Report about mushrooms for children. The most interesting facts about mushrooms. Interesting mushrooms of the world How to write a message about mushrooms

Mushrooms are considered edible, which a person can eat without risk to health and life. Some believe that if an animal eats a mushroom, then a person can. This is mistake. Not all mushrooms eaten by wild animals are harmless to humans. Even good mushrooms are difficult for humans to digest due to their high chitin content. This product is not recommended for small children.

Edible specimens are found throughout the world. Only in Russia there are more than 200 species. They grow most often in forests. The collection process is called "silent hunting". The most desirable white mushroom for any mushroom picker. It is also called a boletus. Some edible mushrooms are grown commercially:

• Champignon,
• oyster mushrooms,
• honey mushrooms,
• shiitake.

There are tips for growing ordinary forest mushrooms in your country house.

Edible mushrooms are divided into tubular and lamellar. The tubular ones have a layer under the cap, which consists of many small tubes and looks like a sponge. The lamellar ones have thin plates under the cap. The tubular edible mushrooms include: boletus, boletus, boletus, boletus, moss, boletus. There are more lamellar ones: chanterelles, honey mushrooms, russula, pigs, milk mushrooms, rows, volzhanka, smoothies, mushrooms, etc.

There are cases of poisoning with edible mushrooms. This is due to the fact that people eat overgrown options or they are collected in ecologically dirty areas: near roads, factories, in landfills. There are also conditionally edible mushrooms. These include: morels, lines, pigs. To avoid cases of poisoning, experienced mushroom pickers give advice:

1. Collect only familiar mushrooms.
2. Before use, you need to review the collected specimens again.
3. Do not try raw mushrooms.
4. In lamellar, you need to pay attention to the membranous ring - a sign of toxicity.

Among edible mushrooms there is a real delicacy - truffle. This mushroom is unusual in that it grows underground, and outwardly it resembles a potato tuber. Price for 1 kg. truffles can reach up to 8-10 thousand dollars.

Careful collection and proper preparation of edible mushrooms will avoid poisoning and enjoy the good taste of the product.

Report 2

A variety of mushrooms grow in our forests. Among them there are those that are of great value, but there are also very dangerous ones that are best avoided. For the right choice, you need to understand the main differences between edible, inedible and poisonous mushrooms.

Edible mushrooms are popularly called "forest meat", for the reason that they are rich in protein and carbohydrates, and they also contain many trace elements of potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium and B vitamins.

For edible mushrooms, the most reliable indicator can be called a spongy hat.

With all the variety of poisonous mushrooms, these are rare. Most often it is a satanic mushroom, which really looks like a boletus. But the white mushroom can be distinguished from the “doubles” by the hat: it has a pleasant beige color, while the poisonous hat stands out in brown or red, in addition, if you break the hat, a difference immediately appears: the boletus will retain the color, but the satanic mushroom turns blue. All other false mushrooms mainly have lamellar caps.

Poisonous mushrooms are the cause of the most severe poisoning, and can even cause death. The main problem is that there are no common features that can identify all mushrooms. Of course, the usual bright red fly agaric is familiar to everyone. But most poisonous mushrooms come in a wide variety of colors and are often disguised as edible mushrooms, which requires other methods of identifying them. The most recognizable criterion for toadstools and fly agaric will be the base of the stem of the fungus, which can be compared to the "pot" from which the mushroom grows.

Conditionally edible mushrooms do not always cause poisoning, but can harm the body. They can be safely added to food, mainly after long soaking (up to several days) and subsequent boiling for at least 40 minutes in salt water. Only then can they be considered edible. In addition to all of the above, it is important to remember the possibility of poisoning with edible mushrooms if they are not processed in time or stored in an inappropriate place.

Since there are much more false mushrooms than edible ones and they are well camouflaged, when going to the forest it is advisable to take only those mushrooms that you know for sure, and not risk collecting unknown mushrooms (even if you like them or seem familiar).

Option 3

Mushrooms are a unique creation of nature. They cannot be attributed to either plants or animals. And they can grow everywhere: in a temperate climate, in the tropics, in the Far North, and recently even in the Sahara desert, scientists were able to find 28 species of mushrooms!

Conditional classification

Mushrooms are divided:

Inedible, they are poisonous, it is forbidden to eat them, otherwise a person can suffer greatly, up to fatal poisoning.

Conditionally edible, they are poisonous or have a pungent taste when raw, but edible when cooked.

Edible that can be eaten.

Let's take a closer look at edible mushrooms.

Since ancient times, people have eaten mushrooms. It is believed that this is a valuable source of trace elements necessary for the human body. And today, some mushrooms are even considered a delicacy and are served in the most prestigious restaurants around the world. There are several thousand species of mushrooms in the world. None of the scientists will undertake to name the exact figure, only an approximate number - from 100 thousand to 1.5 million. And there are much fewer edible species - only a few thousand. The order of the numbers may also differ due to different classifications. Usually, when they talk about edible mushrooms, they mean forest or industrially grown ones. Although there are, for example, microscopic fungi, with the help of which drinks are obtained by fermentation (kefir, koumiss). Yeast fungi are familiar to everyone - for bakery products, mold cultures are used to make special varieties of cheese (the famous brands of Camembert, Roquefort and Dor Blue cheeses with mold).

But the most famous mushrooms are still those that are collected in the forest. "Mushroom hunting" is a popular hobby in many countries around the world. The most active lovers of this activity can harvest several hundred kilograms per season!

Forest mushrooms are usually divided into the following:

Lamellar (stripes stand out on the back of the cap). These are, for example, milk mushrooms, mushrooms, russula, chanterelles.

Tubular (the pulp of the mushroom on the reverse side resembles a sponge). These include white, boletus, boletus and others.

marsupials. Bright representatives are truffles, morels, lines.

Any mushrooms are rich in protein, minerals (potassium, calcium, chlorine, sodium, phosphorus and others), but not everyone knows that mushrooms also contain vitamins A, C, D and PP and enzymes - substances that help speed up the digestion of food. However, many species can cause allergies in people, so you should be very careful when trying cooked dishes with edible, but unfamiliar mushrooms.

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Project

"Mushroom Kingdom"

completed by the students

5E class

2014-2015 academic year

Goals:

familiarity with various types of edible and poisonous mushrooms;

development of logical thinking, speech, memory;

education of love and respect for nature;

develop students' horizons.

Tasks:

acquaint with the distinctive features of edible mushrooms and fungi-

twins;

show the danger to human life posed by poisonous

mushrooms;

together with the guys to deduce the rules for picking mushrooms;

contribute to the expansion of the horizons of children and the development of skills

establish causal relationships; ability to work with

additional material

promote respect for nature.

After completing the project, students will be able to:

Know the secrets of poisonous mushrooms;

Features of the structure of fungi;

Edible and non-edible mushrooms;

Collection and storage rules;

First aid for mushroom poisoning;

To be able to highlight the signs of fungi, to distinguish them from other kingdoms of wildlife;

Learn to distinguish edible mushrooms from non-edible mushrooms.

Hypothesis:

Are all mushrooms

useful to humans?

Content:

Introduction

Montage about mushrooms

The structure of the fungus

edible mushrooms

Ditties about mushrooms

Poisonous (inedible) mushrooms

Scene "Presidential elections"

Mushrooms in our area

Mushrooms in folk medicine

Mushroom picking rules

folk wisdom

Mushroom dishes

Games

Conclusion. Conclusion.

Introduction

White, boletus, mushrooms ... This list can be continued for a long time,

but try to answer the question: how many types of mushrooms are there?

It turns out that there are about a hundred thousand different species, but many of

they cannot be seen with the naked eye. Mushrooms are amazing

creatures, because they can not be called either plants or animals. They

form a special independent kingdom and occupy an intermediate

position between animals and plants.

Mycologists study mushrooms. They established that the most important

signs of fungi are that which is characteristic of an individual animal

and plant kingdoms. Mushrooms grow everywhere, but most often on the ground,

forest floor, on rotting or living wood. Rarely do they meet

on garbage or manure heaps and on the site of fires.

Mushrooms need the right temperature and humidity to grow.

Observations show that the fungus grows well in calm, calm conditions.

weather, light is not so important for them. The body of fungi or mycelium, being in

soil or other nutrient medium, grows in all directions.

The lifespan of mushrooms varies from one to several years.

decades.

In nature, fungi perform the most important function: they eliminate

remains of dead animals and plants. It encourages circulation

substances in nature. A person uses the beneficial properties of mushrooms in

various areas of industry. In the food industry

yeasts and molds are used. In medicine from some mushrooms

manufacture antibiotics. Man from time immemorial began to collect

mushrooms, which brings him pleasure and joy. And also delivers to him

the table is a tasty and nutritious product. Unfortunately mushrooms are not

not only a source of joy, but also of sorrow. Lately we've been hearing about

frequent cases of poisoning by certain types of mushrooms. The consequences are very

sad, there are cases of death. Therefore, we have chosen this

topic of the project to get acquainted with a variety of mushrooms, learn

distinguish edible from poisonous mushrooms.

