Briefly subjective and objective method in psychology. Objective methods of examination of the patient. Methods of psychological research

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LECTURE 2.

METHODS OF CLINICAL STUDY OF THE PATIENT

All methods of research of the patient are conventionally divided into:

1. Basic:

− subjective method (questioning),

- objective, or physical methods (examination, palpation, percussion, auscultation).

The main methods are named so because they are carried out in relation to each patient, and only after their application it is possible to decide what other additional methods the patient needs.

2. Optional:

− laboratory methods, i.e. examination of blood, urine, feces, sputum, pleural fluid, bone marrow, vomit, bile, stomach contents, duodenal ulcers, study of cytological and histological material, etc.

− instrumental methods with the use of equipment and tools. The simplest instrumental methods are: anthropometry (measurement of height and length of the body, measurement of body weight, waist and hip circumference), thermometry, measurement of blood pressure. However, most instrumental methods can only be performed by trained specialists. These methods include: ultrasound, X-ray, endoscopic and radioisotope methods, methods of functional diagnostics (ECG, FVD, etc.), etc.,

− consultations of narrow specialists (oculist, neuropathologist, ENT doctor, etc.).

Most of the additional studies require equipment, tools, reagents, specially trained personnel (radiologists, laboratory assistants, technicians, etc.). Some additional methods are quite difficult to tolerate by patients or there are contraindications to their implementation. For the qualitative performance of additional studies and obtaining reliable results, the correct preliminary preparation of the patient, which is carried out by a nurse or paramedic, is of great importance.

Subjective method (questioning) - first stage of examination .

Question value:

− diagnostic,

- allows you to establish a trusting relationship with the patient, as well as identify the patient's problems associated with the disease.

The Russian therapist of the 19th century, Professor G.A. Zakharyin.

Information about the patient is obtained from his words about sensations, memories of life and illness. If the patient is unconscious, the necessary information is obtained from relatives or accompanying persons.

Questioning is one of the most difficult methods of examining a patient, despite its apparent simplicity. Contact with the patient requires an ethical approach and adherence to the rules of medical deontology.

indicative questioning involves identifying only the main complaints and basic data on the development of the disease and is carried out in cases where it is necessary to quickly establish a preliminary diagnosis and provide medical care. An approximate questioning of the patient is often limited to the paramedic of the ambulance team. In all other cases, the detailed questioning according to the generally accepted scheme (components of the questioning):

- general information about the patient (passport data, i.e. the patient's full name, year of birth, residential address, profession, place of work and position);

- the patient's main and secondary complaints;

- Anamnesis morbi (Аnamnesis - memory, history; morbus - disease) - data on the development of the underlying disease;

- Anamnesis vitae (vita - life) - data about the patient's life.

Usually, at the beginning of the questioning, the patient is given the opportunity to speak freely about what led him to the doctor. To do this, they ask a general question: “What are you complaining about?” or "What's bothering you?" Further, a targeted questioning is carried out, each complaint is clarified and concretized. Questions should be simple and clear, adapted to the level of general development of the patient. The interview is conducted in a relaxed atmosphere, preferably alone with the patient. Complaints of the patient, which forced him to seek medical help, i.e. those that the patient puts in the first place are called main(major, they are usually associated with the underlying disease). After a detailed description of the main complaints, they proceed to identify additional(minor) complaints about which the patient forgot to say or did not pay attention to them. It is also important to separate current complaints from complaints that arise from time to time.

Anamnesis morbi collection usually begins with the question: "When did you get sick?" or "When did you feel sick?" Anamnesis morbi gives an idea of ​​all stages of the development of the disease:

a) the onset of the disease - since when does he consider himself ill, how did the disease begin (with what symptoms, acutely or gradually), what caused the disease, according to the patient;

b) the dynamics of the disease - how the disease developed, the frequency and cause of exacerbations, stay in the hospital, sanatoriums, what studies were carried out and what are their results, what treatment was carried out (independently and as prescribed by a doctor) and its effectiveness;

c) the leading reason for visiting a doctor; the last deterioration, about which the patient turned (in what it was expressed, the reason for the appeal).

The patient's life history is his medical biography. The main goal is to find out the influence of the patient's living conditions on the onset and course of the disease, to get an idea of ​​the presence of a hereditary predisposition to certain diseases. The value of Anamnesis vitae lies in the identification of risk factors for the disease, i.e. factors that adversely affect health, cause pathological changes in the body and can contribute to the development of the disease or provoke its exacerbation. The most significant and frequently occurring risk factors are: malnutrition, obesity, bad habits (alcohol abuse, smoking, drug use and other chemicals), stress, heredity, occupational hazards, etc.

In order to identify risk factors, the patient is sequentially asked about childhood, the nature and conditions of work, life, nutrition, bad habits, previous diseases, operations and injuries, hereditary predisposition, gynecological (in women), allergological and epidemiological history (contacts with infectious diseases). patients, invasive research methods, visits to areas with an unfavorable infectious and epidemiological situation, etc.).

In the process of questioning, not only the paramedic collects information about the patient, but the patient also gets acquainted with the paramedic, forms an idea about him, his qualifications, attentiveness, and responsiveness. Therefore, the paramedic must remember the principles of medical deontology, monitor his appearance, speech culture, be tactful, take into account the individual characteristics of the patient.

The results of the questioning of the patient are described in the case history according to the plan in the form of a professional interpretation of the "patient's words".

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Like all natural and social sciences, psychology has two methods for obtaining facts that are subject to further analysis - observation methods And experiment, which, in turn, have a number of modifications that do not change their essence.

Observation becomes a method of psychological study only if it is not limited to the description of external phenomena, but makes a transition to the explanation of nature these phenomena.

The essence of observation is not only in the registration of facts, but in the scientific explanation of their causes.

The registration of facts is limited to the so-called life observations, in which a person by touch looks for the reasons for certain actions and actions.

Everyday observations differ from scientific observation primarily in their randomness, disorganization and lack of planning.

They rarely take into account all the essential conditions that influence the emergence of a psychic fact and its course. However, everyday observations, in view of the fact that they are countless and have everyday experience as a criterion, sometimes give in the end a rational grain of psychological wisdom. Countless everyday psychological observations are accumulated in proverbs and sayings and are of particular interest for study.

№ 3 Classifications of psychological research methods.

Scientific psychological observation unlike worldly, it implies the necessary transition from description observable fact of behavior to an explanation his inner psychological essence.

The form of this transition is hypothesis, arising during observation. Its verification or refutation is a matter of further observations. An essential requirement for psychological observation is the presence of a clear plan, as well as fixing the results obtained in special diary.

Type of observation psychological analysis of products of activity, In this case, it is as if not the activity itself is studied, but only its product, but in essence the object of study is the mental processes that are realized as a result of the action.

So, in child psychology, the study of children's drawings plays a significant role.

The main tool for obtaining new psychological facts and objective scientific knowledge is experimental method. Having won rights in psychology only during the last hundred years, it now serves as the main supplier of psychological knowledge and the basis for many theories.

In contrast to observation psychological experiment implies the possibility of active intervention of the researcher in the activity of the subject.

Thus, the researcher creates conditions in which a psychic fact can be clearly revealed, can be changed in the direction desired by the experimenter, can be repeatedly repeated for a comprehensive consideration.

There are two main types of experimental method: laboratory And natural experiment.

characteristic feature laboratory experiment - not only that it is carried out in laboratory conditions with the help of special psychological equipment and that the actions of the subject are determined by the instructions, but also the attitude of the subject, who knows that an experiment is being carried out on him (although, as a rule, he does not know what its essence is, what specifically researched and for what purpose).

With the help of a laboratory experiment, you can explore the properties of attention, features of perception, memory, etc. At present, a laboratory experiment is often designed in such a way that some psychological aspects of the activity that a person performs under familiar conditions are simulated in it (for example, situations of significant emotional stress can be simulated in the experiment, during which the test subject, a pilot by profession, must take meaningful decisions, perform complex, requiring a high degree of coordination of movement, respond to instrument readings, etc.).

natural experiment(first proposed by A.F.

Lazursky in 1910), according to its plan, should exclude the tension that arises in the subject, who knows that they are experimenting on him, and transfer the study to ordinary, natural conditions (lesson, conversation, game, homework, etc.) .

A natural experiment that solves the problems of psychological and pedagogical research is called psychological and pedagogical experiment.

Its role is exceptionally great in studying the cognitive abilities of students at various age stages, in elucidating specific ways in which a student's personality is formed, and so on.

The differences between laboratory and natural experiment are currently very conditional and should not be absolutized.

All science is based on facts. It collects facts, compares them and draws conclusions - it establishes the laws of the field of activity that it studies.

The methods of obtaining these facts are called the methods of scientific research. The main methods of scientific research in psychology are observation and experiment.

observation. This is a systematic, purposeful tracking of the manifestations of the human psyche in certain conditions. Scientific observation requires clear goal setting and planning. It is determined in advance which mental processes and phenomena will be of interest to the observer, by what external manifestations they can be traced, under what conditions the observation will take place, and how its results are supposed to be recorded.

A feature of observation in psychology is that it is possible to directly see and fix only facts related to external behavior (movements, verbal statements, etc.).

d.). The psychologist is the mental processes and phenomena that cause them. Therefore, the correctness of the results of observation depends not only on the accuracy of registering the facts of behavior, but also on their interpretation, the definition of psychological meaning.

Observation is usually used when it is necessary to get an initial idea about some aspect of behavior, to put forward assumptions about its psychological causes. Verification of these assumptions is most often carried out with the help of a psychological experiment.

Psychological observation must be purposeful: the observer must clearly imagine and understand what he is going to observe and why he is observing, otherwise the observation will turn into a fixation of random, secondary facts. Observation should be carried out systematically, and not from case to case.

Therefore, psychological observation, as a rule, requires a more or less long time. The longer the observation, the more facts the observer can accumulate, the easier it will be for him to be typical from the random, the deeper and more reliable his conclusions will be.

Experiment in psychology is that the scientist (experimenter) deliberately creates and modifies the conditions in which the person being studied (subject) operates, sets certain tasks for him and, by the way they are solved, judges the processes and phenomena that arise in this process.

Conducting a study under the same conditions with different subjects, the experimenter can establish the age and individual characteristics of the course of mental processes in each of them. In psychology, there are two main types of experiment: laboratory And natural.

Laboratory experiment It is carried out in specially organized and in a certain sense artificial conditions, it requires special equipment, and sometimes the use of technical devices.

An example of a laboratory experiment is the study of the recognition process using a special installation, which allows, on a special screen (such as a television), to gradually present to the subject a different amount of visual information (from zero to showing the object in all its details) in order to find out at what stage the person recognizes the depicted subject. A laboratory experiment contributes to a deep and comprehensive study of people's mental activity.

However, along with the advantages, the laboratory experiment also has certain disadvantages.

The most significant drawback of this method is its certain artificiality, which, under certain conditions, can lead to a violation of the natural course of mental processes, and, consequently, to incorrect conclusions. This shortcoming of the laboratory experiment is eliminated to a certain extent by organization.

natural experiment combines the positive aspects of the method of observation and laboratory experiment.

Here, the naturalness of the conditions of observation is preserved and the accuracy of the experiment is introduced. A natural experiment is constructed in such a way that the subjects are unaware that they are being subjected to psychological research - this ensures the naturalness of their behavior.

