

State Historical Museum (volumes 1, 9, 10)

Library of the Russian Academy of Sciences (volumes 2, 6, 7)

Russian National Library (volumes 3, 4, 5, 8)

Cultural influence and significance. B. M. Kloss described the Code as "the largest chronicle-chronographic work of medieval Russia." The miniatures from the Code are widely known and are used both in the form of illustrations and in art.

”begins publication of an electronic edition of one of the most famous monuments of ancient Russian art - the Illuminated Chronicle Code.

The 16th century annal chronicle is a monumental monument of ancient Russian book art, unparalleled in the world in terms of the scale and breadth of coverage of historical events, as well as in the form of presentation of the material. This is the largest chronicle-chronographic work of medieval Russia. The front annalistic code was created by order Ivan IV the Terrible in the period 1568-1576. in Alexander Sloboda, which at that time became the political center of the Russian state, the permanent residence of the tsar. A whole staff of royal scribes and artists worked on compiling the code.

The facial arch has survived to this day in 10 volumes located in various ancient repositories: the Library of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Russian National Library in St. Petersburg and the State Historical Museum in Moscow.

Firm "AKTEON" together with the curators a few years ago for the first time carried out a scientific facsimile publication " Front Chronicle of the 16th century».

Today, the Russian Faith website begins publishing the full version. The proposed edition with translation is presented in three sections: biblical history, world history, Russian chronicle history.

Unlike some edited, unreliable, recopied from low-quality paper reissues that can be found on the net, our publication is the primary source of this most valuable document. It was provided by the AKTEON publishing house, whose employees carried out a direct scan of the facial vault stored in Russian ancient repositories.

Today we are talking with the director of the publishing house "ACTEON" Kharis Kharasovich Mustafin.

Haris Kharrasovich, a few years ago, the publishing house "AKTEON" began a large-scale work on scanning and publishing monuments of ancient Slavic literature. Why, in the presence of numerous ancient chronicles, Chet-Menya and others, was the Facial Vault chosen as the main, main project?

The front annalistic code of the 16th century stands apart in the Old Russian annals. This is the greatest book monument, which is distinguished, first of all, by the scale of the presentation of events - from the creation of the world, biblical events, to world historical events. Finally, it outlines Russian chronicle history from the time of Vladimir Monomakh to the time of Ivan the Terrible.

This monument is interesting both from the point of view of a large amount of information and the fact that it is a single complex, which was apparently created as a kind of state order during the formation of the Russian Empire of the 16th century. This is its uniqueness. On the other hand, this monument has a peculiarity: on almost 10 thousand sheets of the manuscript, more than 17.5 thousand book miniatures are presented, never repeated, woven into the outline of the narrative. At the same time, it turns out that this is not illustrative material for the manuscript, and the manuscripts are not captions for such a huge array of book miniatures.

This is, on the one hand, a new, and on the other hand, a unique literary and historical work, where texts are interspersed with book miniatures, which often depict much more than what is stated in the texts. Thus, the reader in these books can look through the eyes of Russian scribes of the 16th century at the events they recount. This is of particular value.

Therefore, when asked why we took up the Facial Chronicle Code, I want to answer that it is precisely because of its uniqueness. Many generations of historians and philologists dreamed of a facsimile edition of this monument, and only thanks to the new technologies of the 21st century and the determination of our team to start this work and bring it to the end, it became possible to publish this book monument.

One more moment. When we were selecting material for publication, we turned to the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Archaeographic Commission at the Academy of Sciences for advice. When asked what the most outstanding of the Russian book monuments is in the ancient repositories, we were unequivocally answered that this is the Illuminated Chronicle Code, which has no analogues either in Russia or abroad. That's why the publishing house was created. "ACTEON" specifically for the project of publishing the Facial Code.

From the point of view of what tasks were set, it is necessary to tell about a very important point. Not only the publishing house worked on the project, but also the largest libraries-custodians of the Illuminated Chronicle. A large number of different specialists participated in this project - historians, philologists from leading specialized organizations. This is not just a facsimile edition of a book monument, it is a scientific facsimile edition, which presents the most detailed descriptions of original books, the history of existence, and a lot of work has been done to prepare indexes and bibliographic material. It is also very important that work has been done on the complete transliteration of the text and interlinear translation into modern Russian, which has dramatically expanded the opportunity for even unprepared people to get acquainted with this monument.