Mushrooms have long been known in Russia. In the old days they were called lips for

convex sponge caps. Fried, boiled, salted mushrooms did not go

from the table on weekdays and holidays, in winter and summer.

Mushrooms can be found in a variety of places - in fresh and

sea ​​water, in the field and garden, in the meadow and in the mountains. Among them are

microscopic species, there are also giants. For example, in 1988 in Japan

a mushroom of incredible size was found. He couldn't fit in any

box truck, and a truck was required for delivery. When the giant was weighed

surprised even more - he pulled 168 kg.

Mushrooms that grow in the forests of our country have

useful properties. They are often called forest meat, they are quite

nutritious. Equally important are the presence of fats, carbohydrates, vitamins,

mineral salts.

Montage about mushrooms

Our teacher entered the classroom

And he asked slyly:

– What do we know about mushrooms?

– What are they needed for?

If the mushroom grows in the forest,

If it's edible

Everyone knows that his

Can be put in a bucket.

And when I come home

Let's cook mushroom soup together.

In a red hat with a white leg

Fly agaric grows in a bush.

Just don't tear it

Save it for the moose.

If animals are studied by biologists,

And botanical plants

Then mycologists were found for mushrooms,

Studying their diversity.

But in nature there are mushrooms

Various shapes, colorful

Others are not visible.

So why are they needed?

A) The mushroom is useful, very important.

In Vietnam, for example, soybeans are prepared using mold fungi.

sauces.

B) In medicine, penicillin is used - obtained thanks to the fungus

Penicillin.

C) Some mushrooms help fight insects.

D) Mushrooms - yeast is used in baking.

But not all mushrooms

So good.

And, of course, you need to know

What harm can we expect from them.

Mushroom can harm in the garden.

Can hurt the book

Kill the plant

Due to inattention

Make a person sick.

We didn't speak for long.

We don't want to bore you.

Can't list all the mushrooms

After all, mushrooms are everywhere with us.

We must protect and study them.

We'll tell you a secret

It wasn't easy for all of us.

We have read many books

We learned about mushrooms.

You take a look

You won't regret it either.

The structure of the fungus and its mycelium.

With the help of the drawing, we showed all parts of the fungus and its mycelium.

edible mushrooms

Where do mushrooms grow?

Mushrooms grow everywhere: in forests and meadows, in gardens and parks, under

hedges and bushes. They can be found at the very edge of the forest.

high in the mountains and in the lowlands, in the river valleys. They follow the man

and to cities and industrial centers, settling on tiny green

areas in the middle of city streets and squares, on garbage heaps or

factory areas, penetrating even into mountain mines. listing of places,

where mushrooms are found, one can continue indefinitely. end of summer and

autumn is the main season for mushrooms, when the number of their species and types

becomes almost invisible. Late autumn also brings

good harvest.

On the growth of mushrooms - both in relation to the period and in relation to them

quantities - factors such as humidity have a decisive influence

and temperature.

oyster mushroom feels at home in any deciduous forest. With a special

hunting, she settles on dead dead treesoyster mushroom more often

found on poplars, willows and larches. Probably the number of these mushrooms

not far from those farms,where they are bred as "vegetable veal",

constantly increases with the assistance of the wind.

Hat atporcini mushroom (boletus) brown and the stem is off-white.

Butporcini mushrooms (porcini mushrooms) always remain white - both in the pan and in

soup and dried. That's why they're white. The stem of the mushroom is thick. That's why

he looks important, saturated. Scientists identify about two dozen

varieties of this fungus.

Mushrooms in our area

boletus

Milk mushrooms

Russula

pigs

Honey mushrooms

blue legs

Volnushki

Oilers

Ditties about mushrooms

Put your ears on top

Listen carefully:

Let's sing ditties about mushrooms

Very good.

– How old are you, freak?

You look like an old man.

The fungus surprised me:

– My age is only two days.

And in the basket we have

Everything you need in mushroom soup:

And mushrooms, and butterflies,

There is also a golden gingerbread.

Multicolored grebes

They climb into the fields.

We don't need one

Let's bypass them.

bug-eyed fly agaric

Sideways sat on the slope -

Looks, smiles,

Wants to please everyone.

We are not called "chanterelles" for nothing -

We are crafty sisters:

old yellow foliage

We covered our heads.

There are edible mushrooms

There are also poisonous ones.

We need edible -

We are fans of them.

We sang ditties to you,

Enlightened you for an hour.

And now - grab the bows,

For mushrooms all in the woods!

The most dangerous poisonous mushrooms

A student reads a poem

Mushroom deceit is known among the people?

Twin mushrooms exist in nature.

Be careful when going into the forest, do not forget:

A mistake will end your life.

Learn poisonous mushrooms, know

Recognize them unmistakably in the forest.

We must always remember that in addition to joy, mushrooms can also bring grief.

Poisoning most often occurs when a person does not know how to

recognize mushrooms or does it casually. poisonous mushrooms that

cause fatal or severe poisoning not so many

compared to edible or harmless mushrooms. So who wants

pick mushrooms for food, must learn to recognize at least 20-25

types of poisonous mushrooms that can cause dangerous poisoning.

So that picking mushrooms brings us joy and we would not be afraid for our own

health, it is always better to collect only a few types of mushrooms for food,

which we know well. It is very risky to collect those mushrooms in which

we are not sure. The pursuit of quantity can be fatal for many

mushroom pickers. Unfortunately, practical recommendations on how to distinguish

there is no edible mushroom from a poisonous one. In the past there was

the belief that a silver utensil or bow is in contact with

poisonous mushrooms turn black, but this is not true. And it is also not true that

all poisonous mushrooms pinch the tongue and have a bitter taste and an unpleasant odor.

On the contrary, the most dangerous poisonous mushrooms, such as pale grebe,

fly agaric have no smell and taste. It is also not true that mushrooms

which gnaw on snails and eat insect larvae are not poisonous.

The most poisonous mushroom is the pale grebe and two similar ones.

species - white fly agaric and smelly fly agaric.

These three species are most often the culprits of fatal poisoning.

Pale grebe causes the most poisoning, as it is the most

common species of poisonous mushrooms.

Poisoning with a pale grebe is very dangerous already because its first

Symptoms appear only 8-72 hours after eating mushrooms in

food. In case of poisoning, nausea, weakness, headache,

dizziness and cold sweat breaks out. Then there is severe vomiting.

and diarrhea that lasts 2-3 days and is completely exhausting

sick. After seeming improvement after a few hours

there are severe pains in the stomach and intestines, the skin turns yellow,

the person loses consciousness and death occurs. In mild cases, the patient

recovers very slowly and the effects of poisoning make themselves felt

for a very long time, often until the end of life.

A much milder poisoning causes fly agaric red and related

He is a fly agaric royal. However, fly agaric poisoning is very

are rare, as almost everyone knows and shuns him. Moderately poisonous

are fly agaric bright yellow and fly agaric porphyry.

Strongly poisonous is the poisonous rosacea. signs

poisoning appears after 20-30 minutes, at the latest after 2-4

hours.

The patient begins vomiting and severe diarrhea, there are pains in the stomach and

headaches, feeling of thirst and severe weakness. With lungs

poisoning, these concomitant symptoms gradually disappear, but

completely disappear after a few days. At higher concentration

rosovolastinnik poisonous can cause death.

Of the cobwebs, the orange-red cobweb is very poisonous.

The first signs of poisoning with this fungus usually appear very late.

(after 3-14 days). Toxic substances of the orange-red cobweb,

primarily affects the kidneys and liver. The first signs of poisoning

are intense thirst, dryness and burning sensation in the mouth. Then comes

nausea, vomiting, headache and abdominal pain, constipation and chills.

Signs of poisoning become more intense and death occurs

after 2-3 weeks, sometimes even after a few months. With lungs

poisoning, the treatment of the patient lasts a very long time, from several weeks to

several months.

Sulfur yellow poisoning may have more serious

consequences.

A few years ago, a thin pig was added to the list of poisonous mushrooms,

which in the mycological literature was cited as an edible mushroom. WITH

1963, there were many poisonings with a thin pig and scientists

found that frequent consumption of this mushroom causes

destruction of red blood cells.

The common puffball is poisonous only if

when consumed in large quantities. And if you eat only two or

three slices, nothing will happen.

Poisoning can also be caused by known edible mushroom species, if for

cooking use old fruiting bodies that have been

found in the forest already spoiled.