For the correct and successful conduct of a natural experiment, it is necessary to comply with all the requirements that apply to a laboratory experiment. In accordance with the task of the study, the experimenter selects conditions that provide the most vivid manifestation of the aspects of mental activity that are of interest to him.

One type of experiment in psychology is sociometric experiment.

It is used to study the relationship between people, the position that a person occupies in a particular group (factory team, school class, kindergarten group). When studying a group, everyone answers a number of questions regarding the choice of partners for joint work, recreation, classes. Based on the results, you can determine the most and least popular person in the group.

The method of conversation, the questionnaire method. A certain value and methods of psychological research associated with the collection and analysis of verbal testimony (statements) of the subjects: The method of conversation and the questionnaire method.

When carried out correctly, they allow you to identify individual psychological characteristics of a person: inclinations, interests, tastes, attitudes towards life facts and phenomena, other people, and oneself.

The essence of these methods lies in the fact that the researcher asks the subject pre-prepared and carefully thought out questions, to which he answers (orally - in the case of a conversation, or in writing when using the questionnaire method).

The content and form of the questions are determined, firstly, by the objectives of the study and, secondly, by the age of the subjects. In progress conversations questions are changed and supplemented depending on the answers of the subjects. The answers are carefully, accurately recorded (you can use a tape recorder). At the same time, the researcher observes the nature of speech statements (the degree of confidence in answers, interest or indifference, the nature of expressions), as well as the behavior, facial expressions, and facial expressions of the subjects.

Questionnaire is a list of questions that are given to the studied persons for a written response.

The advantage of this method is that it makes it possible to obtain mass material relatively easily and quickly.

The disadvantage of this method in comparison with the conversation is the lack of personal contact with the subject, which does not make it possible to vary the nature of the questions depending on the answers. Questions should be precise, clear, understandable, should not inspire this or that answer.

The material of interviews and questionnaires is valuable when it is reinforced and controlled by other methods, in particular, observation.

Tests. A test is a special type of experimental study, which is a special task or a system of tasks.

The subject performs a task, the execution time of which is usually taken into account. Tests are used in the study of abilities, the level of mental development, skills, the level of assimilation of knowledge, as well as in the study of individual characteristics of the course of mental processes.

A test study is distinguished by a relatively simple procedure, it is short-term, carried out without complex technical devices, and requires the simplest equipment (often it is just a form with texts of tasks).

The result of the test solution allows a quantitative expression and thus opens up the possibility of mathematical processing. We also note that the process of test research does not take into account the influence of numerous conditions that in one way or another affect the results - the mood of the subject, his well-being, attitude to testing.

Unacceptable are attempts to set the limit, the ceiling of the capabilities of a given person, to predict, predict the level of his future success with the help of tests.

Studying the results of activities. The results of people's activities are books, paintings, architectural projects, inventions created by them, etc.

e. According to them, one can to a certain extent judge the features of the activity that led to their creation, and the mental processes and qualities included in this activity. Performance analysis is considered an auxiliary research method, as it gives reliable results only in combination with other methods (observation, experiment).

Introspection. Self-observation is the observation and description by a person of the course of certain mental processes and experiences in himself.

As a method of direct study of the psyche based on the analysis of one's own mental manifestations, the method of self-observation has no independent significance. The reason for its limited use is the clear possibility of involuntary distortion and subjective interpretation of the observed phenomena.

In Soviet child and educational psychology, this is a peculiar form of natural experiment, since it is also carried out in the natural conditions of life and activity of children.

The essential feature of the psychological-pedagogical experiment is that it aims not to study itself, but to actively, purposefully change, transform, form one or another mental activity, the psychological qualities of the individual. Accordingly, there are two types of teaching And nurturingpsychological and pedagogical experiment.

So, in psychology, a number of methods are used.

Which of them is rational to apply is decided in each individual case, depending on the tasks and the object of study.

In this case, not one method is usually used, but a number of methods that complement and control each other.

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In this article, we would like to give an idea of ​​the methods of psychological research of both children and adults. Often, at a psychologist's appointment, it is not clear to parents why the specialist performs certain actions, asks questions that do not directly relate to the problem, etc.

Consider research methods based on four main positions:

a) non-experimental psychological methods;
b) diagnostic methods;
c) experimental methods;
d) formative methods.

Non-experimental methods

Observation is one of the most commonly used research methods in psychology. Observation can be used as an independent method, but usually it is organically included in other research methods, such as conversation, study of activity products, various types of experiment, etc.

Observation and self-observation is the purposeful, organized perception and registration of an object and is the oldest psychological method.

Distinguish between non-systematic and systematic observation:

• non-systematic observation is carried out in the course of field research and is widely used in ethnopsychology, developmental psychology, and social psychology.

  For a researcher conducting non-systematic observation, it is important not to fix causal dependencies and a strict description of the phenomenon, but to create some generalized picture of the behavior of an individual or group under certain conditions;

• systematic observation is carried out according to a specific plan.

  The researcher singles out the registered features of behavior (variables) and classifies the environmental conditions. The plan for systematic observation corresponds to a correlation study (which will be discussed later).

Distinguish between "continuous" and selective observation:

• in the first case, the researcher captures all the features of behavior that are available for the most detailed observation.
• in the second case, he pays attention only to certain parameters of behavior or types of behavioral acts, for example, he fixes only the frequency of manifestation of aggression or the time of interaction between mother and child during the day, etc.

Observation can be carried out directly, or with the use of observation instruments and means of fixing the results.

These include: audio, photo and video equipment, special surveillance cards, etc.

Fixation of the results of observation can be carried out in the process of observation or delayed. Of particular importance is the problem of the observer. The behavior of a person or a group of people changes if they know that they are being observed from the outside. Participant observation assumes that the observer himself is a member of the group whose behavior he is investigating.

In the study of an individual, such as a child, the observer is in constant, natural communication with him.

In any case, the most important role is played by the personality of the psychologist - his professionally important qualities. With open observation, after a certain time, people get used to the psychologist and begin to behave naturally, if he himself does not provoke a “special” attitude towards himself.

Observation is an indispensable method if it is necessary to investigate natural behavior without outside interference in a situation where you need to get a holistic picture of what is happening and reflect the behavior of individuals in its entirety. Observation can act as an independent procedure and be considered as a method included in the process of experimentation.

Objective methods of psychology.

The results of observing the subjects in the course of their performance of the experimental task are the most important additional information for the researcher.

Questionnaire, like observation, is one of the most common research methods in psychology. Questionnaires are usually conducted using observational data, which (along with data obtained using other research methods) are used in the design of questionnaires.

There are three main types of questionnaires used in psychology:

• these are questionnaires made up of direct questions and aimed at identifying the perceived qualities of the subjects.

  For example, in a questionnaire aimed at identifying the emotional attitude of schoolchildren to their age, the following question was used: “Do you prefer to become an adult now, immediately, or do you want to remain a child and why?”;

• these are questionnaires of a selective type, where the subjects are offered several ready-made answers for each question of the questionnaire; The task of the subjects is to choose the most appropriate answer. For example, to determine the student's attitude to various subjects, you can use the following question: "Which of the subjects is the most interesting?".

  And as possible answers, we can offer a list of subjects: "algebra", "chemistry", "geography", "physics", etc.;

• these are questionnaires - scales; when answering the questions of questionnaires-scales, the subject must not only choose the most correct of the ready-made answers, but analyze (evaluate in points) the correctness of the proposed answers.

  So, for example, instead of answering “yes” or “no”, subjects can be offered a five-point scale of answers:
  5 - sure yes;
  4 - more yes than no;
  3 - not sure, don't know;
  2 - no more than yes;
  1 - definitely not.

There are no fundamental differences between these three types of questionnaires; they are all just different modifications of the questionnaire method. However, if the use of questionnaires containing direct (and even more so indirect) questions requires a preliminary qualitative analysis of the answers, which greatly complicates the use of quantitative methods for processing and analyzing the data obtained, then scale questionnaires are the most formalized type of questionnaires, since they allow more accurate quantitative analysis of survey data.

Conversation- a method specific to psychology for the study of human behavior, since in other natural sciences communication between the subject and the object of study is impossible.

A dialogue between two people, during which one person reveals the psychological characteristics of the other, is called the method of conversation. Psychologists of various schools and trends widely use it in their research.

The conversation is included as an additional method in the structure of the experiment at the first stage, when the researcher collects primary information about the subject, gives him instructions, motivates, etc., and at the last stage - in the form of a post-experimental interview.

Researchers distinguish between a clinical conversation, an integral part of the "clinical method", and a purposeful face-to-face interview - an interview. The content of the conversations can be recorded completely or selectively, depending on the specific objectives of the study. When compiling full protocols of conversations, the psychologist can use a voice recorder.

Compliance with all the necessary conditions for conducting a conversation, including the collection of preliminary information about the subjects, makes this method a very effective means of psychological research.

Therefore, it is desirable that the interview be conducted taking into account the data obtained using methods such as observation and questionnaires. In this case, its purpose may include verification of preliminary conclusions arising from the results of psychological analysis and obtained using these methods of primary orientation in the studied psychological characteristics of the subjects.

Monographic method.

This research method cannot be embodied in any one technique. It is a synthetic method and is concretized in the aggregate of a wide variety of non-experimental (and sometimes experimental) methods. The monographic method is used, as a rule, for a deep, thorough study of the age and individual characteristics of individual subjects with the fixation of their behavior, activities and relationships with others in all major areas of life.

At the same time, researchers seek, based on the study of specific cases, to identify the general patterns of the structure and development of certain mental formations.

Usually, in psychological research, not one method is used, but a whole set of different methods that mutually control and complement each other.

Diagnostic methods.

Diagnostic research methods include various tests, i.e.

methods that allow the researcher to give a quantitative qualification to the phenomenon under study, as well as various methods of qualitative diagnostics, with the help of which, for example, various levels of development of the psychological properties and characteristics of the subjects are revealed.

Test- a standardized task, the result of which allows you to measure the psychological characteristics of the subject.

Thus, the purpose of a test study is to test, diagnose certain psychological characteristics of a person, and its result is a quantitative indicator that is correlated with previously established relevant norms and standards.

The use of certain and specific tests in psychology most clearly reveals the general theoretical attitudes of the researcher and the entire study. Thus, in foreign psychology, test studies are usually understood as a means of identifying and measuring the innate intellectual and characterological characteristics of the subjects.

In domestic psychology, various diagnostic methods are considered as a means of determining the current level of development of these psychological characteristics. Precisely because the results of any testing characterize the current and comparative level of a person’s mental development, due to the influence of many factors that are usually uncontrolled in a test test, the results of a diagnostic test cannot and should not be correlated with a person’s capabilities, with the features of his further development, i.e.

these results are not predictive. These results cannot serve as a basis for the adoption of certain psychological and pedagogical measures.

The need for absolutely precise compliance with the instructions and the use of the same type of diagnostic examination materials imposes another significant limitation on the widespread use of diagnostic methods in most applied areas of psychological science.

Due to this limitation, a sufficiently qualified diagnostic examination requires the researcher to have special (psychological) training, knowledge of not only the material and instructions for the test methodology used, but also the methods of scientific analysis of the data obtained.

So, the difference between diagnostic methods and non-experimental methods is that they not only describe the phenomenon under study, but also give this phenomenon a quantitative or qualitative qualification, measure it.

A common feature of these two classes of research methods is that they do not allow the researcher to penetrate the phenomenon under study, do not reveal the patterns of its change and development, do not explain it.

Experimental methods.