Few publishers have done this before. Now it is turning into a kind of standard, because it is very convenient for people. Many publishing houses are now trying to publish the original text and its transliteration, and if they have enough strength, then a translation into a modern language. This is hard work. The ancient and modern languages ​​are very close, and it is not at all easy to convey certain phrases without distorting their meaning so that it is understandable to contemporaries. From our point of view, it is very important that the book monuments that we deal with are created both for scientists and for all those interested in the history and culture of Russia. We make publications of the Illuminated Chronicle in a form convenient for perception.

Can the books of the Facial Code give the modern reader new historical information?

The facial vault is interesting in several ways. Firstly, its pages consistently present the vision of history by Russian scribes of the 16th century, as they understood it. They compiled these books based on their understanding of history, and they understood that the history of any state and any society comes from the creation of the world, followed by biblical events, then world history, including the history of Troy, ancient Rome, Byzantium, then there is a transition to Russian stories. A complete picture of the historical canvas is described. There are few materials where this concept can be seen in its entirety. As a rule, what is published is fragmentary, but here we see a common unified picture of the understanding of history by people of the 16th century, which is very important.

Later, of course, historical science developed, and this led to the emergence of many different new concepts about what the history of, in particular, Russia was like. Often, science was formed to please certain political orders. Therefore, to be able to get acquainted and evaluate the vision of the history of the Russian scribes of the 16th century, based on the published document - the Illuminated Chronicle Code, is a very interesting opportunity. This vision is not obscured by many stratifications, on the one hand, artificially contrived, and, on the other hand, based on modern historical science. From the Facial Code, which is, in fact, the primary source, it is possible to consider many historical events of both the 16th century and an earlier era through the eyes of educated Russian scribes.

The meaning of studying the Code lies in the fact that, in addition to some textual descriptions of events, there is a mass of materials related to the display of historical events in miniatures. Often, only in them you can see many points related to the development of technology, weapons, crafts, and construction. To our time, almost no graphic information has been preserved about the events in Russia and the countries adjacent to Russia, which would be reflected precisely graphically. From this point of view, the material of the Code is very interesting and, indeed, can give the modern reader a lot of new historical information. The main thing is that a person should have an inquisitive mind and be truly interested in the history and culture of his country.

Today, many publishing houses publish reprint and facsimile editions. However, their quality in most cases, to put it mildly, is lame. What technologies, software products were used by ACTEON to create, without exaggeration, the highest quality publication of its kind?

It has already been said that when it was decided to issue a scientific facsimile edition of the Personal Chronicle Code, the AKTEON publishing house was specially created. The main emphasis in the work of this company was placed on the use of cutting-edge technologies that arose at the beginning of the 21st century. These are the first non-contact book scanners that allow you to illuminate ancient books with gentle light, non-contact, carefully scan them with the highest quality.

Digital technologies also appeared, largely developed by the specialists of our publishing house, which made it possible to virtually straighten the images of open books, to combine the face and back of the sheets without the slightest distortion of the colors of book miniatures. And, finally, our company purchased the country's first digital printing house, which allows for small-circulation production, in fact, the production of books to order at the highest level.

In order to obtain high-quality book bindings, our company created a division that carries out manual book binding, in which, in particular, the technology of the famous Russian book binding of the 16th century was reproduced.

This made it possible to create books that are not only unique in content, but in a certain sense are a work of modern book art.

Which Russian libraries and collections received your edition of the Facial Code, are there any reviews?

Our publication has arrived in almost all the largest libraries in the country: regional, republican, central. It ended up in the largest universities in the country, as well as in a number of foreign libraries, primarily university ones, where Slavic studies and the history of Eastern Europe and Russia are being studied.

We have received a lot of positive feedback. Moreover, on the initiative of the Bavarian National Library and the Institute for the Study of the History of Eastern Europe and Russia in Munich in 2011, the first International Conference dedicated to the study of the Illuminated Chronicle was held. It came out as a result of the appearance of our publication in the largest libraries of the country and the world.

Abroad, the publication of the Facial Code in a certain sense made a scientific sensation, because for the first time a huge array of unique material became available for study, which had previously been inaccessible to study by specialists. Moreover, the material is the most valuable, both in terms of texts and in terms of a large number of book miniatures.

Nowadays, the monopoly on familiarization with historical sources, which was previously held by specialists and researchers, is gradually being lost. An increasing number of digital copies are being published online. What role do you think the publication of primary sources can play in historical science, and in public life as well?