For any signs of mushroom poisoning, it is necessary to immediately

or call a doctor. But even before the doctor comes, you need to

the patient to induce vomiting to get rid of the food that caused the poisoning.

To do this, you need to drink plenty of warm water. After

vomiting should take a laxative, such as castor oil or

put an enema.

The most dangerous of the poisonous mushrooms is the pale grebe. She looks like

champignon. But champignons have pink plates, with age

purple, and the toadstool is pure white. On top, the cap of a pale toadstool

greenish. It is almost impossible to save a person who has been poisoned by it.

Scene about mushrooms

The scene “The conversation of mushrooms. Presidential Elections »

Once in the Podbiryozovaya Republic, they decided to choose mushrooms for themselves

president

Vedas.

Once a red fly agaric

Boasted in front of the mushrooms:

fly agaric

After all, I alone decorate the forest,

And everyone knows this very well.

How smart I am!

And my hat, well, just a dream!

They tell me "You are a fly agaric

Among mushrooms toadstool "

But I'm proud of my beauty

And a red hat.

Vedas.

I heard you kill flies

And you feed the moose in the forest

I know, I know it's nice

Yes, you don’t go to the basket.

There is little use in your outfit

You are a good-looking father

But you are very venomous

Mukh-r.

Silence! forest people

I am taking self-withdrawal.

Honey mushrooms

And we are honey mushrooms - very friendly guys

We grow on stumps in the forest

Like freckles on your nose

Vedas.

You and summer and autumn

Meat you are even healthier

You are boiled, salted, fried

And in any dinner they praise

Honey mushrooms

Well, of course us guys

Too early for the presidency

We are all together as soldiers

Then we go to the deputies

Toadstool

I'm a pale toadstool

Besides, she's not poor.

I'm not used to being liked. Whoever eats me will get poisoned.

Vedas.

You are thin, slim, dressed

At the same time you are full of poison

Toadstool

That I don't suit you?

I'm going to fly agaric

Chanterelle

The people are surprised

Lead a wonderful round dance

Redhead sisters

That chanterelle mushrooms

Vedas

Of the fox breed

Cunning you are by nature

Chanterelle

No, now I understand everything

I withdraw my candidacy

Volnushka

At the wave on top

With red curls.

Modestly hid behind a bump,

Hiding the crown under the leaf.

Beware the forest people

Volnushka is coming to the presidency

Vedas

If you are in the forest

To scold and worry everyone

You can't be president

Waves

No, I'm a redhead

I'd rather jump in the box

boletus

I am a boletus

I grow under the aspens

boletus

I'm a fungus

Grow in a birch grove

boletus

What do you want for the presidency

I won't go, I don't want

I am also not used to

Let the boletus become president

Borovik

I am a white mushroom, I am a boletus,

I am accustomed to rule in the forest.

And I was the king of mushrooms.

Apparently it's my turn

I will be the first president.

Well folks, I agree!

Vedas

Old, important boletus

The most important lumberjack.

And mushrooms all around

Give white bow.

Mushrooms in medicine

People have always tried to find a universal remedy that

will help to cope with all diseases. One of thesefunds can

become medicines derived from mushrooms. Mushrooms haveimportant

importance in medicine. Even in ancient times they beganapply in

folk medicine along with herbs, fruits and berries.

People who were popularly called healers accumulated their knowledge in

areas of healing, passed them on by inheritance, keeping a secret from

outsiders. When writing appeared in Rus', a big role

handwritten "Herbs" were played. They contain interesting information about

various means and methods of healing. In folk medicine, quite

widely usedfly agaric . They prevent cancer from developing

tumors, they treat tonsillitis, rheumatism, tuberculosis, skin diseases,

tincture rub the joints.

In folk medicine, other hat mushrooms were also used.

For example,

brick red and sulfur yellow recommended as

laxative and emetic.

Pepper load treated for tuberculosis.

Used in folk medicineautumn honey agaric . This mushroom is used

as a laxative, it helps in better digestion of food.

Widely used in folk medicinedecoction of chaga . Chaga decoction improves

condition of patients, promotes the treatment of gastritis and other diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, treats cancer, tuberculosis, stops

bleeding.

From mushroomcamelina got a good medicine that slows down

development of harmful bacteria.

Mushroomtalker used in medicine for the treatment of tuberculosis

skin and bones.

Medicine derived from mushroomschanterelles , can treat purulent

diseases, blood poisoning.

Honey agaric meadow proved to be useful in the fight against E. coli and

other microbes, treats the thyroid gland

Frommushrooms A new drug has been developed that has been successfully used

for the treatment of typhoid, paratyphoid.

Widely popular among the peopletea mushroom .

The peoples of many countries of the world contain it at home. Infusion

this mushroom is drunk before meals to stimulate appetite or satisfy

thirst throughout the day. medicine received fromwhite fungus

promotes rapid healing from frostbite, reduces pain during

heart disease.

Atbutter found a substance that helps with headaches.

However, self-treatment is not recommended, it is necessary

first consult with your doctor.

Mushroom rules.

We must firmly remember these rules

In the forest for mushrooms you need to go in comfortable clothes and shoes - a walk

should give you pleasure.

Collect only those mushrooms that you know well. If

If in doubt, consult with experts. And if a specialist

near no, do not take a dubious mushroom.

You can not pick mushrooms in the city, and outside the city along highways

Do not take old overripe mushrooms. Even in edible mushrooms,

boletus can breed poisonous to humans

microorganisms.

Don't put your "booty" in plastic bags! mushrooms in them

bend and break. In addition, the temperature inside the bag is

so high that mushrooms "suffocate and spoil."

You need to process mushrooms as soon as you return home from the forest.

Otherwise, in a few hours, the mushrooms will have time to worm.

Mushrooms are best cut with a knife. But you can also carefully twist out of

earth. The main thing is not to stir, not to rake the moss under the “root”, dry

leaves, needles, do not destroy the mycelium.

Fly agaric and grebes do not knock down, do not trample underfoot.

Carefully cut the mushroom with a sharp knife.

Do not touch unfamiliar and inedible mushrooms.

Do not turn over dry leaves and moss.

Don't pick mushrooms you don't know.

Do not knock down or trample on inedible mushrooms.

Do not pick those mushrooms, in the edibility of which there is even the slightest

doubt. Keep updating your knowledge of mushrooms.

Games

Game "Edible - inedible"

The leader throws the ball, calling the mushrooms. If the mushroom is not edible, then

the player must hit the ball, and if edible, catch the ball.

Oiler, breast, pale grebe, boletus, boletus, boletus,

fly agaric, ginger, volnushka, false honey agaric, champignon, chanterelles,

honey agaric

Game "Collect mushrooms"

The driver is blindfolded. Mushroom children run around behind. If you get caught

fly agaric, the children shout: "Do not take it!" The winner is the one who for a certain

time will "gather" the most "mushrooms".

Mushroom box game.

Teams receive a "basket" - a package for "picking mushrooms", where

there is a card with syllables:

NUSH - IK - KA - IN - PE - MOK - VOL - OV - O

and 8 clean sheets.

The teacher reads the condition of the game:

Along the path at full speed

A rooster flies through the forest.

He shouts: “Ku-ka-re-ku!

Honor and glory to the mushroom picker!

I filled my body

And I'm running home."

A hedgehog shouted from under the tree:

“You will shake all the mushrooms!”

The hedgehog is right - at the rooster

There is one rubbish in the box:

KA - RO - MAS - LE - SY - EZH - VIC

NOK - UNDER - AXIS - VIK - RY - KA - ZhIK

KA - SICH - LI - UNDER - RE - BE - ZO - NO

NUSH - IK - KA - IN - PE - MOK - VOL - OV - O.

Connect the stems and caps of the mushrooms together. Don't be surprised if you don't find

them nearby: they can be at the bottom of the basket or lie on top. Who is faster

fill your box with mushrooms? "Mushrooms" are syllables that follow

"collect" the names of mushrooms.

Each group "stacks the mushrooms" into their box for two minutes and

gives it to the teacher. (Oiler, boletus, volnushka, russula,

boletus, camelina, honey agaric, chanterelle.) Dishes from mushrooms Games

The game "Connoisseurs of Proverbs"

The text of the proverb is cut. Who will quickly collect and explain the meaning:

Fungus to fungus - you will pick up a basket.

Game "Nimble mushroom pickers"

Mushrooms are placed on the floor, there are fewer of them than the participants in the game. Children

dance to the music. When the music ends, every player rushes

pick mushroom. Whoever is left without a fungus is out of the game.

Put the fungus on the floor.

Show yourself in dance.

The music will stop playing

The mushroom must be taken quickly.