Unlike non-experimental and diagnostic methods, a "psychological experiment" implies the possibility of the researcher's active intervention in the activity of the subject in order to create conditions that clearly reveal a psychological fact.

The specificity of experimental methods is, therefore, that they assume:

• a) organization of special conditions of activity that affect the studied psychological characteristics of the subjects;
• b) changes in these conditions during the study.

There are three types of actual experimental method in psychology:

• natural experiment;
• modeling experiment;
• laboratory experiment.

Natural (field) experiment, as the very name of this method says, is closest to non-experimental research methods.

The conditions used in conducting a natural experiment are organized not by the experimenter, but by life itself (in a higher educational institution, for example, they are organically included in the educational process). The experimenter in this case uses only a combination of different (usually contrasting) conditions of the subjects' activity and fixes, using non-experimental or diagnostic methods, the studied psychological characteristics of the subjects.

Modeling experiment. When conducting a simulation experiment, the subject acts according to the experimenter's instructions and knows that he is participating in the experiment as a subject.

A characteristic feature of this type of experiment is that the behavior of the subjects in the experimental situation models (reproduces) at different levels of abstraction quite typical actions or activities for life situations: memorizing various information, choosing or setting goals, performing various intellectual and practical actions, etc. . A modeling experiment allows solving a wide variety of research problems.

Laboratory experiment- a special type of experimental method - involves conducting research in a psychological laboratory equipped with special instruments and devices.

This type of experiment, which is also distinguished by the most artificial experimental conditions, is usually used in the study of elementary mental functions (sensory and motor reactions, choice reactions, differences in sensory thresholds, etc.) and much less frequently in the study of more complex mental phenomena (thinking processes, speech functions, etc.).

A laboratory experiment is more consistent with the subject of the subject of psychological research.

Formative methods.

All the research methods described above are distinguished by their ascertaining character: empirical, spontaneously formed (or, in extreme cases, modeled in the narrow and artificial framework of a laboratory experiment) features and levels of mental development are subject to description, measurement and explanation.
The use of all these methods does not imply the task of a significant change in the current subject of research, the task of formation.

Such a fundamentally new research goal requires the use of special, formative methods.

Formative research methods in psychology include various varieties of the so-called social experiment, the object of which is a certain group of people:

• transformative experiment,
• psychological and pedagogical experiment,
• formative experiment,
• experimental genetic method,
• step-by-step formation method, etc.

The use of formative research methods is associated with the restructuring of certain characteristics of the educational process and the identification of the influence of this restructuring on the age, intellectual and characterological characteristics of the subjects. In essence, this research method acts as a means of creating a broad experimental context for the use of all other methods of psychology.

A formative experiment is often used to compare the impact of different educational programs on the mental development of the subjects.
The formative experiment is:

• mass experiment, i.e.

  statistically significant (this means that its area is at least a school, a teaching staff);

• long, prolonged experiment;
• experiment not for the sake of experiment, but for the sake of implementing one or another general theoretical concept in a certain area of ​​psychology (age, children, pedagogical and other branches);
• the experiment is complex, requiring the joint efforts of theoretical psychologists, practical psychologists, research psychologists, didactics, methodologists, etc.

  And so this is an experiment taking place in special institutions where all this can be organized.

It should be noted that in the process of development of psychology, not only theories and concepts, but also research methods change: they lose their contemplative, ascertaining character, they become formative or, more precisely, transformative.

The leading type of research method in the experimental field of psychology is the formative experiment.

Tags: methods of psychological researcmethods

Measurement in psychological research

In the course of psychological research, the studied characteristics can be quantified, for example, scores on test scales.

The obtained quantitative data of the experiment are then subjected to statistical processing.

The measurement carried out in psychological research can be defined as the assignment of numbers to the phenomena under study, which is carried out according to certain rules.

The measured object is compared with some standard, as a result of which it receives its numerical expression.

Information encoded in numerical form makes it possible to use mathematical methods and reveal what, without recourse to numerical interpretation, could remain hidden. In addition, the numerical representation of the studied phenomena allows us to operate with complex concepts in a more abbreviated form. It is these circumstances that explain the use of measurements in any science, including psychology.

In general, the research work of a psychologist conducting experiments can be represented in the following sequence:

Researcher (psychologist)

2. Subject of research (mental properties, processes, functions, etc.)

3. Subject (group of subjects)

4. Experiment (measurement)

5. Experimental data (numerical codes)

6. Statistical processing of experimental data

7. Result of statistical processing (numerical codes)

8. Conclusions (printed text: report, diploma, article, etc.)

Recipient of scientific information (supervisor of coursework, diploma or Ph.D. work, customer, reader of the article, etc.).

Any kind of measurement assumes the presence of units of measurement. A unit of measurement is that "measuring stick", as S. Stevens said, which is a conditional standard for the implementation of certain measuring procedures.

In the natural sciences and technology, there are standard units of measurement, such as degrees, meters, amperes, etc.

Psychological variables, with a few exceptions, do not have their own measurement units. Therefore, in most cases, the value of a psychological trait is determined using special measuring scales.

According to S. Stevens, there are four types of measuring scales (or methods of measurement):

1) nominative (nominal or scale of names);

2) ordinal (ordinary or ranking scale);

3) interval (scale of equal intervals);

4) scale of relations (scale of equal relations).

All names in parentheses are synonymous with the original concept.

The process of assigning quantitative (numerical) values ​​to the researcher's information is called coding.

In other words, coding is an operation by which experimental data is given the form of a numerical message (code).

The application of the measurement procedure is possible only in the four above methods.

Moreover, each measuring scale has its own, different form of numerical representation, or code. Therefore, the encoded features of the phenomenon under study, measured on one of the named scales, are fixed in a strictly defined numerical system, determined by the features of the scale used.

Measurements made using the first two scales are considered qualitative, and measurements made using the last two scales are considered quantitative. With the development of scientific knowledge, quantitative description based on measurement methods is becoming increasingly important.

This has two specific goals:

1. Increasing and evaluating the degree of output accuracy. Quantitative data allows for a higher degree of accuracy than qualitative descriptions, and at the same time allows for more informed decisions.

Formulation of laws. The goal of every science is to describe, through laws, the essential relationships between the phenomena under study. If these relationships can be expressed quantitatively in the form of functional dependencies, then the predictive capabilities of the law of nature formulated in this way increase significantly.

Nominative scale (naming scale)

Measurement in the nominative scale consists in assigning a certain designation or symbol (numerical, alphabetic, etc.) to some property or feature.

In fact, the measurement procedure is reduced to classifying properties, grouping objects, to combining them into classes, provided that objects belonging to the same class are identical (or similar) to each other with respect to some feature or property, while objects that differ in this feature fall into different classes.

In other words, when measuring on this scale, a classification or distribution of objects (for example, types of personality accentuation) into non-overlapping classes, groups is carried out.

There can be several such non-overlapping classes.

Subjective research method

A classic example of measurement on a nominative scale in psychology is breaking people down into four temperaments: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, and melancholic.

The nominal scale determines that different properties or features are qualitatively different from each other, but does not imply any quantitative operations with them.

So, for signs measured on this scale, one cannot say that some of them are greater, and some are less, some are better, and some are worse. It can only be argued that the signs that fall into different groups (classes) are different. The latter characterizes this scale as qualitative.

Let us give another example of measurement in the nominative scale. The psychologist studies the motives for dismissal from work:

a) did not arrange earnings;

b) inconvenient shift;

c) poor working conditions;

d) uninteresting work;

e) conflict with superiors, etc.

The simplest nominative scale is called dichotomous.

When measuring on a dichotomous scale, the measured features can be encoded with two characters or numbers, such as 0 and 1, or the letters A and B, as well as any two characters that differ from each other.

A trait measured on a dichotomous scale is called an alternative.

In the dichotomous scale, all objects, features, or studied properties are divided into two non-overlapping classes, while the researcher raises the question of whether the trait of interest to the subject “manifested” or not. For example, in a study of 30 subjects, 23 women took part, who can be assigned the number 0, and 7 men, coded as the number 1.

Here are some more examples related to measurements on a dichotomous scale:

• the subject answered the item of the questionnaire either “yes” or “no”;
• someone voted "for", someone "against";
• a person is either an "extrovert" or an "introvert", etc.

In all these cases, two non-intersecting sets are obtained, in relation to which it is only possible to count the number of individuals possessing one or another attribute.

the number of subjects, phenomena, etc., falling into a given class (group) and possessing a given property.

Ordinal (rank, ordinary) scale

Measurement on this scale divides the entire set of measured features into such sets that are interconnected by relationships such as “more - less”, “higher - lower”, “stronger - weaker”, etc. If in the previous scale it was not important in what order the measured features are located, then in the ordinal (rank) scale all features are arranged in rank - from the largest (high, strong, smart, etc.) to the smallest (low, weak, stupid, etc.) or vice versa.

A typical and very well-known example of an ordinal scale is school grades: from 5 to 1 point.

There should be at least three classes (groups) in the ordinal (rank) scale: for example, answers to the questionnaire: “yes”, “don't know”, “no”.

Let's give another example of measurement in an ordinal scale.

The psychologist studies the sociometric statuses of the team members:

1. "Popular";

2. "Preferred";

3. "Neglected";

4. "Isolated";

5. "Rejected".

Interval scale (interval scale)

In the scale of intervals, or interval scale, each of the possible values ​​of the measured quantities is separated from the nearest by an equal distance.

The main concept of this scale is the interval, which can be defined as the proportion or part of the measured property between two adjacent positions on the scale. The size of the interval is a fixed and constant value in all parts of the scale.

When working with this scale, the measured property or object is assigned the corresponding number. An important feature of the interval scale is that it does not have a natural reference point (zero is arbitrary and does not indicate the absence of a measurable property).

So, in psychology, the semantic differential of Ch.

Osgood, which is an example of measuring various psychological characteristics of a person, social attitudes, value orientations, subjective-personal meaning, various aspects of self-esteem, etc. on an interval scale:

Relationship Scale (equal relationship scale)

The ratio scale is also called the equal ratio scale. . A feature of this scale is the presence of a firmly fixed zero, which means the complete absence of any property or feature.

The scale of ratios, in fact, is very close to the interval scale, since if the reference point is strictly fixed, then any interval scale turns into a scale of ratios.

It is in the scale of ratios that accurate and ultra-precise measurements are made in such sciences as physics, medicine, chemistry, etc.

Here are examples: the force of gravity, heart rate, reaction speed. Basically, the measurement on the scale of relations is carried out in sciences close to psychology, such as psychophysics, psychophysiology, psychogenetics. This is due to the fact that it is very difficult to find an example of a mental phenomenon that could potentially be absent in human activity.

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Methods of psychological research

Psychology, like any other science, has its own methods. Methods of scientific research are the methods and means by which they obtain the information necessary to make practical recommendations and build scientific theories. The development of any science depends on how perfect its methods are, how reliable and correct they are. All this is true in relation to psychology.

The phenomena studied by psychology are so complex and diverse, so difficult for scientific knowledge, that throughout the entire development of psychological science, its success directly depended on the degree of perfection of the research methods used.

Psychology stood out as an independent science only in the middle of the 19th century, so it very often relies on the methods of other, older sciences - philosophy, mathematics, physics, physiology, medicine, biology and history. In addition, psychology uses the methods of modern sciences, such as computer science and cybernetics.

It should be emphasized that any independent science has only its inherent methods. There are such methods in psychology. All of them can be divided into two main groups: subjective and objective.