The question is put in such a way as if the monopoly was created artificially. The study of historical sources, in fact, is the hardest work. The people who do this work cause deep respect and admiration. This work requires the highest qualifications. At the same time, our publications are aimed at facilitating the work of these specialists - on the one hand, and at the same time making unique book monuments more accessible to a wide range of the public that is interested in the book culture and history of their country.

In our view, Russian book culture deserves to be proud of it, to be known, so that people interested in the history of the country take these book monuments into service in order to bring them, first of all, to the educational system, to their families. I want people, especially young people, to be proud of their country, their history, to know this history.

The fact that more and more materials related to the history of the country, especially documents, are being published on the Internet is an extremely positive trend, which, we hope, will bear fruit. More and more young people will be interested in the history and culture of the country, and this, from our point of view, will contribute to the revival and prosperity of Russia.

Did you like the material?

The volumes are grouped in relatively chronological order:

• bible story
• History of Rome
• History of Byzantium
• Russian history

1. Museum collection (GIM). 1031 sheets, 1677 miniatures. Presentation of the sacred, Hebrew and Greek history from the creation of the world to the destruction of Troy in the XIII century. BC e.
2. Chronographic collection (BAN). 1469 sheets, 2549 miniatures. Presentation of the history of the ancient East, the Hellenistic world and ancient Rome from the 11th century. BC e. until the 70s. 1st century n. e.
3. Front chronograph (RNB). 1217l., 2191 miniatures. Outline of the history of the ancient Roman Empire since the 70s. 1st century until 337 and Byzantine history until the 10th century.
4. Golitsyn volume (Royal chronicler)(RNB, F.IV.225). 1035 l., 1964 miniatures. Statement of national history for 1114-1247 and 1425-1472.
5. Laptev volume(RNB, F.IV.233). 1005 l., 1951 miniature. Statement of national history for 1116-1252.
6. Ostermanovsky first volume(BAN, 31.7.30-1). 802 sheets, 1552 miniatures. Statement of national history for 1254-1378.
7. Ostermanovsky second volume(BAN, 31.7.30-2). 887 sheets, 1581 miniature. Statement of national history for 1378-1424.
8. Shumilovsky volume(RNB, F.IV.232). 986 sheets, 1893 miniatures. Statement of national history for 1425, 1478-1533.
9. Synodal volume(GIM, Sin. No. 962). 626 l, 1125 miniatures. Statement of national history for 1533-1542, 1553-1567.
10. royal book(GIM, Sin. No. 149). 687 sheets, 1291 miniatures. Statement of national history for 1533-1553.

It is assumed that the beginning and end of this chronicle, namely, The Tale of Bygone Years, part of the history of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, as well as some other fragments, have not been preserved.

The history of the creation of the vault

The miniatures from the Code are widely known and are used both in the form of illustrations and in art.

Facsimile edition (2008)

A copy of the complete facsimile edition of the Chronicle of the Face can be found in the library of the Department of Manuscripts of the State Historical Museum in Moscow and in the Pushkin House in St. Petersburg.

Currently, the Facial Chronicle is published for charitable and educational purposes by the Society of Lovers of Ancient Writing. Distributed for free.

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Notes

Literature

• Artsikhovsky A. V. Old Russian miniatures as a historical source. - M., 1944.

• Podobedova O. I. Miniatures of Russian Historical Manuscripts: On the History of Russian Facial Chronicles / USSR Academy of Sciences, . - M .: Nauka, 1965. - 336 p. - 1,400 copies.

• Pokrovskaya V.F. From the history of the creation of the Illuminated Chronicle of the second half of the 16th century. // Materials and messages on the funds of the Department of Manuscript and Rare Books of the Library of the USSR Academy of Sciences. - M.; L., 1966.

• Amosov A. A. The personal annals of Ivan the Terrible: A comprehensive codicological study. - M .: Editorial URSS, 1998. - 392 p. - 1,000 copies. - ISBN 5-901006-49-6.(in trans.)

• The front annalistic code of the XVI century: Methods of description and study of a disparate annalistic complex / Comp. E. A. Belokon, V. V. Morozov, S. A. Morozov; Rep. ed. S. O. Schmidt. - M .: Publishing House of the Russian State Humanitarian University, 2003. - 224, p. - 1,500 copies. - ISBN 5-7281-0564-5.(in trans.)