The game "Blind Man's Buff with Mushroom"

The players become in a circle. One of them has a bell mushroom. driving

should identify this player by sound.

Puzzles

Let's take baskets

Let's go to the forest, friend,

Mushrooms we are now

We will certainly find

"Say a word"

Fun at heart

And sadness goes away

When in your basket

Got the first one...(breast )

Under the fallen leaves

Mushrooms hid together.

These are sly sisters.

These are yellow...chanterelles )

Among the young pines

A wonderful mushroom grows ... (oiler )

Our hats are like rings,

Like waves on a river.

Russula we are girlfriends,

We are called mushrooms ... (waves )

Huddled together like chickens

Hemp has mushrooms ... (honey mushrooms )

1. I stand on a smooth thick leg

Under the brown hat

With soft velvet liningWhite mushroom )

2. This mushroom is elegant

Grows next to an aspen

Put on the head

Bright red beret. (boletus )

3. It's a fungus -

Birches son.

Who will find him

Everyone puts in a basket (boletus )

4. Yellow-red sisters,

They magnify us ... (chanterelles )

5. Here is a bright red mushroom,

You have learned. This… (saffron milk cap )

6. Near the stumps and on the lawn

We always walk in a flock.

Very friendly guys

They call us ... (honey mushrooms )

7. Strong little fungus,

Oily like a pancake. (boletus )

8. And I'm the most common mushroom.

You can meet me in almost every forest.

My plate hats are pinkish,

Burgundy, greenish.(Russula )

This mushroom is familiar to all of us:

With lace collar

He stands on a white leg,

Among the grass along the path.

Bright red panama

In white fashionable peas ...

I plucked it for my mom

But she said, “Oh!

Though your mushroom looks beautiful

But for us it is poisonous!” (fly agaric )

Here in the grass are conspicuous

Multicolored hats.

Remember their name

But don't eat it raw! (Russula )

Very friendly guys

They live near the stump ... (Honey mushrooms )

white panama,

Pale… (Toadstool )

King of mushrooms on a thick leg

The best for the basket.

He holds his head boldly

Because he is a mushroom ... (White )

Under the pine at the edge

Preyut red tops.

In fragrant moss two braids

They hide the cunning ... (Chanterelles )

Proverbs about mushrooms

Beans are not mushrooms: without sowing, they will not sprout.

To be afraid of wolves, to be without mushrooms.

There will be rain, there will be fungi; and there will be fungi, there will be boxfish.

Near the forest to live - not to be hungry

They take every mushroom in their hands, but not every mushroom is put in the back.

A torn mushroom is forever dead, cut under the root - gives offspring a bag.

Forest pharmacy

Fly agaric is a beautiful mushroom, only very poisonous

Moose only eat it and talk at the same time

There is no more reliable medicine, ate and no temperature

Treats whooping cough and bronchitis, ate and the throat does not hurt

Fly agaric is a medicinal mushroom, it is not poisonous to us.

.

Quiz questions .

What forest dweller dries mushrooms on trees? (Squirrel)

-Name the mushrooms, by the name of which one can judge their place

growth. (boletus, boletus, podtopolnik)

For which forest dweller is fly agaric a medicine? (for moose)

Which mushroom is the most poisonous? (Death cap)

What are the first mushrooms to appear in our forests? (Spring

lines and morels appear)

List the uses of mushrooms for food. (Dry, fry, boil,

salted, marinated)

What are mushrooms that come in different colors called? (Russula)

-Does the squirrel eat fresh mushrooms? (No)

- The appearance of which mushrooms marks the end of summer? (Again)

- What weather foreshadows the harvest of mushrooms? (rainy)

About the benefits of mushrooms

Mushrooms contain proteins (more than 5% of the mass of mushrooms), fats (about 1%),

carbohydrates (3%), as well as macro- and microelements necessary for a person -

potassium, calcium, zinc, copper, iron, cobalt.

Calcium contained in mushrooms, the daily requirement for which is -

120mg, is a universal regulator of vital activity in

in combination with phosphorus, it is found in bones and teeth.

Fresh mushrooms also contain fat-soluble vitamins A and

D, vitamins of group B, ascorbic (vitamin C) and nicotinic (vitamin

PP) acid.

Mushrooms are also used for medicinal purposes, in scientific medicine it is good

the importance of penicillin and other antibiotics contained in mushrooms is known,

for the treatment of infectious diseases. Kombucha having

anti-inflammatory and anesthetic properties, widely used

in oriental medicine. In folk medicine for the treatment of diseases

nervous system uses fly agaric, alcoholism - dung beetle, radiation

leukopenia and tumors - birch fungus chaga other fungi

The edible plant also has antitumor and tonic properties.

white mushroom (boletus), better known for its taste properties. His

called the king of mushrooms. Properly harvesting and processing mushrooms,

they can be used all year round.

About the dangers of mushrooms

At the same time, physicians are increasingly recording mushroom poisoning.

Reasons - inability to distinguish between edible and inedible mushrooms, purchase

mushrooms on the spontaneous market, lack of information on the impact of the global

human activity on the biochemical and species composition of fungi, etc.

Often they collect mushrooms, destroying the mycelium. Overripe, wormy and

softened mushrooms are not suitable for food, because. may cause

gastrointestinal diseases. At the same time, they are the source

spores that renew mycelium.

It is important to remember that after cutting the mushroom, it should be done as soon as possible.

recycle, because after 3-5 hours due to the beginning of the protein tissue of the body of the fungus at

at room temperature, it accumulates secondary metabolites. Mushrooms

can be stored in the cold for longer, but not more than a day after collection.

Mushrooms of edible species can accumulate toxic substances,

growing near major freeways with heavy traffic

transport, military ranges, chemical plants, zones

environmental disasters and in radiation hazardous areas, each

this situation requires special consideration.

Mushrooms are rich in proteins. This is the undoubted benefit of mushrooms. But protein

poorly absorbed and can cause "indigestion". This is harm. Mushrooms have

vitamins and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Of course, plus

piggy bank. We will not prove the harm of mushrooms that are poisonous. Evident

fact. Edible mushroom proteins can also cause allergies, which is not

the best effect on the health of the mushroom eater. In the same time,

due to the severity for digestion and low calorie content, mushrooms can

go on weight loss diets. Based on the above, one can

conclusion that mushrooms are useful, but you need to know certain rules for them

use. For example:

You need to know poisonous mushrooms and collect only the “right” ones. Like

would be a simple rule, but every year people end up in hospitals with

severe mushroom poisoning. There are even deaths

that this is not a joke, but a very real threat to life.

When used, it must be borne in mind that the protein of mushrooms is bad

digested before going to bed, hard work, sauna, etc. eat better

something lighter on the stomach.

It is also important to know the territory where you are going to hunt for

mushrooms. If it is contaminated, then the benefits and harms of mushrooms will be for you in

undesirable proportions

. Before cooking mushrooms, boil them 1-2 times a day.

clean water, pour the broth.

It is advisable for children under 5-7 years old not to eat mushrooms, however, as well as

older people due to the large load on the gastrointestinal tract.

Moose, hedgehogs, squirrels, mice feed on mushrooms in nature.

Always remember the main rule of the mushroom picker:

If you don't know, don't take it!

Conclusion. Conclusion

This is the end of our journey into the world of mushrooms. He is amazingly big.

and diverse. Today we visited only hat mushrooms,

but there are other types of fungi - molds. Each mushroom has its own

features, each one is amazing in its own way. And studying mushrooms is amazing

science - "mycology". And today each of you has become almost real

mycologist. I wish you continued success in learning mushroom

kingdoms.

Literature

Literature: magazine "Primary School" No. 7 1989.

Mazin V.V., Shashkova L.S. "Mushrooms, plants and people" - Moscow:

Agropromizdat, 1986

- p.208

Cherepanova N.P., Pshedetskaya L.I. "Mushrooms" - Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1990 - p.93

Mushrooms are one of the most unusual representatives of the living world of our planet, and for a long time scientists could not decide what type of organisms they should be classified as - plants or animals. As a result, it was decided to single out a separate type of organisms - the kingdom of fungi. We have compiled for you a selection of interesting facts about them that can cause surprise and admiration.

1. Armillaria ostoyae or Honey Mushroom is the largest living organism on the planet. Its mycelium covers an area of ​​2384 acres, in the Blue Mountains (Oregon, USA). The age of this mushroom is estimated at 2.5 thousand years.

2. In the Amazon rainforest, there are species of fungus whose spores rise high into the air, creating a surface for water to condense, and thus causing rain.

3. The most expensive mushrooms in the world are truffles - their cost at the moment is from 3 to 7 dollars per 1 gram, on average.