Subjective methods are based on self-assessments or self-reports of the subjects, as well as on the opinion of researchers about a particular observed phenomenon or information received. With the separation of psychology into an independent science, subjective methods received priority development and continue to be improved at the present time. The very first methods of studying psychological phenomena were observation, self-observation and questioning.

Observation Method in psychology is one of the oldest and, at first glance, the simplest.

It is based on the systematic observation of people's activities, which is carried out in ordinary life conditions without any deliberate interference on the part of the observer.

Observation in psychology involves a complete and accurate description of the observed phenomena, as well as their psychological interpretation. This is precisely the main goal of psychological observation: it must, proceeding from the facts, reveal their psychological content.

Observation is a method that all people use. However, scientific observation and the observation that most people use in everyday life have a number of significant differences.

Scientific observation is systematic and carried out on the basis of a certain plan in order to obtain an objective picture. Consequently, scientific observation requires special training, during which special knowledge is acquired and qualities that contribute to the objectivity of psychological interpretation.

Observation can be carried out in various ways.

For example, the method of included observation is widely used. This method is used in cases where the psychologist himself is a direct participant in the events. However, if, under the influence of the researcher's personal participation, his perception and understanding of the event may be distorted, then it is better to turn to third-party observation, which makes it possible to more objectively judge the events taking place.

In its content, participant observation is very close to another method - self-observation.

Introspection, i.e., observation of one's experiences, is one of the specific methods used only in psychology. It should be noted that this method, in addition to advantages, has a number of disadvantages.

First, it is very difficult to observe your experiences. They either change under the influence of observation, or completely stop. Secondly, in self-observation it is very difficult to avoid subjectivity, since our perception of what is happening has a subjective coloring.

Thirdly, in self-observation it is difficult to express some shades of our experiences.

However, the method of self-observation is very important for a psychologist. Faced in practice with the behavior of other people, the psychologist seeks to understand its psychological content, refers to his experience, including the analysis of his experiences.

Therefore, in order to work successfully, a psychologist must learn to objectively assess his condition and his experiences.

Self-observation is often used in experimental conditions.

In this case, it acquires the most accurate character and it is customary to call it experimental self-observation. Its characteristic feature is that the questioning of a person is carried out under precisely taken into account the conditions of the experiment, at those moments that are of most interest to the researcher. In this case, the self-observation method is very often used in conjunction with the survey method.

Survey is a method based on obtaining the necessary information from the subjects themselves through questions and answers.

There are several options for conducting a survey. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. There are three main types of survey: oral, written and free.

oral questioning, as a rule, is used in cases where it is necessary to monitor the reactions and behavior of the subject.

This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written one, since the questions asked by the researcher can be adjusted during the research process depending on the characteristics of the behavior and reactions of the subject. However, this version of the survey requires more time to conduct, as well as the availability of special training for the researcher, since the degree of objectivity of the answers very often depends on the behavior and personal characteristics of the researcher himself.

Written survey allows you to reach a large number of people in a relatively short time.

The most common form of this survey is a questionnaire. But its disadvantage is that it is impossible to foresee the reaction of the subjects to its questions and change its content in the course of the study.

Free Poll- a kind of written or oral survey, in which the list of questions asked is not determined in advance. With a survey of this type, you can quite flexibly change the tactics and content of the study, which allows you to get a variety of information about the subject.

At the same time, a standard survey requires less time and, most importantly, the information received about a particular subject can be compared with information about another person, since in this case the list of questions does not change.

Attempts to quantify psychological phenomena began to be made from the second half of the 19th century, when the need arose to make psychology a more accurate and useful science.

But even earlier, in 1835, the book of the creator of modern statistics A. Quetelet (1796-1874) "Social Physics" was published. In this book, Quetelet, relying on the theory of probability, showed that its formulas make it possible to detect the subordination of people's behavior to certain patterns.

Analyzing the statistical material, he obtained constant values ​​that give a quantitative description of such human acts as marriage, suicide, etc.

These acts were previously considered arbitrary. And although the concept formulated by Quetelet was inextricably linked with the metaphysical approach to social phenomena, it introduced a number of new points. For example, Quetelet expressed the idea that if the average number is constant, then behind it there should be a reality comparable to the physical one, which makes it possible to predict various phenomena (including psychological ones) based on statistical laws.

for the knowledge of these laws it is hopeless to study each person separately. The object of studying behavior should be large masses of people, and the main method should be variational statistics.

Already the first serious attempts to solve the problem of quantitative measurements in psychology made it possible to discover and formulate several laws that connect the strength of human sensations with stimuli expressed in physical units that affect the body.

These include the laws of Bouguer-Weber, Weber-Fechner, Stevens, which are mathematical formulas that determine the relationship between physical stimuli and human sensations, as well as the relative and absolute thresholds of sensations. Subsequently, mathematics was widely included in psychological research, which to a certain extent increased the objectivity of research and contributed to the transformation of psychology into one of the most practical sciences.

The widespread introduction of mathematics into psychology has determined the need to develop methods that allow you to repeatedly conduct the same type of research, i.e.

e. required to solve the problem of standardization of procedures and techniques.

The main point of standardization is that in order to ensure the least probability of error when comparing the results of psychological examinations of two people or several groups, it is necessary, first of all, to ensure the use of the same methods, stably, i.e.

That is, regardless of external conditions that measure the same psychological characteristic.

Tests are among such psychological methods. Its popularity is due to the possibility of obtaining an accurate and qualitative description of a psychological phenomenon, as well as the ability to compare the results of the study, which is primarily necessary for solving practical problems.

Tests differ from other methods in that they have a clear procedure for collecting and processing data, as well as a psychological interpretation of the results.

It is customary to distinguish several variants of tests: questionnaire tests, task tests, projective tests.

Test questionnaire as a method based on the analysis of the answers of the subjects to questions that allow obtaining reliable and reliable information about the presence or severity of a certain psychological characteristic.

Judgment about the development of this characteristic is carried out on the basis of the number of answers that coincided in their content with the idea of ​​it. Test task involves obtaining information about the psychological characteristics of a person based on an analysis of the success of certain tasks. In tests of this type, the subject is asked to perform a certain list of tasks. The number of completed tasks is the basis for judging the presence or absence, as well as the degree of development of a certain psychological quality.

Most IQ tests fall into this category.

One of the earliest attempts to develop tests was made by F. Galton (1822-1911). At the International Exhibition in London in 1884, Galton organized an anthropometric laboratory (later transferred to the South Kensington Museum in London).

More than nine thousand subjects passed through it, in which, along with height, weight, etc., various types of sensitivity, reaction time, and other sensorimotor qualities were measured. The tests and statistical methods proposed by Galton were subsequently widely used to solve practical problems of life.

This was the beginning of the creation of applied psychology, called "psychotechnics".

Subjective research method

French psychologist A. Wiene created one of the first psychological tests - a test for assessing intelligence. At the beginning of the twentieth century. The French government instructed Binet to draw up a scale of intellectual abilities for schoolchildren in order to use it for the correct distribution of schoolchildren according to the levels of education. Subsequently, various scientists create a whole series of tests. Their focus on the prompt solution of practical problems led to the rapid and widespread use of psychological tests.

For example, G. Munsterberg (1863-1916) proposed tests for professional selection, which were created as follows: initially they were tested on a group of workers who achieved the best results, and then newly hired ones were subjected to them.

It is obvious that the premise of this procedure was the idea of ​​the interdependence between the mental structures necessary for the successful performance of the activity, and those structures due to which the subject copes with the tests.

During the First World War, the use of psychological tests became widespread.

At this time, the United States was actively preparing to enter the war. However, they did not have such a military potential as other belligerents. Therefore, even before entering the war (1917), the military authorities turned to the country's leading psychologists E.

Thorndike (1874-1949), R. Yerkes (1876-1956) and G. Whipple (1878-1976) with a proposal to lead the solution to the problem of applying psychology to military affairs. The American Psychological Association and universities quickly began work in this direction. Under the direction of Yerkes, the first group tests were created for the mass assessment of the suitability (mainly by intelligence) of conscripts for service in various branches of the military: the army alpha test for the literate and the army beta test for the illiterate.

The first test was similar to A. Binet's verbal tests for children. The second test consisted of non-verbal tasks. 1,700,000 soldiers and about 40,000 officers were examined.

The distribution of indicators was divided into seven parts. In accordance with this, according to the degree of suitability, the subjects were divided into seven groups. The first two groups included persons with the highest abilities to perform the duties of officers and to be sent to the appropriate military educational institutions. Three subsequent groups had average statistical indicators of the abilities of the studied population of persons.

At the same time, the development of tests as a psychological method was also carried out in Russia.

The development of this direction in the domestic psychology of that time is associated with the names of A. F. Lazursky (1874-1917), G. I. Rossolimo (1860-1928), V. M. Bekhterev (1857-1927) and P. F. Lesgaft ( 1837-1909).

Tests are the most widely used method of psychological research today. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the tests occupy an intermediate position between subjective and objective methods.

This is due to the wide variety of test methods. There are tests based on the self-report of the subjects, such as questionnaire tests. When performing these tests, the subject can consciously or unconsciously influence the test result, especially if he knows how his answers will be interpreted. But there are more objective tests. Among them, first of all, it is necessary to include projective tests.

This category of tests does not use self-reports of the subjects. They imply free interpretation by the researcher of the tasks performed by the subject. For example, according to the most preferred choice of color cards for the subject, the psychologist determines his emotional state. In other cases, the subject is presented with pictures depicting an uncertain situation, after which the psychologist offers to describe the events reflected in the picture, and based on the analysis of the interpretation of the depicted situation by the subject, a conclusion is made about the features of his psyche.

However, projective type tests impose increased requirements on the level of professional training and practical experience of a psychologist, and also require a sufficiently high level of intellectual development in the subject.

Objective data can be obtained using experiment - a method based on creating an artificial situation in which the studied property is distinguished, manifested and evaluated in the best way.

The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows more reliable than other psychological methods to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the studied phenomenon with other phenomena, to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development. There are two main types of experiment: laboratory and natural.

They differ from each other by the conditions of the experiment.

A laboratory experiment involves creating an artificial situation in which the property under study can be best evaluated. A natural experiment is organized and carried out in ordinary life conditions, where the experimenter does not interfere in the course of events, fixing them as they are.

One of the first to use the method of natural experiment was the Russian scientist A.F. Lazursky. The data obtained in a natural experiment correspond best to the typical life behavior of people. However, it should be borne in mind that the results of a natural experiment are not always accurate due to the lack of strict control over the influence of various factors on the studied property by the experimenter. From this point of view, the laboratory experiment wins in accuracy, but at the same time concedes in the degree of correspondence to the life situation.

Another group of psychological science methods is formed by modeling methods.

They should be attributed to an independent class of methods. They are used when other methods are difficult to use.

Their peculiarity is that, on the one hand, they are based on certain information about a particular mental phenomenon, and, on the other hand, when using them, as a rule, the participation of the subjects or taking into account the real situation is not required. Therefore, it can be very difficult to attribute various modeling techniques to the category of objective or subjective methods.

Models can be technical, logical, mathematical, cybernetic, etc.

e. In mathematical modeling, a mathematical expression or formula is used, which reflects the relationship of variables and the relationship between them, reproducing elements and relationships in the phenomena under study. Technical modeling involves the creation of a device or device that, in its action, resembles what is being studied. Cybernetic modeling is based on the use of concepts from the field of computer science and cybernetics to solve psychological problems.