• Presnyakov A. E. Moscow Historical Encyclopedia of the 16th century // IORYAS. - 1900. - T. 5, book. 3. - S. 824-876.

• Morozov V.V. The front chronicle of the campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich // TODRL. - 1984. - T. 38. - S. 520-536.

• Kloss B. M. Chronicle of the front // Dictionary of scribes and bookishness of Ancient Russia. Issue. 2, part 2 (L - Z). - L., 1989. - S. 30-32.

Links

• on the site of the publishing house "Akteon"
• with the director of the firm "Akteon", Mustafin Kharis Kharrasovich
• Ulyanov O. G.

An excerpt characterizing the Front Chronicle Code

- Vive l "Empereur! Vive le Roi de Rome! Vive l" Empereur! [Long live the emperor! Long live the king of Rome!] – enthusiastic voices were heard.
After breakfast, Napoleon, in the presence of Bosset, dictated his order to the army.
Courte et energique! [Short and energetic!] - said Napoleon, when he himself read the proclamation written without amendments at once. The order was:
"Warriors! Here is the battle you have been longing for. Victory is up to you. It is necessary for us; she will provide us with everything we need: comfortable apartments and a speedy return to the fatherland. Act as you did at Austerlitz, Friedland, Vitebsk and Smolensk. May later posterity proudly remember your exploits in this day. Let them say about each of you: he was in the great battle near Moscow!
– De la Moskowa! [Near Moscow!] - repeated Napoleon, and, having invited Mr. Bosse, who loved to travel, to his walk, he left the tent to the saddled horses.
- Votre Majeste a trop de bonte, [You are too kind, your Majesty,] - Bosse said to the invitation to accompany the emperor: he wanted to sleep and he did not know how and was afraid to ride.
But Napoleon nodded his head to the traveler, and Bosset had to go. When Napoleon left the tent, the cries of the guards in front of the portrait of his son intensified even more. Napoleon frowned.
“Take it off,” he said, pointing gracefully at the portrait with a majestic gesture. It's too early for him to see the battlefield.
Bosse, closing his eyes and bowing his head, took a deep breath, with this gesture showing how he knew how to appreciate and understand the words of the emperor.