4. Panther fly agaric and pale grebe are the most poisonous mushrooms in the world - a cap of the latter is enough to poison 3-4 people. At the same time, no types of treatment eliminate the toxic effect.

5. One of the interesting properties of mushrooms is the production of vitamin D, which, like the human body, is activated by exposure to sunlight.

6. At least 144 types of mushrooms contain psychoactive substances that can cause hallucinogenic and other drug-like sensations in humans. Moreover, more than a hundred of them grow only in South America, in particular, in the Caribbean.

7. The oldest mushroom was found in 1859, in a fossil about 420 million years old.

8. Many mushrooms, like plants, grow towards the light, orienting themselves behind the sun. But scientists still do not understand exactly how and why these organisms use sunlight.

9. The walls of fungal spores contain chitin, the hardest biological substance on the planet.

10. Under favorable conditions, the spores of some fungi can be in a state of "rest" for decades and even centuries, while maintaining the ability to germinate.

11. The viability of mushrooms can surprise everyone - some of their species are able to withstand all possible types of radiation, and in 2002, the mycelium was found even inside the destroyed reactor at Chernobyl.

12. Some types of fungi produce antibiotics that destroy microorganisms that compete with them for access to nutrients.

13. 350 million years ago, on the territory of present-day Saudi Arabia, mushrooms grew, the height of which reached 8-10 meters!

14. About 70% of all mushrooms supplied for sale in the world are grown in China.

15. Common Veselka is the fastest growing type of mushroom. Although they live only about two days, their growth rate can reach 5 mm per hour.

16. Tinder fungi growing on tree trunks can live up to 80 years.

17. Mushrooms are a valuable source of protein, and at the same time, contain almost zero amount of cholesterol.

The world of mushrooms holds many secrets, and it is quite possible that new interesting discoveries await us soon.

Kingdom Mushrooms

General characteristics. Mushrooms are a kingdom of living organisms that combine the characteristics of plants and animals.

Brings them closer to plants. 1) the presence of a well-defined cell wall; 2) immobility in a vegetative state; 3) reproduction by spores; 4) the ability to synthesize vitamins; 5) absorption of food by absorption (adsorption). Common with animals is: 1) heterotrophy; 2) the presence of chitin in the cell wall, which is characteristic of the external skeleton of arthropods; 3) the absence of chloroplasts and photosynthetic pigments in cells; 4) accumulation of glycogen as a reserve substance; 5) formation and excretion of a metabolic product - urea. These features of the structure and vital activity of fungi allow us to consider them one of the most ancient groups of eukaryotic organisms that do not have a direct evolutionary relationship with plants, as previously thought. Mushrooms and plants arose independently of the different forms of microorganisms that lived in the water.

More than 100 thousand species of fungi are known, and it is assumed that their real number is much larger - 250-300 thousand or more. More than a thousand new species are described worldwide each year. The vast majority of them live on land, and they are found almost everywhere where life can exist. It is estimated that 78-90% of the biomass of all microorganisms in the forest litter is accounted for by the fungal mass (approximately 5 t/ha).

The structure of mushrooms. The vegetative body of the vast majority of fungal species is mycelium, or mycelium, consisting of thin colorless (sometimes slightly colored) threads, or hyphae, with unlimited growth and lateral branching.

The mycelium usually differentiates into two functionally distinct parts: substrate, serving to attach to the substrate, absorb and transport water and substances dissolved in it, and air, rising above the substrate and forming reproductive organs.

Reproduction. Fungi reproduce asexually and sexually. Asexual reproduction occurs in parts of the mycelium or individual cells that give rise to a new mycelium. Yeast fungi reproduce by budding.

Asexual reproduction can also be carried out through endo- and exogenous spores. Endogenous spores are formed by intraspecialized cells - in sporangia. Exogenous spores, or conidia, arise openly at the ends of special specialized outgrowths of the mycelium, called conidiophores. Once in favorable conditions, the spore germinates, and a new mycelium is formed from it.

Sexual reproduction in fungi is especially diverse. In some groups of fungi, the sexual process occurs by merging the contents of two cells at the ends of the hyphae. In marsupial fungi, there is a fusion of the contents of the antheridium and the female organ of sexual reproduction (archegonium), undifferentiated into gametes, and in basidiomycetes, a fusion of the contents of two vegetative cells, in which outgrowths, or anastomoses, often form between them.

TO saprotrophs includes most hat and mold fungi, as well as yeast. A feature of saprotrophic fungi is that a single fungus can form a mycelium in a day with a total length of more than a kilometer of hyphae. (The length of fungal hyphae in 1 g of dry soil of a deciduous forest is about 400 m, and in 1 g of humus [under the litter] 4 -8 km.) Such a rapid growth and filamentous structure of the mycelium determines a special type of relationship between fungi and the environment, which is not characteristic of other groups of eukaryotic organisms. An extensive system of branching hyphae allows them to be in close contact with the substrate. Almost all mycelium cells are separated from the substratum by only a thin cell wall. Digestive enzymes secreted by fungi act very quickly on the substrate material and contribute to its partial digestion outside the fungal cell. Such semi-digested material is then absorbed by the entire surface of the cell.

cap mushrooms live on humus-rich forest soil, in fields and meadows, there are rotting wood (summer and winter honey agarics, oyster mushrooms).

In the process of their development, sporulation organs are formed on the mycelium - fruit bodies, consisting of a stem and a cap. The leg and cap are formed by dense bundles of hyphae. Two layers can be distinguished in the cap: a dense upper, often colored, covered with skin, and a lower one. In some lamellar mushrooms, the lower layer of the cap consists of radially arranged plates (in russula, mushrooms, champignons, pale grebe). In white fungus, boletus, boletus, butterdish, it consists of numerous tubes, which is why they are called tubular. Tens of millions of spores are formed on plates, in tubules, and in some representatives on spines or needles.

Among cap mushrooms, there are both edible and poisonous ones. The most valuable edible mushrooms, widely found in the forests of Belarus and Russia, are white, camelina, real mushroom, boletus, boletus, butterdish, champignon.

Poisonous mushrooms, such as pale grebe, many fly agarics, some types of umbrella mushrooms, talkers, rows, etc., already getting into food, can cause serious and sometimes fatal poisoning. It should be remembered that mushroom proteins break down rather quickly with the formation of toxic nitrogenous compounds, so poisoning can also be caused by non-poisonous, but stale mushrooms.

A well-known representative of mold fungi is penicillium. Its mycelium consists of branched filaments separated by septa into cells, and sporulation resembles a brush, hence its name "brush" (see Fig. 6.1) At the ends of branched conidiophores, chains of conidia are formed, with the help of which the penicillium multiplies. This fungus is found in the form of mold (green, gray, blue) on soil and plant products (on fruits, vegetables, jam, tomato paste, etc.). Some types of penicillium are used to prepare penicillin, one of the most famous antibiotics.

Yeast do not have mycelium and are immobile oval-shaped cells 2-10 microns in size (Fig. 6.2). Yeast reproduces by budding or division. They also have a sexual process that occurs in the form of copulation of two cells. The resulting zygote turns into a bag with A-8 spores.

It is believed that yeast originated from multicellular ancestors. The simplification of their organization occurred in connection with living in liquid sugary environments.

Of greatest practical importance are baker's yeast, represented by several hundred races - wine, beer, bakery, etc. They are used in brewing, baking, and the production of alcohol. Wine yeast occurs naturally on the surface of fruits (eg grapes), in flower nectar, in tree exudates and is used in winemaking.

Powdery mildew fungi infect hundreds of species of cultivated and wild plants. A white, later darkening mycelium develops on the surface of the affected organs. A few days after infection, a conidial stage develops on the mycelium - conidiophores with chains of conidia. At this time, the affected plant organs are covered with a powdery coating of conidia (hence the name of the disease - "powdery mildew").

Polypore mushrooms cause great harm to forestry. Tinder fungus spores fall on wounds in the bark of trees, where they germinate into mycelium, which penetrates the wood and feeds on the organic substances of its cells. A few years after infection, usually hoof-shaped fruiting bodies form on the trunk. Perennial woody fruit bodies of tinder fungi sometimes reach gigantic sizes - 0.5-1 m in diameter. On the underside of the fruiting body, spores ripen in small tubules or linings, which spill out and, having fallen on damaged tree trunks, infect them.

Mushrooms are often associated mutualistically with higher plants, algae, cyanobacteria, less often with animals. An example of mutualism can be lichens, mycorrhiza. Mycorrhiza- this is a mutually beneficial cohabitation of the fungus with the roots of higher plants. At the same time, the mycelium of the fungus braids the roots of plants and penetrates only under the epidermis or into the cells of the root parenchyma. Mycorrhizal fungus increases the absorption surface of the root by 10-14 times, absorbs phosphorus better, releases vitamins and growth substances that stimulate root development. From the higher plant, the fungus receives nitrogen-free compounds, oxygen and root secretions, which contribute to the germination of spores. Mycorrhiza is found in most plants.