Logic modeling is based on the ideas and symbolism used in mathematical logic.

The development of computers and software for them gave impetus to the modeling of mental phenomena based on the laws of computer operation, since it turned out that the mental operations used by people, the logic of their reasoning when solving problems are close to the operations and logic on the basis of which computer programs work.

This led to attempts to represent and describe human behavior by analogy with the operation of a computer. In connection with these studies, the names of the American scientists Dr. Miller, Yu. Galanter, K. Pribram, as well as the Russian psychologist L. M. Wekker, became widely known.

In addition to these methods, there are other methods of studying mental phenomena.

For example, a conversation is a variant of a survey. The method of conversation differs from the survey in greater freedom of the procedure. As a rule, the conversation is conducted in a relaxed atmosphere, and the content of the questions varies depending on the situation and the characteristics of the subject.

another method is the method of studying documents, or the analysis of human activity. It should be borne in mind that the most effective study of mental phenomena is carried out with the complex application of various methods.

We will not consider in detail the history of Russian psychology, but we will dwell on the most significant stages of its development, since the psychological schools of Russia have long earned well-deserved fame throughout the world.

A special place in the development of psychological thought in Russia is occupied by the works of M.

V. Lomonosov. In his works on rhetoric and physics, Lomonosov develops a materialistic understanding of sensations and ideas, speaks of the primacy of matter. This idea was reflected especially brightly in his theory of light, which was later supplemented and developed by G. Helmholtz. According to Lomonosov, it is necessary to distinguish between cognitive (mental) processes and the mental qualities of a person.

The latter arise from the correlation of mental faculties and passions. In turn, he considers the actions and sufferings of a person to be the source of passions. Thus, already in the middle of the eighteenth century. the materialistic foundations of domestic psychology were laid.

The formation of Russian psychology took place under the influence of the French enlighteners and materialists of the 18th century.

This influence is clearly visible in the works of Ya. P. Kozelsky and the psychological concept of A. N. Radishchev. Speaking about the scientific works of Radishchev, it must be emphasized that in his works he establishes the leading role of speech for the entire mental development of a person.

In our country, psychology as an independent science began to develop in the 19th century. A major role in its development at this stage was played by the works of A. I. Herzen, who spoke of "action" as an essential factor in the spiritual development of man.

It should be noted that the psychological views of domestic scientists in the second half of the nineteenth century. largely contradicted the religious point of view on mental phenomena.

One of the most striking works of that time was the work of I. M. Sechenov "Reflexes of the brain." This work made a significant contribution to the development of psychophysiology, neuropsychology, and the physiology of higher nervous activity. It should be noted that Sechenov was not only a physiologist, whose works created the natural scientific basis for modern psychology.

Sechenov was fond of psychology from an early age and, according to S. L. Rubinshtein, was the largest Russian psychologist of that time. Sechenov, a psychologist, not only put forward a psychological concept, in which he defined the subject of scientific knowledge of psychology - mental processes, but also had a serious influence on the development of experimental psychology in Russia. But, perhaps, the greatest significance of his scientific activity lies in the fact that it influenced the research of V.

M. Bekhterev and I. P. Pavlov.

Pavlov's works were of great importance for world psychological science. Thanks to the discovery of the mechanism for the formation of a conditioned reflex, many psychological concepts and even directions were formed, including behaviorism.

Later, at the turn of the century, experimental studies were continued by such scientists as A.F. Lazursky, N.N. Lange, G.I. Chelpanov. A.F. Lazursky dealt a lot with personality issues, especially the study of a person’s character.

In addition, he is known for his experimental work, including his proposed method of natural experiment.

Starting a conversation about the experiment, we cannot fail to mention the name of N. N. Lange, one of the founders of experimental psychology in Russia. He is known not only for his studies of sensation, perception, attention. Lange created one of the first experimental psychology laboratories in Russia at Odessa University.

Simultaneously with experimental psychology in Russia in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

other scientific psychological directions are also developing, including general psychology, zoopsychology, and child psychology. Psychological knowledge began to be actively used in the clinic by S. S. Korsakov, I. R. Tarkhanov, V. M. Bekhterev. Psychology began to penetrate into the pedagogical process. In particular, the works of P. F. Lesgaft, devoted to the typology of children, were widely known.

A particularly prominent role in the history of domestic pre-revolutionary psychology was played by G.

I. Chelpanov, who was the founder of the first and oldest Psychological Institute in our country. Preaching positions of idealism in psychology, Chelpanov could not engage in scientific research after the October Revolution. However, the founders of Russian psychological science were replaced by new talented scientists. It with.

L. Rubinstein, L. S. Vygotsky, A. R. Luria, who not only continued the research of their predecessors, but also raised an equally famous generation of scientists. Among them are B. G. Ananiev, A. N. Leontiev, P. Ya. Galperin, A. V. Zaporozhets, D. B. Elkonin. The main works of this group of scientists date back to the 30-60s of the XX century.

SUBJECTIVE METHOD

a way of knowing and describing social phenomena in history and sociology, in which the nature and degree of influence of the subjective on the objective is taken into account. Developed by populist theorists Lavrov and Mikhailovsky. Its philosophical premises are D. Hume's ideas about the limits of knowledge determined by the possibilities of human experience, the concept of B.

Bauer on the critical personality (see Critically Thinking Personality) as the engine of history. Lavrov and Mikhailovsky were also interested in the questions posed by O. Comte - about the limits of the intervention of the subject of knowledge in the natural course of social events.

Both rejected, following Comte, as unsatisfactory systems of metaphysical thinking. Metaphysics proved unable to combine the "truth of the theoretical sky" with the "truth of the practical earth."

In the search for new paths in philosophy and sociology, it is necessary to rely on self-evident truths. One of these truths is the recognition that the natural forces of nature do not depend on man, his thoughts and desires, but society is built on other grounds.

There are real people here. They quite consciously set themselves specific goals and achieve their implementation. Hence "public goals can only be achieved in individuals" (Lavrov).

In the natural sciences, truth is achieved through rigorous, objectively "calibrated" research methods. These methods are based on the recognition of the regulatory significance of the law of causality. In about-ve the law of causality is modified. The existent appears here in the form of the desirable, the necessary is corrected by the proper. In general, society is studying (and changing it) not some ethereal spirit (or abstract subject), but "a thinking, feeling and willing personality."

There is also something in common in natural science and social cognition. Both natural science and sociology come up against "the existence of a fact, its probable causes and consequences, its prevalence, etc." In contrast to the fact of nature, the approval or censure of which is meaningless, the assessment of a social fact, the supporters of S.

m., is for the subject of knowledge for the most part of vital importance. Therefore, in social cognition, indications of the “desirability or undesirability” of a fact with one or another t. sp. A person constantly administers his judgment on social phenomena (facts), evaluating them or pronouncing his sentence on them, the truth of which depends on the degree of development of his moral consciousness.

“The sociologist does not have, so to speak, a logical right, the right to eliminate a person from his work as he is, with all his sorrows and desires” (Mikhailovsky). S. m. is, therefore, a way of knowing, with which the observer puts himself mentally in the position of the observed.

This also determines "the size of the study area legally belonging to him." S. m. is called upon to establish the degree and nature of the influence of the subjective on the objective. It guarantees that the subject of knowledge does not distort the objective evidence of an object or event.

Such a method, Mikhailovsky explained, "does not in the least oblige us to turn away from universally obligatory forms of thinking"; he uses the same techniques and methods of scientific thinking - induction, hypothesis, analogy. Its peculiarity lies in something else: it involves taking into account the nature and permissibility of the interference of the subjective into the objective.

F. Engels noted that, from his point of view, within certain limits of S. m., which is better called the “mental method”, for example, since it implies an appeal to a moral feeling (letter from P.

SUBJECTIVE METHOD

L. Lavrov dated November 12-17, 1873). S. m. allows, according to Mikhailovsky, to discover and justify the social ideal necessary for the individual. If I, he reasoned, “discarding all phantoms, look reality straight in the eye, then at the sight of its ugly sides, an ideal is naturally born in me, something different from reality, desirable and, in my extreme understanding, achievable.”

The concept of the ideal allows a deeper understanding of the moral side of history: the ideal is able to "give perspective to history in its whole and in its parts." Ideas about the ideal, happiness are of the greatest value for the individual (“under what conditions can I feel the best?”).

They determine a lot in her self-knowledge and understanding of not only her purpose, but also the meaning of history. The task of the sociologist, therefore, is to reflect the idea of ​​justice and morality and, depending on the height of this ideal, to more or less approach the understanding of the meaning of the phenomena of social life. To this end, the sociologist is called upon to reject the undesirable, pointing out its harmful consequences, and to offer the desirable, bringing it closer to the ideal.

Based on socialism, the ideologists of populism drew the conclusion that the development of capitalism in Russia as a system fraught with negative social consequences was undesirable, and that socialism was desirable as an ideal of social progress.

Based on these criteria, a critically thinking person should, in their opinion, act.

One of the main tasks of psychological science was the development of such objective research methods that would be based on the methods of observing the course of this or that type of activity common to all other sciences and on the experimental change in the conditions for the course of this activity. They were the method of experiment and the method of observing human behavior in natural and experimental conditions.

observation method. If we study a phenomenon without changing the conditions under which it occurs, then we are talking about simple objective observation. Distinguish direct And indirect observation. An example of direct observation would be the study of a person's response to a stimulus, or observation of the behavior of children in a group if we are studying types of contact. Direct observations are further subdivided into active(scientific) and passive or ordinary (everyday). Repeatedly repeated, everyday observations are accumulated in proverbs, sayings, metaphors, and in this regard are of particular interest for cultural and psychological study. Scientific observation presupposes a well-defined goal, task, conditions of observation. At the same time, if we try to change the conditions or circumstances under which the observation is made, then this will already be an experiment.

Indirect observation is used in situations where we want to study mental processes that are not amenable to direct observation using objective methods. For example, to establish the degree of fatigue or tension when a person performs a certain job. The researcher can use the methods of registration of physiological processes (electroencephalograms, electromyograms, galvanic skin reaction, etc.), which do not themselves reveal the features of the course of mental activity, but may reflect the general physiological conditions that characterize the course of the studied processes.

In research practice, objective observations also differ in a number of other ways.

By the nature of the contact direct observation, when the observer and the object of observation are in direct contact and interaction, and indirect, when the researcher gets acquainted with the observed subjects indirectly, through specially organized documents such as questionnaires, biographies, audio or video recordings, etc.

Under the terms of observation field observation that takes place in the conditions of everyday life, study or work, and laboratory, when a subject or group is observed in artificial, specially created conditions.

According to the nature of the interaction with the object, they distinguish included observation, when the researcher becomes a member of the group, and his presence and behavior become part of the observed situation, and unincluded(from the side), i.e. without interaction and establishing any contact with the person or group being studied.

There are also open observation, when the researcher reveals his role to the observed (the disadvantage of this method is to reduce the natural behavior of the observed subjects), and hidden(incognito), when the presence of the observer is not reported to the group or individual.

Observations are classified according to their goals: purposeful systematic approaching in terms of its conditions to the experimental, but differing in that the observed subject is not limited in the freedom of its manifestations, and random, search, not subject to any rules and not having a clearly defined goal. There are cases when researchers working in search mode managed to make observations that were not included in their original plans. Thus, major discoveries were made. For example, P. Fress describes how in 1888. a neuropsychiatrist drew attention to the complaints of a patient who had such dry skin that in cold, dry weather she felt sparks jump from her skin and hair. He had the idea to measure the static charge on her skin. As a result, he stated that this charge disappears under the influence of certain stimulations. Thus the psychogalvanic reflex was discovered. It later became known as galvanic skin response (GSR). In the same way, I.P. Pavlov, in the course of his experiments on the physiology of digestion, discovered conditioned reflexes.