All that day, August 25, as his historians say, Napoleon spent on horseback, inspecting the area, discussing the plans presented to him by his marshals, and personally giving orders to his generals.
The original line of disposition of the Russian troops along the Kolocha was broken, and part of this line, namely the left flank of the Russians, was driven back as a result of the capture of the Shevardino redoubt on the 24th. This part of the line was not fortified, no longer protected by the river, and in front of it alone there was a more open and level place. It was obvious to every military and non-military that this part of the line was to be attacked by the French. It seemed that this did not require many considerations, it did not need such care and troublesomeness of the emperor and his marshals, and it did not need at all that special higher ability, called genius, which Napoleon is so fond of ascribed to; but the historians who subsequently described this event, and the people who then surrounded Napoleon, and he himself thought differently.
Napoleon rode across the field, peered thoughtfully at the terrain, shook his head approvingly or incredulously with himself and, without informing the generals around him of the thoughtful move that guided his decisions, conveyed to them only final conclusions in the form of orders. After listening to the proposal of Davout, called the Duke of Eckmuhl, to turn around the Russian left flank, Napoleon said that this should not be done, without explaining why it was not necessary. On the proposal of General Compan (who was supposed to attack the fleches) to lead his division through the forest, Napoleon expressed his consent, despite the fact that the so-called Duke of Elchingen, that is, Ney, allowed himself to remark that the movement through the forest was dangerous and could upset the division .
After examining the area opposite the Shevardinsky redoubt, Napoleon thought for a few moments in silence and pointed to the places where two batteries were to be arranged by tomorrow for action against the Russian fortifications, and the places where field artillery was to line up next to them.
Having given these and other orders, he returned to his headquarters, and the disposition of the battle was written under his dictation.
This disposition, about which French historians speak with delight and other historians with deep respect, was as follows:
“At dawn, two new batteries, arranged in the night, on the plain occupied by Prince Ekmülsky, will open fire on two opposing enemy batteries.
At the same time, the chief of artillery of the 1st Corps, General Pernetti, with 30 guns of the Compan division and all the howitzers of the Desse and Friant division, will move forward, open fire and bombard the enemy battery with grenades, against which they will act!
24 guards artillery guns,
30 guns of the Kompan division
and 8 guns of the Friant and Desse divisions,
In total - 62 guns.
The chief of artillery of the 3rd corps, General Fouche, will place all the howitzers of the 3rd and 8th corps, 16 in total, on the flanks of the battery, which is assigned to bombard the left fortification, which will total 40 guns against it.
General Sorbier must be ready at the first order to take out with all the howitzers of the guards artillery against one or another fortification.
In continuation of the cannonade, Prince Poniatowski will go to the village, into the forest and bypass the enemy position.
General Kompan will move through the forest to take the first fortification.
Upon entering the battle in this way, orders will be given according to the actions of the enemy.
The cannonade on the left flank will begin as soon as the cannonade of the right wing is heard. The riflemen of Moran's and Viceroy's divisions will open heavy fire upon seeing the right wing attack begin.
The viceroy will take possession of the village [Borodin] and cross his three bridges, following at the same height with the divisions of Moran and Gerard, who, under his leadership, will move towards the redoubt and enter the line with the rest of the army.
All this must be carried out in order (le tout se fera avec ordre et methode), keeping the troops as far as possible in reserve.
In the imperial camp, near Mozhaisk, September 6, 1812.
This disposition, very vaguely and confusedly written - if you allow yourself to treat his orders without religious horror at the genius of Napoleon - contained four points - four orders. None of these orders could be and was not executed.
The disposition says, firstly: that the batteries arranged at the place chosen by Napoleon with the guns of Pernetti and Fouche, having aligned with them, a total of one hundred and two guns, open fire and bombard the Russian flashes and redoubt with shells. This could not be done, since the shells did not reach the Russian works from the places appointed by Napoleon, and these one hundred and two guns fired at empty until the nearest commander, contrary to Napoleon's order, pushed them forward.
The second order was that Poniatowski, heading for the village into the forest, bypassed the left wing of the Russians. This could not be and was not done because Poniatowski, heading for the village into the forest, met Tuchkov blocking his way there and could not and did not bypass the Russian position.
Third order: General Kompan will move into the forest to take the first fortification. Compana's division did not capture the first fortification, but was repulsed, because, leaving the forest, it had to be built under grapeshot fire, which Napoleon did not know.
Fourth: The Viceroy will take possession of the village (Borodin) and cross his three bridges, following at the same height with the divisions of Maran and Friant (of which it is not said where and when they will move), which, under his leadership, will go to the redoubt and enter the line with other troops.
As far as one can understand - if not from the stupid period of this, then from those attempts that were made by the viceroy to fulfill the orders given to him - he was to move through Borodino on the left to the redoubt, while the divisions of Moran and Friant were to move simultaneously from the front.
All this, as well as other points of the disposition, was not and could not be executed. Having passed Borodino, the viceroy was repulsed on Kolocha and could not go further; the divisions of Moran and Friant did not take the redoubt, but were repulsed, and the redoubt was captured by cavalry at the end of the battle (probably an unforeseen and unheard of thing for Napoleon). So, none of the orders of the disposition was and could not be executed. But the disposition says that upon entering the battle in this way, orders will be given corresponding to the actions of the enemy, and therefore it might seem that during the battle all the necessary orders will be made by Napoleon; but this was not and could not be because during the entire battle Napoleon was so far away from him that (as it turned out later) he could not know the course of the battle and not a single order of his during the battle could be executed.

Many historians say that the battle of Borodino was not won by the French because Napoleon had a cold, that if he had not had a cold, then his orders before and during the battle would have been even more brilliant, and Russia would have perished, et la face du monde eut ete changee. [and the face of the world would have changed.] For historians who admit that Russia was formed at the behest of one man - Peter the Great, and France from a republic developed into an empire, and French troops went to Russia at the behest of one man - Napoleon, such an argument that Russia remained powerful because Napoleon had a bad cold on the 26th, such reasoning for such historians is inevitably consistent.
If it depended on the will of Napoleon to give or not to give the Battle of Borodino, and it depended on his will to make such or another order, then it is obvious that a runny nose, which had an influence on the manifestation of his will, could be the reason for the salvation of Russia and that therefore the valet who forgot to give Napoleon On the 24th, waterproof boots, was the savior of Russia. On this path of thought, this conclusion is undoubted, just as undoubted as the conclusion that Voltaire, jokingly (without knowing why himself), said that the St. Bartholomew's night came from an upset stomach of Charles IX. But for people who do not allow Russia to be formed at the behest of one person - Peter I, and for the French empire to take shape and the war with Russia to begin at the behest of one person - Napoleon, this reasoning not only seems wrong, unreasonable, but also contrary to the whole being. human. To the question of what constitutes the cause of historical events, another answer appears, which is that the course of world events is predetermined from above, depends on the coincidence of all the wills of the people participating in these events, and that the influence of Napoleons on the course of these events is only external and fictitious.
Strange as it may seem at first glance, the assumption that the Bartholomew night, the order for which was given by Charles IX, did not occur by his will, but that it only seemed to him that he ordered it to be done, and that the Borodino massacre of eighty thousand people did not occur by the will of Napoleon (despite the fact that he gave orders about the beginning and course of the battle), and that it seemed to him only that he ordered it - strange as this assumption seems, but human dignity, which tells me that each of us, if not more, then no less a man than the great Napoleon orders to allow this solution of the problem, and historical research abundantly confirms this assumption.