The importance of fungi in the biosphere and the national economy. Fungi, along with bacteria, play an important role in the general circulation of substances in the biosphere. Decomposing organic substances with the help of enzymes to simple inorganic compounds, they make them available to autotrophic organisms, participate in the formation of a fertile soil layer - humus, and perform a lot of sanitary work to cleanse the environment.

Mushrooms are widely used in the national economy to obtain feed protein, citric acid, enzymes, vitamins, antibiotics, and growth substances.

Arthrobotris is the first predatory mushroom described in the literature. Victims of the fungus are common saprozoan nematodes or free-living nematode larvae, pathogenic for plants, animals and humans. More rarely, fungi catch amoebils of other small rhizopods, and some - small insects, and can hold animals that are much larger than them.

The active trapping of nematodes by predatory fungi, their ability to exist in the soil, and the possibility of growing in culture in large quantities have long attracted the attention of researchers to these fungi as possible means in the biological control of nematodes. However, the encouraging results obtained during tests in greenhouses were not confirmed with a wider approbation. The reason may lie in insufficient knowledge of the ecology of predatory fungi, which did not allow predicting their behavior in the soil and regulating it.

The first descriptions of septobasidium date back to the end of the 18th century. But it was only in 1907 that Genel and Litschauer discovered that these mushrooms are always associated with scale insects. Further research showed that the fungus and the insect are linked by complex mutualistic relationships. The features of the biology of this city were studied in detail by the American mycologist Coach on Burt's septobasidium ( Septobasidiumburtii).

Scale insects live under the protective film of the fungus, in its complex labyrinth. Some of them remain healthy throughout life, others become infected with the fungus. Healthy and infected insects are well distinguished: sick ones are smaller, they lack a wax shield and never reproduce. In May, the most abundant sporulation of the fungus is observed. At the same time, larvae of the first generation of scale insects are born from overwintered females. Some larvae remain to live under the fungus where they were born, others move to the neighboring colony, and still others choose a place on the bark where there is no fungus.

Attempts to use Septobasidium and other predatory fungi for pest control have sometimes been successful. Significant difficulties in the extended use of this method are due to the characteristics of the growth of the pathogen. Only in some cases is it possible to obtain a sufficient amount of predatory fungi to infect the pest population, because. For the reproduction of fungi, as a rule, it is first necessary to massively multiply insect pests.

2. Yeast as the most studied object of biotechnological

research

Yeast is a collective group of fungi that do not have typical mycelium and exist in the form of separate budding or dividing cells.
About 500 types of yeast are known. All yeasts are heterotrophs with an oxidative (respiration) or fermentation (fermentation) type of metabolism. Yeast synthesize proteins, lipids, extracellular polysaccharides, B vitamins. Cause diseases: thrush (cryptococcosis, candidiasis) and other mycoses.
Human use: brewing, winemaking, alcohol industry, bakery, microbiological industry (feed protein, enzymes), as well as an object of research in bioenergetics, radiobiology, genetics.
Most of the species used by humans belong to the genus Saccharomycetes ( Saccharomyces) from the class Ascomycetes ( Ascomycota), which actively ferment simple carbohydrates to ethyl alcohol. Alcohol fermentation was first studied in detail by Louis Pasteur.

Scheme for the oxidation of carbohydrates to ethanol:

sugar ---> pyruvate ---> CO2+ acetaldehyde ---> ethanol.

The genetics of baker's yeast has been studied in the most detail. S. cerevisiae.The genes responsible for synthesizing hormones and other valuable compounds are inserted into the chromosomes of yeast cells using genetic engineering methods and cloned (“multiplied” during the replication of chromosomal DNA).
Yeast properties valuable for biotechnology: grow rapidly, are safe for humans, grow on a cheap medium (paraffin, molasses, methyl alcohol). The disadvantage is that it is difficult to obtain intracellular products, tk. cells are covered with a very strong membrane. The most commonly used method for obtaining intracellular compounds is autolysis, i.e. cell destruction by its own enzymes.

Bakery. Previously, yeast sponge dough was widely used in bread baking. It is still widely used for baking rye bread, as well as in the household. To obtain such a dough, a dough is used - a small portion of the dough left from the previous batch or kneaded in advance, before the main batch. The dough contains and multiplies yeast and lactic acid bacteria, which give the black bread a pleasant sourness and aroma. Yeast white bread is baked in a non-sparing way - the yeast is placed together with flour and other components immediately in the main batch. Immediately before baking, the mixed population contained in the dough is stimulated to reproduce by adding milk, water, sugar, flour. The resulting dough "fits", increasing in volume due to the intensive release of CO2 during the rapid reproduction of yeast fermenting carbohydrates.

Winemaking. A variety of microorganisms live on the surface and inside the berries, among which there are many yeasts. Therefore, the squeezed juice - wort - begins to ferment without the addition of yeast. Artisanal winemaking is based on this.

First of all, acetic and lactic acid bacteria, unwanted yeast, yeast-like fungi can interfere with the fermentation process. In order to eliminate the risk of damage to the wine material during the industrial production of wine, pre-grown and activated wine yeast is introduced into the grape must. type of wine. So, for example, in the manufacture of sherry, special sherry yeast is used and barrels of wine are not filled to the top (which is unacceptable in the manufacture of other wines).
The processes used in winemaking were studied in detail by Louis Pasteur. Yeast ferments the sugars found in grape juice (see chart above). Fermentation continues until the yeast has used up all the sugar. Yeast forms alcohol only in the absence of oxygen or its deficiency. If there is a lot of oxygen, yeast oxidizes sugar completely to carbon dioxide and water. While fermentation proceeds rapidly, the released carbon dioxide protects the surface of the wort from interaction with atmospheric oxygen. When fermentation stops, the barrel must be sealed with young wine. If this is not done, acetic acid bacteria, using oxygen, will convert alcohol into acetic acid. This is how wine (or apple) vinegar is obtained. Based on the results of his research, Pasteur recommended that French winemakers observe microbiological purity in the preparation of wine: thoroughly wash the barrels and fumigate the wine with sulfur dioxide.

Brewing. Beer brewing, like distilling, is a traditional production in many countries of the world. As a rule, it is more industrialized than winemaking, and the yeast component is even more important here. The strains used are special types of saccharomycetes. Yeast cells that ferment barley wort in a short time bring the alcohol content in it to 3–5%. In order to slow down too intensive reproduction of yeast and accumulate products that give beer its taste (aldehydes, ketones, polyhydric alcohols), fermentation is carried out at low temperatures of –2–8 °C. Under these conditions, further oxidation of aldehydes and alcohols almost does not occur.
Many breweries are still equipped with open fermentation tanks, and only large plants have sealed containers. Large yeast cells in the finished beer die and settle, a small proportion of them remain in suspension, and the continued fermentation of beer in storage tanks causes its saturation with carbon dioxide.

3.Penicilli

Genus Penicillium ( Penicillium) refers to the order Hyphomycetes ( Hyphomycetales) from the class of imperfect fungi ( Deuteromycota).The natural habitat of these fungi is the soil, they are often found on a wide variety of substrates, mainly of plant origin.

Even in the XV-XVI centuries. in folk medicine, green mold was used in the treatment of purulent wounds. In 1928, the English microbiologist Alexander Fleming noticed that penicillium, which accidentally got into the culture of staphylococcus, completely suppressed the growth of bacteria. These observations of Fleming formed the basis of the doctrine of antibiosis (antagonism between individual types of microorganisms). L. Pasteur, I.I. Mechnikov.

The antimicrobial effect of green mold is due to a special substance - penicillin, released by this fungus into the environment. In 1940, penicillin was obtained in its pure form by the English researchers G. Flory and E. Chain, and in 1942, independently of them, by Soviet scientists Z.V. Ermolyeva and T.I. Balezina. During World War II, penicillin saved the lives of hundreds of thousands of wounded. The demand for penicillin was so great that its production increased from a few million units in 1942 to 700 billion units in 1945.

Penicillin is used for pneumonia, sepsis, pustular skin diseases, tonsillitis, scarlet fever, diphtheria, rheumatism, syphilis, gonorrhea and other diseases caused by gram-positive bacteria.

The discovery of penicillin marked the beginning of the search for new antibiotics and sources of their production. With the discovery of antibiotics, it became possible to successfully treat almost all infectious diseases caused by microbes.