Structural scheme of observation methods

According to the order in time, observations are distinguished solid, when the course of events is fixed constantly, and selective, in which the researcher captures the observed processes only at certain intervals.

According to the order in conducting, observations are distinguished structured, when events occurring are recorded in accordance with a previously developed monitoring scheme, and arbitrary(unstructured), when the researcher freely describes the events as he sees fit. Such observation is usually carried out at the pilot (indicative) stage of the study, when it is required to form a general idea of ​​the object of study and the possible patterns of its functioning.

According to the nature of fixation, they are distinguished ascertaining observation, when the observer fixes the facts as they are, observing them directly, or receiving from the witnesses of the event, and evaluating, when the observer not only fixes, but also evaluates the facts in relation to the degree of their expression according to a given criterion (for example, the degree of expression of emotional states is assessed, etc.).

The diagram shows the main methods of observation and the relationship between them. According to this scheme, it is possible to trace how the most diverse models of observation are structurally formed. For example, methodically it can be organized as: direct - field - not included - open - purposeful - selective - structured - evaluating, etc.

observation errors. Objective methods of observation were developed to obtain reliable scientific knowledge. However, observations are made by a person, and therefore the subjective factor is always present in his observation. In psychology, more than in other disciplines, the observer runs the risk, due to his mistakes (eg, perceptual limitations), of not noticing some important facts, of not taking into account useful data, of distorting the facts due to his preconceived notions, and so on. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the "pitfalls" associated with the method of observation. The most common observational errors occur due to susceptibility gala effect(or the halo effect), which is based on the generalization of single impressions of the observer, based on whether he likes or dislikes the observed, his actions or behavior. Such an approach leads to incorrect generalization, evaluation in "black and white", exaggeration or understatement of the observed facts. Averaging errors occur when the observer for one reason or another feels insecure. Then there is a tendency to average the estimates of the observed processes, since it is known that extremes are less common than properties of average intensity. Logic errors appear when, for example, they conclude that a person is intelligent from his eloquence, or that an amiable person is at the same time good-natured; this error is based on the assumption of a close connection between a person's behavior and his personal qualities, which is far from always true. Contrast errors caused by the observer's tendency to emphasize opposite traits in the observed individuals. There are also errors related to prejudice, ethnic and professional stereotypes, errors of incompetence observer, when the description of a fact is replaced by the observer's opinion about it, etc.

In order to increase the reliability of observation and avoid errors, it is necessary to strictly follow the facts, record specific actions, and resist the temptation to judge complex processes based on first impressions. In research practice, to increase the objectivity of observations, they often turn to several observers who make independent records. However, an increase in the number of observers does not always increase the value of their records, since they can all be subject to the same common misconceptions (for example, when men judge women, or northerners judge southerners, and vice versa). However, increasing the number of observers increases the reliability of the conclusions. For example, studies have found that to obtain a reliability coefficient of 0.9 when assessing school knowledge, four “judges” are needed, and to assess such a personal quality as impulsiveness, eighteen are already needed.

(English method of objective observation)- general scientific method of empirical research; It is used in psychology for the indirect study of mental activity by observing (registering) behavioral acts and physiological processes, which, according to the researcher's hypothesis, reveal mental processes. Observation is usually not designed to create the conditions necessary to evoke the processes under study, which does not exclude preliminary planning of the time, place and situations that are most favorable for solving the problems posed in the study (cf. Laboratory experiment , Experiment Method).

It is advisable to use the method of objective observation in the study of processes, the flow and development of which under experimental conditions may be subject to distortions. But it is possible that under natural conditions the processes under study will appear in complex interrelations with numerous random factors; therefore, when using M. o. n. the special problem of isolating random and atypical observations may arise. Scientific observation should have a preliminary plan with the most complete list of parameters to be recorded. The method of objective observation is especially effective to apply at the first approaches to the development of the problem, when it is necessary to highlight, at least preliminary, the qualitative and integral characteristics of the processes under study. In the future, a more detailed development of the problem (if the nature of the problem under study allows) should be planned during the experiment.

Addition ed.: At least 3 meanings of the term Method of objective observation should be separated (see. objective method).

1. One of 2 divisions of observation as a method of empirical research; this meaning is in binary opposition to the method of self-observation (introspection), which is also considered as a kind of observation method (the method of subjective observation). "Objective" here means "external", i.e. observation carried out with the help of external sense organs (exterospection) and / or various instruments. From this point of view the psychological sciences have always been a "unique preserve" of the method of subjective observation. It was he who tried to destroy some representatives of the so-called. objective psychology.
2. In a narrower sense, this is an observation in which the observed phenomenon is recorded using technical means, and the role of the researcher is limited to performing certain stages: reading instrument readings, choosing methods for processing and analyzing data, processing, interpreting and presenting data. Here "objective" is actually equivalent to "instrumental", but in many sciences it is not possible to completely exclude a human observer. From this t. sp. subjective observations are widely represented in any empirical science (from astronomy and physiology to linguistics and ethnography).
3. In a fairly broad sense, this is any method of observation in which the requirement of independent control is fulfilled (by double observers or with the help of instruments). There is a naive notion that in principle self-observation methods do not satisfy this requirement, while exterospective and especially instrumental observations always satisfy it (and are objective in this sense). Both statements can be disagreed with. Cm . also Types of observation , Observation. (B. M.)

Dictionary of Practical Psychologist S.Yu. Golovin

Method of objective observation- a research strategy for fixing the given characteristics of a certain process without interfering with its course. It can focus on the registration of behavioral acts and physiological processes. As a rule, it acts as a preliminary stage before planning and conducting an experimental study.

Dictionary of psychiatric terms. V.M. Bleikher, I.V. Crook

Neurology. Complete explanatory dictionary. Nikiforov A.S.

there is no meaning and interpretation of the word

Oxford Dictionary of Psychology

there is no meaning and interpretation of the word

subject area of ​​the term

Subjective Methods are based on self-assessments or self-reports of the subjects, as well as on the opinion of researchers about a particular observed phenomenon or information received. With the separation of psychology into an independent science, subjective methods received priority development and continue to be improved at the present time. The very first methods of studying psychological phenomena were observation, self-observation and questioning.

Observation Method in psychology is one of the oldest and, at first glance, the simplest. It is based on the systematic observation of people's activities, which is carried out in ordinary life conditions without any deliberate interference on the part of the observer. Observation in psychology involves a complete and accurate description of the observed phenomena, as well as their psychological interpretation. This is precisely the main goal of psychological observation: it must, proceeding from the facts, reveal their psychological content.

Survey is a method based on obtaining the necessary information from the subjects themselves through questions and answers. There are several options for conducting a survey. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages.

ü oral questioning, as a rule, it is used in cases where it is necessary to monitor the reactions and behavior of the subject. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written one, since the questions asked by the researcher can be adjusted during the research process depending on the characteristics of the behavior and reactions of the subject.

ü Written survey allows you to reach a large number of people in a relatively short time. The most common form of this survey is a questionnaire.

ü Free survey - a type of written or oral survey, in which the list of questions asked is not determined in advance.

Test questionnaire as a method based on the analysis of the answers of the subjects to questions that allow obtaining reliable and reliable information about the presence or severity of a certain psychological characteristic. Judgment about the development of this characteristic is carried out on the basis of the number of answers that coincided in their content with the idea of ​​it. Test task involves obtaining information about the psychological characteristics of a person based on an analysis of the success of certain tasks. In tests of this type, the subject is asked to perform a certain list of tasks. The number of completed tasks is the basis for judging the presence or absence, as well as the degree of development of a certain psychological quality. Most IQ tests fall into this category.

objective data can be obtained using experiment - a method based on the creation of an artificial situation in which the studied property is distinguished, manifested and evaluated in the best way. The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows more reliable than other psychological methods to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the studied phenomenon with other phenomena, to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development. There are two main types of experiment: laboratory and natural. Laboratory experiment involves creating an artificial situation in which the property under study can be best evaluated. Natural the experiment is organized and carried out in ordinary life conditions, where the experimenter does not interfere in the course of events, fixing them as they are.

Simulation. They should be attributed to an independent class of methods. They are used when other methods are difficult to use. Their peculiarity is that, on the one hand, they are based on certain information about a particular mental phenomenon, and, on the other hand, when using them, as a rule, the participation of the subjects or taking into account the real situation is not required. Therefore, it can be very difficult to attribute various modeling techniques to the category of objective or subjective methods.

It is important for us to know a whole range of special psychological methods. It is the use of specific techniques and compliance with special norms and rules that can provide reliable knowledge. Moreover, these rules and methods cannot be chosen spontaneously, but must be dictated by the characteristics of the psychological phenomenon under study. Our task in this lesson is to consider the main methods of studying psychology and their classification, to characterize them and provide effective tips and recommendations so that every reader can use them in everyday life.

Methods of psychology return the researcher to the object under study and deepen its understanding. In essence, methods are a way of studying reality. Any of the methods consists of several operations and techniques that are carried out by the researcher in the process of studying the object. But each method corresponds only to its inherent form of these techniques and operations, corresponding to the goals and objectives of the study. Based on only one method, several methods can be created. It is also an indisputable fact that psychological science does not have any unambiguous set of research methods.

In this lesson, we divided the methods of psychology into 2 groups: methods of theoretical psychology And methods of practical psychology:

Fundamental (general) psychology engaged in psychological research on the general laws of the human psyche, his beliefs, ways of behavior, character traits, as well as what affects all this. In ordinary life, the methods of theoretical psychology can be useful for researching, analyzing and predicting people's behavior.

Practical (or Applied) Psychology is aimed at working with specific people, and its methods make it possible to carry out psychological procedures designed to change the mental state and behavior of the subject.

Part one. Methods of fundamental psychology

Methods of theoretical psychology are the means and techniques by which researchers are able to obtain reliable data and subsequently use them to create scientific theories and draw up practical recommendations. These methods are used to study mental phenomena, their development and change. But not only the characteristics of a person are studied, but also “external” factors: age characteristics, the influence of the environment and upbringing, etc.

Psychological methods are quite diverse. First of all, there are methods of scientific research and only then practical methods. Among the theoretical methods, the main ones are observation and experiment. Additional are self-observation, psychological testing, biographical method, survey and conversation. Combinations of these methods are used to study psychological phenomena.

EXAMPLE: If an employee of the organization shows irresponsibility and this is repeatedly noticed during observation, then in order to find out the reasons contributing to this, one should resort to a conversation or a natural experiment.

It is very important that the basic methods of psychology are used in a complex way and are "sharpened" for each specific case. First of all, you need to clarify the problem and determine the question to which you want to get an answer, i.e. there must be a specific goal. And only after that you need to choose a method.

So, the methods of theoretical psychology.

Observation

In psychology under observation refers to purposeful perception and registration of the behavior of the object under study. Moreover, all phenomena using this method are studied under normal conditions for the object. This method is considered one of the most ancient. But it was scientific observation that was widely used only at the end of the 19th century. At first it was applied in developmental psychology, as well as educational, social and clinical psychology. Later it began to be used in labor psychology. Observation is usually used in cases where it is not recommended or impossible to interfere with the natural process of the course of events.