the largest chronicle-chronographic code of Ancient Russia. L. S. was created by order of Ivan the Terrible in the Alexander Sloboda in 1568-1576. It contained a presentation of world history from the creation of the world to the 15th century. and Russian history until 1567. According to A. A. Amosov, the surviving ten volumes of L. S. number 9,745 sheets, decorated with 17,744 color illustrations (miniatures). There is reason to believe that the eleventh volume, containing an exposition of Russian history of the most ancient period up to 1114, was compiled (or was compiled, but lost). the book of Ruth, the four books of Kings, the book of Esther, the book of the prophet Daniel), the full text of Alexandria, the “History of the Jewish War” by Josephus Flavius ​​and two narratives about the Trojan War: an Old Russian translation of the Latin novel by Guido de Columna “The History of the Destruction of Troy” and extracted from the Russian Chronograph "The Tale of the Creation and Captivity of Troy". In the future, the sources of information on world history were the “Chronicle of Hellenic and Roman” of the second edition and the Russian Chronograph based on it. Russian history in volumes 4-10 is presented mainly according to the Nikon Chronicle, but already starting from the events of 1152, additional material, compared with this chronicle, is found in L.S. As B. M. Kloss established, its sources could be the Resurrection Chronicle, the Novgorod Code of 1539, the Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom, and other sources. Around 1575, the already prepared text of L. S., at the direction of Ivan the Terrible, was subjected to significant revision in that part that contained a description of his reign, that is, from 1533 to 1568. In the postscripts made by an unknown editor on the margins of the manuscript, contained, in particular, accusations against persons executed or repressed during the oprichnina. Work on the L.S. was not completed - the miniatures of the last part were made only in ink sketch, but not painted. L. S. is not only an invaluable monument of book art, but also an important historical source: miniatures, despite the conventionality and symbolic nature of some images, provide rich material for judgments about the historical realities of their time, and the study of editorial changes made to the last volume L S. (the so-called “Royal Book”) allows us to deepen our information about the complex political struggle in the post-oprichne period, to judge Grozny’s changed assessments of the activities of one or another of his associates, about the new views of the tsar on the very events of his reign. The text of L. S. was published in the part that is based on the Nikon Chronicle (PSRL.-T. 9-13). Publisher: Shchepkin V. Facial collection of the Imperial Russian Historical Museum//IORYAS.-1899.-T. 4, book. 4.-S. 1345-1385; Presnyakov A. E.; 1) The royal book, its composition and origin. - St. Petersburg, 1893; 2) Moscow Historical Encyclopedia of the 16th century. // IORYAS.- 1900.- T. 4, book. 3.- S. 824-876; Artsikhovsky A. V. Old Russian miniatures as a historical source. - M., 1944; Podobedova OI Miniatures of Russian historical manuscripts. - M., 1965. -S. 102-332; Amosov A. A.; 1) On the question of the time of origin of the Ivan the Terrible's Facial Code // Materials and messages on the funds of the Department of Manuscript and Rare Books of the Library of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.-L., 1978. - P. 6-36; 2) The personal chronicle of Ivan the Terrible: Experience of a comprehensive source study // ADD .- SPb., 1991; Kl os with B.M. 206-265; 2) Chronicle of the Front // Dictionary of scribes. - Issue. 2, part 2. - S. 30-32; 3) Royal book //Ibid.- S. 506.-508. O. V. Curds