But green molds are successfully used not only in medicine. Of great importance are penicilli of the species P. roqueforti.In nature, they live in the soil. We are well acquainted with them from a group of cheeses characterized by “marbling”: Roquefort, whose homeland is France, Gorgonzola cheese from Northern Italy, Stilon cheese from England, etc. All these cheeses are characterized by a loose structure, a specific “moldy” appearance (veins and spots of bluish-green color) and characteristic aroma. P. roqueforti needs a small amount of oxygen, tolerates high concentrations of carbon dioxide.

In the preparation of soft French cheeses "Camembert", "Brie" and some others are used P. camamberti And P. caseicolum, which form a characteristic white “felt” coating on the surface of the cheese. under the influence of the enzymes of these fungi, the cheese acquires juiciness, oiliness, specific taste and aroma.

4.Aspergillus

Aspergillus, like penicilli, belong to the class of imperfect fungi. Their natural habitat is the upper soil horizons, especially in southern latitudes, where they are most often found on various substrates, mainly of plant origin. Most representatives of this genus are saprophytes, but there are also conditional pathogens of humans and animals, which, for example, in people with weakened immunity can cause diseases - aspergillosis.
mushroom species A. flavus And A. oryzae– the main components of the mold fungi community developing on grain and seeds, mainly on rice, peas, soybeans, peanuts. They produce enzymes: amylases, lipases, proteinases, pectinases, cellulases, etc. That is why A. oryzae and related species have been used in the East for food purposes for many centuries. The alcohol industry in Japan and other countries of the East, in which rice starch must first be saccharified to make sake rice vodka, is entirely based on the enzymatic properties of mushrooms of this group. miso beans (Japan, China, Philippines) and other food products are made using aspergillus.
The ability to A. Niger and other species of this group to the formation of citric, oxalic, gluconic, fumaric acids. In addition to the organic acids of Aspergillus, and in particular A. Niger, capable of synthesizing vitamins: biotin, thiamine, riboflavin, etc. This property finds industrial application.

Mushroom-predator found taste of amber

Amber captures how an ancient predatory fungus ringed a nematode worm, possibly with the goal of eating it

German scientists from the Humboldt University of Berlin (Humboldt-Universitätzu Berlin) under the leadership of Alexander Schmidt (AlexanderSchmidt) discovered a piece of amber in a quarry in southwestern France, in which, presumably, a predatory fungus about 100 million years old and the remains of nematodes were preserved.

The find broke the previous record: the predatory mushroom found then was only 15-20 million years old. But not only this surprised the researchers. Usually predatory fungi live in the soil, and they have a very small chance of being "frozen" in amber (which is originally tree resin). Now scientists hope that this specimen will shed some light on how these strange creatures evolved.

Modern carnivorous fungi often catch in their sticky "nets" and rings (working like a lasso) very small nematode worms that feed on their surface. When the worm dies, the tissues of the fungus grow into it and digest it.

So far, scientists do not know how predatory fungi have changed throughout their history, and it is almost impossible to study this. Fungi do not have a skeleton or shell, so when they die there is nothing left. That is why this discovery is so important for researchers.

Since the fungus found has the same loops as modern representatives (about 10 micrometers in diameter), biologists conclude that such feeding behavior was characteristic of ancient representatives of predatory fungi.

Predatory mushrooms at your service

Have you ever come across a toothy boletus in the forest? Have you seen a butter dish armed with sharp claws?

No? Then everything is correct. Forest mushrooms - people of the world. Even the handsome fly agaric, which is notorious, is not going to attack anyone. It stands in a forest clearing, waiting for the animals. They say they love moose very much. And the terrible pale grebe herself is frightened to death, tries to stay away from people, lurks in the forest more often. And it’s not her fault, but the trouble is that it looks a little like champignon.

And yet they exist, these strange predatory mushrooms, so unlike the gifts of the forest familiar to everyone.

First, an elegant worm appeared on the screen. But some strange threads appeared in the corner of the frame. They slowly, invertedly crawled towards the worm. The processes departed from the threads, turned into hooks and loops. A whole network has already grown around the worm. He is still trying to free himself, struggling desperately, but the rings and loops are getting tighter and tighter. End.

Thus, Doctor of Biology Nissa Ashrafovna Mekhtieva began her report on predatory fungi at the All-Union Conference “Ways to Improve the Microbiological Control of Harmful Insects and Plant Diseases” almost like a horror movie.

VINEGAR EEL AND OTHERS

The heroine of the film, the vinegar eel, is a harmless creature. He lives in fermented vinegar, does not interfere with anyone. Researchers like to use it as a model organism for various experiments. To do this, just drop a little vinegar into the starch paste. But her numerous brothers and sisters in the class of nematodes, or roundworms, are not like that.

I want to be understood correctly. I do not at all intend to cast a shadow on this whole class, which, in terms of the number of individuals, is the most numerous in the animal kingdom and second only to the class of insects in the number of species. Many of its representatives honestly work in remote corners of the Earth, sometimes in very difficult conditions, making an invaluable contribution to the cycle of substances in nature. These are worthy, respected inhabitants of water and land. Especially many nematodes live in the soil.

Let's take phytonematodes living in plant tissues. Previously, crop failures in potatoes and beets after several years of monoculture were attributed to "soil fatigue." It was only in our century that it was discovered that nematodes were to blame. The annual loss of world agricultural products from them is about 12%. In monetary terms, for 20 major crops, this is 77 billion dollars. And do not think that such a disaster is only in developing countries with backward agricultural technology. For example, in the United States, plant nematodes cause an annual loss of 5-8 billion dollars. And so now, compared with 1967, the cost of studying plant nematodes has increased eightfold in the United States.

These tiny worms are harmful in the fields, in vegetable gardens and greenhouses. For example, cucumbers and tomatoes are tormented by the so-called gall nematodes, which form swellings on the roots.

ETERNAL FIGHT

To combat nematodes in greenhouses, the soil is steamed and a pesticide is introduced - some kind of nematicide, such as dazomet or heterophos. For retail sale to the population, we have only one nematicide allowed - thiazon 40%. It is recommended to apply it evenly into the soil (thoroughly mixing it to the depth of the arable layer). With a strong infection with gall nematodes, you have to change all the land in the greenhouse.

To get rid of nematodes in the fields, farmers have long used crop rotation. For example, after 5-7 years of potato monoculture, lupine or other legumes are grown. It has also been noticed that some plants, such as radish and marigolds, repel nematodes.

However, these measures do not give complete improvement of the soil.

There are more hopes for breeders, for resistant varieties. Since the sixties, many potato varieties resistant to nematodes have been bred in different countries. Alas, often their tubers turn out to be tasteless not only for nematodes, but also for us. This happened, for example, with the Meta variety, bred by the Lithuanian Research Institute of Agriculture in conjunction with the All-Union Research Institute of Helminthology. K. I. Scriabin. Zoned in Lithuania, Belarus and several regions of the RSFSR, it does not find sales due to its low taste.

Genetic engineering has also joined the fight against nematodes. Last summer, two American firms, Mycogen and Monsanto, signed an agreement to introduce the gene responsible for the production of the Bacillusturyngiensis bacterium toxin into soybean, cotton, tomato and potato plants. This toxin kills plant nematodes. It is believed that plants will protect themselves in this way.

Why is the fight against nematodes so difficult?

The fact is that over many centuries of evolution, nematodes have forged a very serious weapon - the ability to form cysts. The cyst is an old female stuffed with larvae. A sort of leather bag. Thanks to its strong shell, the cyst calmly endures all adversity - and steaming, and chemical tillage. The cyst can be stored in the ground for decades. The time will come - the larvae will come out of it and take on their own. But back to predatory mushrooms.

THE THIRD KINGDOM

Carl Linnaeus, the creator of the taxonomy of the living, attributed mushrooms to the plant kingdom. He had good reasons for this. Like plants, fungal cells are surrounded by a cellulose membrane, and, Linnaeus believed, fungi, unlike animals, are incapable of active movement.

However, today experts distinguish mushrooms as a separate third kingdom, different from plants and animals. The number of species in it is not huge. Many of them are hostile towards people: they cause human diseases. They do not spare both animals and plants, they spoil food, wood, textiles and other materials. But among the mushrooms there are those whom we can rightfully call friends. Among them are the heroes of my story. The English scientist K. L. Daddington titled his book about them: “Predatory mushrooms are the friends of man.”

In science, they appear not so long ago, the sixties of the last century. It was then that the famous Russian mycologist and phytopathologist, specialist in fungi and plant diseases, Mikhail Stepanovich Voronin, examining the soil fungus Arthr under a microscope o botrysoligospora, carefully described and drew hooks, loops and rings that no one had yet seen, which are abundantly formed on the threads and spores of the fungus. Alas, their purpose remained a mystery for many years.