There are several types of observation:

• Field - in ordinary life;
• Laboratory - in special conditions;
• Indirect;
• Immediate;
• Included;
• Not included;
• Direct;
• indirect;
• solid;
• Selective;
• systematic;
• Unsystematic.

As already mentioned, observation should be used in cases where the intervention of the researcher can disrupt the natural process of human interaction with the outside world. This method is necessary when you need to get a three-dimensional picture of what is happening and to fully capture the behavior of a person / people. The important features of observation are:

• Impossibility or difficulty of re-observation;
• Emotional coloring of observation;
• Communication of the observed object and the observer.

  Observation is carried out to identify various features of behavior - this is the subject. Objects, in turn, can be:

• Verbal behavior: content, duration, intensity of speech, etc.
• Non-verbal behavior: facial expression, eye expression, body position, movement expression, etc.
• Movement of people: distance, manner, features, etc.

  That is, the object of observation is something that can be fixed visually. The researcher in this case observes not mental properties, but registers the obvious manifestations of the object. Based on the data obtained and assumptions about the manifestation of what mental characteristics they are, the scientist can draw certain conclusions about the mental properties of the individual.

  How is the observation carried out?

  The results of this method are usually recorded in special protocols. The most objective conclusions can be drawn if the observation is carried out by a group of people, because it is possible to generalize different results. Certain requirements must also be observed when observing:

  • Observations should not affect the natural course of events;
  • It is better to conduct observation on different people, because there is an opportunity to compare;
  • Observations should be carried out repeatedly and systematically, and the results already obtained during past observations should be taken into account.

  Observation consists of several stages:

  1. Definition of the subject (situation, object, etc.);
  2. Determination of the method of observation;
  3. Choice of data registration method;
  4. Create a plan;
  5. The choice of the method of processing the results;
  6. Observation;
  7. Processing of received data and their interpretation.

  It is also necessary to decide on the means of observation - it can be carried out by a specialist or recorded by devices (audio, photo, video equipment, surveillance maps). Observation is often confused with experiment. But these are two different methods. The difference between them is that when observing:

  • The observer does not affect the process;
  • The observer registers exactly what he observes.

  There is a certain code of ethics developed by the American Psychological Association (APA). This code implies that observations are made according to certain rules and precautions. The following are examples:

  • If the observation is planned to be carried out in a public place, then obtaining consent from the participants in the experiment is not necessary. Otherwise, consent is required.
  • Researchers must not allow participants to be harmed in any way during the course of the research.
  • Researchers should minimize their intrusion into participants' privacy.
  • Researchers should not disclose confidential information about participants.

  Every person, even without being a specialist in the field of psychology, can use the method of observation in order to obtain data, if necessary, regarding any issue.

  EXAMPLE: You want to send your child to some section or circle. To make the right choice, you need to identify its predispositions, i.e. to which it gravitates by itself without external influence. To do this, you need to make an observation. Look at the child from the outside what he does when he is left alone, what actions he performs, what he likes to do. If, for example, he constantly draws everywhere, then perhaps he has a natural inclination for drawing and you can try to send him to art school. If he likes to disassemble / assemble something, then he may be interested in technology. The constant craving for the ball suggests that it is worth giving it to a football or basketball school. You can also ask kindergarten teachers or teachers at school to observe your child and draw certain conclusions based on this. If your son is constantly bullying and fighting with boys, this is not a reason to scold him, but an incentive to enroll in some kind of martial art. If your daughter loves to braid her girlfriends, then she might be interested in starting to learn the art of hairdressing.

  There are many options for monitoring. The main thing is to understand what exactly you want to define and think about the best ways to observe.

  Psychological experiment

  Under experiment in psychology, they understand an experiment conducted under certain conditions in order to obtain new data through the direct intervention of the experimenter in the life of the subject. In the process of research, the scientist changes a certain factor / factors and sees what happens as a result. A psychological experiment may include other methods: testing, questioning, observation. But it can also be a completely independent method.

  There are several types of experiments (according to the method of conducting):

  • Laboratory - when you can control specific factors and change conditions;
  • Natural - carried out under normal conditions and a person may not even know about the experiment;
  • Psychological and pedagogical - when a person / group of people learn something and form certain qualities in themselves, master skills;
  • Pilot - a trial experiment conducted before the main one.

  There are also experiments on the level of awareness:

  • Explicit - the subject is aware of the experiment and all its details;
  • Hidden - the subject does not know all the details of the experiment or does not know about the experiment at all;
  • Combined - the subject knows only part of the information or is deliberately misled about the experiment.

  Organization of the experiment process

  The researcher must set a clear task - why the experiment is being carried out, with whom and under what conditions. Further, certain relations must be established between the subject and the scientist, and instructions are given to the subject (or not given). Then the experiment itself is carried out, after which the data obtained are processed and interpreted.

  Experiment as a scientific method must meet certain qualities:

  • Objectivity of the received data;
  • Reliability of received data;
  • Validity of the received data.

  But, despite the fact that the experiment is one of the most respected methods of research, it has both pros and cons.

  • Possibility to choose a starting point to start the experiment;
  • Possibility of repeating;
  • The ability to change certain factors, thereby affecting the result.

  Cons (according to some experts):

  • The psyche is difficult to study;
  • The psyche is fickle and unique;
  • The psyche has the property of spontaneity.

  For these reasons, when conducting psychological experiments, researchers cannot rely on the data of this method alone in their results and must resort to combining with other methods and take into account many different indicators. When conducting experiments, the APA Code of Ethics must also be adhered to.

  It is possible to conduct various experiments in the process of life without the help of graduates and experienced psychologists. Naturally, the results obtained in the course of independent experiments will be purely subjective. But some information can still be obtained.

  EXAMPLE: Let's say you want to learn more about the behavior of people in certain circumstances, to see how they will react to something, and perhaps even to understand the course of their thoughts. Model some situation for this and use it in life. As an example, the following can be cited: a person was interested in how people around him react to a sleeping person sitting next to them and leaning on them in transport. To do this, he took his friend, who filmed what was happening on camera, and repeated the same action several times: he pretended to be asleep and leaned on his neighbor. The reaction of people was different: someone moved away, someone woke up and expressed dissatisfaction, someone sat peacefully, putting his shoulder to the “tired” person. But based on the video recordings received, it was concluded that people, for the most part, react negatively to a “foreign object” in their personal space and experience unpleasant emotions. But this is only the “tip of the iceberg” and the psychological rejection of people from each other can be interpreted in completely different ways.

  When conducting your personal experiments, always be careful and make sure that your research does not cause any harm to others.

  Introspection

  Introspection It is observation of oneself and the peculiarities of one's behavior. This method can be used in the form of self-control and plays a big role in the psychology and life of a person. However, as a method, self-observation to a greater extent can only state the fact of something, but not its cause (forgotten something, but it is not known why). That is why self-observation, although it is an important research method, cannot be the main and independent in the process of understanding the essence of the manifestations of the psyche.

  The quality of the method we are considering is directly dependent on the self-esteem of a person. For example, people with low self-esteem are more prone to introspection. And the result of hypertrophied self-observation can be self-digging, obsession with wrong actions, guilt, self-justification, etc.

  Adequate and effective self-observation is facilitated by:

  • Keeping personal records (diary);
  • Comparison of self-observation with the observations of others;
  • Increased self-esteem;
  • Psychological trainings on personal growth and development.

  The use of self-observation in life is a very effective way to understand yourself, the motives of your actions, get rid of some problems in life and resolve difficult situations.

  EXAMPLE: You want to increase your efficiency in daily activities (in communication with people, at work, at home) or get rid of bad habits (negative thinking, irritability, even smoking). Make it a rule to be in a state of awareness as often as possible every day: pay attention to your thoughts (what you are thinking about now) and your actions (what you are doing at the moment). Try to analyze what causes you certain reactions (anger, irritation, envy, joy, satisfaction). For what "hooks" people and circumstances pull you. Get yourself a notebook in which you will write down all your observations. Just watch what is happening inside you and what is contributing to it. After analyzing after some time (a week, a month) what you have learned about yourself, you will be able to draw a conclusion on the topic of what you should cultivate in yourself, and what you should start getting rid of.

  The regular practice of self-observation has a very positive effect on the inner world of a person and, as a result, on its external manifestations.

  Psychological testing

  Psychological testing refers to the section of psychodiagnostics and deals with the study of psychological qualities and personality traits through the use of psychological tests. This method is often used in counseling, psychotherapy, and by employers in hiring. Psychological tests are needed when you need to learn more about a person's personality, which cannot be done with a conversation or a survey.

  The main characteristics of psychological tests are:

  • Validity - the correspondence of the data obtained from the test to the characteristic for which the test is carried out;
  • Reliability - conformity of the received results at repeated testing;
  • Reliability - the property of the test to give true results, even with intentional or unintentional attempts to distort them by the subjects;
  • Representativeness - compliance with the norms.

  A truly effective test is created through trials and modifications (changing the number of questions, their composition and wording). The test must go through a multi-stage verification and adaptation procedure. An effective psychological test is a standardized test, based on the results of which it becomes possible to assess the psychophysiological and personal characteristics, as well as the knowledge, skills and abilities of the subject.

  There are different types of tests:

  • Career guidance tests - to determine a person's predisposition to any type of activity or compliance with the position;
  • Personality tests - to study the character, needs, emotions, abilities and other personality traits;
  • Intelligence tests - to study the degree of development of intelligence;
  • Verbal tests - to study the ability of a person to describe in words the actions performed;
  • Achievement tests - to assess the level of mastery of knowledge and skills.

  There are other options for tests aimed at studying a person and his personality traits: color tests, linguistic tests, questionnaires, handwriting analysis, psychometry, lie detector, various diagnostic methods, etc.

  Psychological tests are very convenient to use in everyday life in order to get to know yourself or the people you care about better.

  EXAMPLE: Tired of making money in a way that does not bring moral, psychological or emotional satisfaction. Dreaming of finally quitting and doing something else. But here's what you don't know. Find some career orientation tests and test yourself. It is quite possible that you will learn some things about yourself that you did not even know about before. The results of such tests can help you discover new facets of yourself and will help you understand what you would really like to do and what you have a penchant for. And knowing all this, it is much easier to find something to your liking. In addition, it is also good that a person, doing what he loves and enjoying it, becomes happier and more satisfied in life and, in addition, begins to earn more.

  Psychological testing contributes to a deeper understanding of oneself, one's needs and abilities, and also often indicates the direction for further personal development.

  biographical method

  Biographical method in psychology- this is a method by which a person's life path is investigated, diagnosed, corrected and projected. Various modifications of this method began to develop at the beginning of the 20th century. In modern biographical methods, the personality is studied in the context of the history and prospects of its individual development. Here it is supposed to obtain data, the source of which is autobiographical techniques (autobiographies, interviews, questionnaires), as well as eyewitness accounts, analysis of notes, letters, diaries, etc.

  This method is often used by managers of various enterprises, biographers who study the life of some people, and simply in communication between little-known people. It is easy to use when communicating with a person to draw up his psychological portrait.

  EXAMPLE: You are the head of an organization and you are hiring a new employee. You need to find out what kind of person this is, what are the characteristics of his personality, what is his life experience, etc. In addition to filling out questionnaires and conducting interviews, you can use the biographical method for this. Talk to a person, let him tell you the facts from his biography and some significant moments on his life path. Ask about what he can tell about himself and his life from memory. This method does not require special skills and training. Such a conversation can take place in a light, relaxed atmosphere and, most likely, will be pleasant to both interlocutors.

  Using the biographical method is a great way to get to know a new person and to see their strengths and weaknesses, as well as to imagine a possible perspective of interacting with them.

  Survey

  Survey- a verbal-communicative method, during which there is an interaction between the researcher and the person being studied. The psychologist asks questions, and the researcher (respondent) gives answers to them. This method is considered one of the most common in psychology. The questions in it depend on what information is required to be obtained in the course of the study. Typically, a survey is a mass method because it is used to obtain information about a group of people, not just one person.

  Polls are divided into:

  • Standardized - strict and giving a general idea of ​​the problem;
  • Non-standardized - less strict and allow you to study the nuances of the problem.

  In the process of creating surveys, first of all, programmatic questions are formulated that are understandable only to specialists. After that, they are translated into questionnaire questions that are more understandable to the average layman.

  Types of surveys:

  • Written allows you to get superficial knowledge about the problem;
  • Oral - allows you to penetrate into the psychology of a person more deeply than written;
  • Questioning - preliminary answers to questions before the main conversation;
  • Personality tests - to determine the mental characteristics of a person;
  • Interview - a personal conversation (also applies to the method of conversation).

  When writing questions, you need to follow some rules:

  • Separateness and conciseness;
  • Exclusion of specific terms;
  • brevity;
  • specificity;
  • Without hints;
  • Questions provide non-template responses;
  • Questions should not be repulsive;
  • Questions should not suggest anything.

  Depending on the tasks, the questions are divided into several types:

  • Open - offering answers in free form;
  • Closed - offering prepared answers;
  • Subjective - about a person's attitude to something / someone;
  • Projective - about a third person (without indicating the respondent).

  A survey, as already mentioned, is most suitable for obtaining information from a large number of people. This method allows you to establish the needs of the masses or determine their opinion on a particular issue.

  EXAMPLE: You are the director of a service firm and you need to know what your employees think about improving working conditions and attracting more customers. In order to do this as quickly and efficiently as possible, you can create (for example, together with an in-house analyst) a series of questions, the answers to which will help you solve your problems. Namely: to make the process of work of employees more pleasant for them and to find some ways (perhaps very effective) to expand the client base. Based on the results of such a survey, you will receive information on very important points. Firstly, you will know exactly what changes your employees need to make the atmosphere in the team better and work brings positive emotions. Secondly, you will have a list of all kinds of methods to improve your business. And, thirdly, you will probably be able to single out a promising and promising person from the general mass of employees who can be promoted, thereby improving the overall performance of the enterprise.

  Polls and questionnaires are a great way to get important and up-to-date information on topical topics from a large number of people.

  Conversation

  Conversation is a form of observation. It can be oral or written. Its purpose is to identify a special range of issues that are not available in the process of direct observation. The conversation is widely used in psychological research and is of great practical importance. Therefore, it can be considered, albeit not the main, but an independent method.

  The conversation is conducted in the form of a relaxed dialogue with the person - the object of study. The effectiveness of the conversation depends on the fulfillment of a number of requirements:

  • It is necessary to think over the plan and content of the conversation in advance;
  • Establish contact with the researched person;
  • Eliminate all moments that can cause discomfort (alertness, tension, etc.);
  • All questions asked during the conversation should be clear;
  • Leading questions should not lead to answers;
  • During the conversation, you need to observe the reaction of a person and compare his behavior with his answers;
  • The content of the conversation should be memorized so that later it can be recorded and analyzed;
  • Do not take notes during the conversation, because this can cause discomfort, mistrust, etc.;
  • Pay attention to the "subtext": omissions, slips of the tongue, etc.

  Conversation as a psychological method helps to obtain information from the "original source" and establish more trusting relationships between people. With the help of a well-conducted conversation, you can not only get answers to questions, but also get to know the interlocutor better, understand what kind of person he is and “how he lives”.

  EXAMPLE: Zhiteisky. You notice that your close friend has been walking around with a drooping and dejected look for days. He answers questions in monosyllables, rarely smiles, and avoids his usual society. The changes are obvious, but he himself does not comment on this. This person is close to you and his fate is not indifferent to you. What to do? How can I find out what's going on and help him? The answer is on the surface - talk to him, have a conversation. Try to guess the moment when no one will be around or specifically invite him to drink a cup of coffee with you. Do not start the conversation directly - with phrases like: "What happened?" or “Come on, tell me what you got!”. Even if you have good friendships, start the conversation with sincere words that you have noticed changes in him, that he is dear to you and that you would like to help him, advise something. "Turn" the person to yourself. Let him feel that it is REALLY important for you to know what happened and that you will understand him anyway. Most likely, under your kind onslaught, your friend will “turn off” his defense mechanism and tell you what the matter is. Almost every person needs other people to take part in his life. It is important to feel that he is not alone and not indifferent. Especially to your friends.

  A conversation is always good when there is an opportunity to talk face-to-face, because it is during a conversation (official or confidential) that you can safely talk about what, for some reason, you can’t talk about in the bustle of ordinary affairs.

  The methods of theoretical psychology are far from being exhausted on this. There are many variations and combinations of them. But we got to know the main ones. Now, in order for the understanding of the methods of psychology to become more complete, it is necessary to consider practical methods.

  Part two. Methods of practical psychology

  The methods of practical psychology include the methods of the fields that form the general psychological science: psychotherapy, counseling and pedagogy. The main practical methods are suggestion and reinforcement, as well as methods of counseling and psychotherapeutic work. Let's talk a little about each of them.

  Suggestion

  suggestion is the process of inserting certain formulas, attitudes, positions or views into the person under study outside of his conscious control. Suggestion can be direct or indirect communicative (verbal or emotional). The task of this method is to form the required state or point of view. The means of suggestion does not play a special role. The main task is to implement it. That is why emotional imprinting, confusion, distraction, intonation, remarks, and even turning off a person’s conscious control (hypnosis, alcohol, drugs) are widely used during suggestion.

  From other appeals (requests, threats, instructions, demands, etc.), which are also methods of psychological influence, suggestion differs in involuntary and automatic reactions, and also in that it does not imply volitional efforts made consciously. In the process of suggestion, everything happens by itself. Suggestions affect each person, but to varying degrees.

  There are several types of offerings:

  • Direct - impact with the help of words (orders, commands, instructions);
  • Indirect - hidden (intermediate actions, irritants);
  • Intentional;
  • Unintentional;
  • positive;
  • Negative.

  There are also different methods of suggestion:

  • Methods of direct suggestion - advice, command, instruction, order;
  • Methods of indirect suggestion - condemnation, approval, hint;
  • Techniques of hidden suggestion - the provision of all options, the illusion of choice, truism.

  Initially, suggestion was used unconsciously by people whose communication skills had developed to a high level. Today, suggestion plays a huge role in psycho- and hypnotherapy. Very often this method is used in hypnosis or in other cases when a person is in a trance state. Suggestions have been a part of human life since childhood, because are used in the process of education, in advertising, politics, relationships, etc.

  EXAMPLE: A well-known example of suggestion, called the "placebo" effect, is the phenomenon of an improvement in the patient's condition when taking a medicine that, in his opinion, has certain properties, when in fact it is a dummy. You can put this method into practice. If, for example, one of your loved ones suddenly has a headache, give him a simple empty capsule under the guise of a remedy for a headache - after a while the “medicine” will work and the headache will stop. That's what it is .

  Reinforcement

  reinforcements is the instantaneous reaction (positive or negative) of the researcher (or the environment) to the actions of the researcher. The reaction must actually be instantaneous so that the subject immediately has the opportunity to associate it with his action. If the reaction is positive, then this is a sign that one should continue to act or act in a similar way. If the reaction is negative, then vice versa.

  Reinforcement can be of the following types:

  • Positive - the correct behavior / action is fixed;
  • Negative - incorrect behavior/action is prevented;
  • Conscious;
  • Unconscious;
  • Spontaneous - happens by accident (burn, electric shock, etc.);
  • Intentional - conscious action (education, training);
  • One-time;
  • systematic;
  • Direct;
  • indirect;
  • Basic;
  • secondary;
  • Complete;
  • Partial.

  Reinforcement is a huge part of human life. It, like suggestion, is present in her from childhood in the process of education and gaining life experience.

  EXAMPLE: Examples of reinforcement are all around us at every turn: if you dip your hand into boiling water or try to touch the fire, you will certainly get burned - this is a negative elemental reinforcement. The dog, following some command, receives a treat and repeats it with pleasure - a positive intentional reinforcement. A child who received a deuce at school will be punished at home, and he will try not to bring more deuces, because if he does, he will be punished again - one-time / systematic negative reinforcement. The bodybuilder knows that only regular training will give the result - systematic positive reinforcement.

  Psychological consultation

  Psychological consultation- this is, as a rule, a one-time conversation between a psychologist and a client, orienting him in the current life situation. It implies a quick start of work, because. the client does not need any special preparation and the specialist together with him can understand the circumstances and outline steps to achieve the desired result.

  The main problems for which people seek the advice of a psychologist are:

  • Relationships - jealousy, infidelity, communication difficulties, parenting;
  • Individual problems - health, bad luck, self-organization;
  • Work - dismissal, intolerance to criticism, low wages.

  Psychological consultation consists of several stages:

  • Contact;
  • Inquiry;
  • Plan;
  • Setting up for work;
  • Implementation;
  • Hometasks;
  • Completion.

  The method of psychological consultation, like any other method of psychology, consists of a combination of both theoretical and practical research methods. Today, there are various variations and types of consultations. Turning to a psychologist for help can be a solution to many life problems and a way out of difficult situations.

  EXAMPLE: The impetus for resorting to psychological counseling can be absolutely any situation in life, with the solution of which a person cannot cope on his own. This is the occurrence of problems at work, and troubles in family relationships, depression, loss of interest in life, inability to get rid of bad habits, disharmony, struggle with oneself and many other reasons. Therefore, if you feel that you have been overcome and disturbed by some obsessive thoughts or states for a long period of time and you understand that you cannot cope with this alone, and there is no one nearby who could support, then without a shadow of a doubt and hesitation, seek help from a specialist. Today, there are a huge number of offices, clinics and psychological assistance centers where experienced highly qualified psychologists provide their services.

  This concludes the consideration of the classification of the main methods of psychology. Other (auxiliary) methods include: the method of experimental psychological tests, the method of explanation and training, training, coaching, business and role-playing games, counseling, the method of correcting behavior and condition, the method of transforming living and working space, and many others.

  Any mental process must be considered by psychological science as it is in reality. And this implies its study in close relationship with the surrounding world and the external conditions in which a person lives, because they are reflected in his psyche. Just as the reality surrounding us is in constant motion and change, so its reflection in the human psyche cannot be unchanged. In order to learn to more deeply understand the features of the inner world of a person, and the essence of things in general, one should also come to the realization of the fact that one of the foundations of this understanding is precisely human psychology.

  Now in the public domain there is an incalculable amount of materials for the study of psychological science and its features. In order for you not to get lost in all this diversity and know where to start studying, we suggest that you familiarize yourself with the works of such authors as A. G. Maklakov, S. L. Rubinshtein, Yu. B. Gippenreiter, A. V. Petrovsky, N. A. Rybnikov, S. Buhler, B. G. Ananiev, N.A. Loginova. And right now you can watch an interesting video on the topic of psychology methods:

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