Only in the 80s of the same 19th century, Wilhelm Zopf, a professor at the University of Halle, established that strange formations are nothing but hunting tools! Catching loops, rings and hooks are needed by predatory mushrooms in order to hunt nematodes that surpass them in strength and size.

Dwellers of Rotten Stumps

Studies in the USA, Great Britain and France, starting from 1946 and in our country, have shown that predatory fungi are by no means uncommon in nature. For example, they are found everywhere in the soil, compost and rotten stumps - in a word, where plant residues decompose.

Like well-known forest mushrooms, predators consist of thin long threads - hyphae, forming a mycelium, or mycelium. They do not have fruit bodies, which we commonly call mushrooms. Miniature predatory fungi reproduce by spores formed at the ends of hyphae. You can find them with a microscope.

Feeding on plant remains, predatory mushrooms replenish their menu with animal food. For a long time, no one knew how they managed to cope with their victims. It has been suggested that predatory fungi are armed with chemical weapons - they secrete antibiotics, toxins and other biologically active substances. Indeed, such a weapon was found among them. But when in the experiments it was brought down on nematodes, the death did not exceed 20%.

Azerbaijani scientists led by N. A. Mehdiyeva - do you remember the story about the movie? - to study the chemical composition of predatory fungi, the method of thin layer chromatography was used. It turned out that in their chemical arsenal there are substances that are poorly soluble in water and act as contact poisons. As soon as the nematodes find themselves in the trapping net of the fungus, droplets of glue like latex stand out on the surface of the rings, firmly holding the victim like a fly on sticky paper.

X-ray analysis at the Chisinau All-Russian Research Institute of Biological Methods of Plant Protection showed a very high content of potassium, phosphorus and especially calcium in the trapping rings, compared with hyphae. Potassium and phosphorus were 15 times more, and calcium - 40 times. But calcium is very necessary for animals during muscle contractions - it enters into contact with the troponin protein. Araz so, do not predatory mushrooms serve as a living bridge between the kingdom of plants and the kingdom of animals?

CRAZY HUNTERS

The idea to take predatory fungi for the biological control of nematodes appeared back in the 30s of our century. It seemed tempting: after all, we would have at our disposal a reliable, and most importantly, completely safe natural means of destroying nematodes not only in the fields, but also in veterinary medicine and even in medicine.

The first experiments were carried out by the Americans before World War II in the Hawaiian Islands, where nematodes greatly harm tananana plantations. Large vessels were filled with earth, and predatory mushrooms were brought there.

Alas, already in these first experiments, predatory mushrooms showed their capricious disposition. Often, for no apparent reason, they flatly refused to hunt nematodes and were content with peaceful coexistence. When there was enough food, predatory mushrooms rolled up their nets, removed trapping rings and hooks, and became peaceful vegetarians. But still...

Scientists of the All-Russian Research Institute of Helminthology focused on the search and selection of the most active, most predatory strains. After all, it cannot be that among the predatory mushrooms there are no real hunters who do not want to be content with peaceful coexistence. There are many opportunities for this. Of the 87 species of predatory mushrooms currently known to science, almost half live in our country - 41 species.

Back in the 60s, V. B. Udalova and N. V. Matskevich, using the method of complex stepwise selection, managed to obtain an active strain of the same Arthrobotrysoligospora, which was studied by Voronin. They designated it VGMG - 2461D. And in 1982, T. V. Teplyakova isolated another active strain from the soil in the Novosibirsk region, designated VKMG-3062.

Based on these strains, two preparations of predatory fungi have now been created to combat nematodes in greenhouses. This is especially useful - since January 1, 1990, by a decree of the Chief State Sanitary Doctor of the USSR, chemical treatments in greenhouses are prohibited.

A mushroom preparation based on the first strain is grown in the laboratory on straw-dung compost with the best for! growth of predatory fungi by the ratio of glucose, hemicellulose complex and protein nitrogen. Either the fungus is cultivated on biohumus - a product of the processing of liquid pig manure by fly larvae.

A drug based on another strain is obtained in two ways - superficial and deep-surface. The substrate here is a mixture of peat with straw and biohumus. You can also take sunflower husks.

Finished preparations are applied to the soil before and after planting seedlings.

In tests in 1989 in the Belaya Dacha greenhouse complex near Moscow, the number of nematodes in plants fell by half, and the number of larvae in the soil was three times or more. The yield increase was up to 1 kg per square meter. Indeed, a great success.

In 1988 preparations of predatory mushrooms were exhibited in Czechoslovakia at the Inveks-88 and Soviet Inventors exhibitions, and were awarded a gold medal at VDNKh in the same year.

Now we can talk about the last stages of the approval of the laboratory regulations for obtaining a biological product of predatory fungi on sunflower husks. And this entire problem will probably be included in the all-Union Ecology program.

So far, the effectiveness of the drugs cannot be considered sufficient - root-knot nematodes multiply very quickly, and it is necessary that at least 98% of them die. But the light is already visible. Most likely, it is predatory fungi that will help us cope with the most dangerous potato nematodes included in the national list of quarantine objects.

Now the final stages of approval of the technological regulations for the drug Nematofagin-BL for the control of nematodes in protected ground are underway. The All-Union Production and Scientific Association "Soyuzselkhozkhimiya" took care of its manufacture. There is hope for him now.

It remains for me to say: dashing trouble is the beginning.

The killers

H Not only politicians, but games from time to time play a crucial role in the life of peoples. In the middle of the last century, the Irish were suddenly defeated by an enemy they had not even heard of - the phytophthora fungus. Of the four million people in the country, a quarter ate exclusively potatoes, another two million had potatoes 70% of the diet. For two years late blight left the Irish without potatoes and brought to the grave more than all their enemies in history - more than a million people. Another one and a half million fled the battlefield to America. Those who remained lived for several years as captives. An international conference dedicated to the 150th anniversary of the national tragedy was recently held in Dublin. The irony of fate lies in the fact that once there were no roots and tubers in plants. Under the influence of mycorrhizal fungi, growths first appeared on the roots of plants, and in the course of evolution they gradually turned into potatoes, carrots, etc. So in the fields of Ireland late blight fought with mycorrhizal fungi. People turned out to be accidental victims.

Historians have noticed that the beginning of many wars in medieval Europe coincided with mass poisoning by ergot, a fungus that affects rye grains. The head becomes bad, the person becomes evil and commits unmotivated acts. Something similar, according to Yuri Dyakov, a professor at Moscow State University, is happening now in Russia. But through the fault of another fungus - Fusarium. Even in the pre-war years, Professor Artem Sarkisov showed that the roof can go slightly from the toxins emitted by Fusarium. He also pesters foreign producers of grain, but there they spray him with "chemistry" that is harmless to humans, and everything is in order with their heads. They used to jump around here too, but now the peasants have no money for this. As a result, our grain is catastrophically sick with fusarium. Sometimes it cannot be used even on alcohol - the fungus is an order of magnitude higher than the norm. But for every ban there is a master key. Although the sanitary and epidemiological supervision is vigilant and poisonous does not pass, nevertheless we eat a lot of grain poisoned with fungal toxins. That's where, says Professor Dyakov, the madness and aggressiveness of recent years. Indeed, looking especially at politicians, one involuntarily wonders if they overate fungi or something?

EAT A FRIEND!

IN Elections in Russia ended in favor of those who want to live normally, as in other countries. Atam, by the way, the daily consumption of mushrooms is becoming the norm. Still: a kilogram of meat - 4100 calories, and a kilogram of mushrooms - 300 - 500. Just what you need with the low mobility of a modern person. Plus the unique taste. Plus the amazing smell. With the help of some mushrooms, called "yeast", mankind has created two most important products, without which the development of civilization would be simply unthinkable - bread and booze (alcohol, wine and beer), which are perfectly combined with each other and with a high flight of spirit.

True, some nutritionists find an iminus in mushrooms: they are not easily digested, they say, heavy food. Others rightly object: is it so useful what is digested easily? Sugar, for example. It is simply inappropriate to overfeed them to children and the elderly.

There are few calories in mushrooms, but it is full of vitamins: both B, and C, and D, and provitamin A, while minerals, without which proper metabolism is impossible, are just a pantry - almost 1.5% of the mass. From relatively ordinary potassium, calcium, iron, phosphorus, fluorine to such exotics as aluminum, cobalt, titanium. Who doesn’t want to become penetrating like titanium? Therefore, in recent years there has been an explosion in the production of mushrooms in the world. The Chinese grow the most: dozens of species little known to specialists on millions of plots. The Chinese do not have good accounting, but, according to experts, they produce no less than 500 thousand tons per year. Moreover, there are so many species and names that are practically unknown to Europe. In the rest of the world, 95% of mushrooms grown are champignons, and a good dozen species fit in 5%. The US grows 362,000 tons themselves, and imports half that amount from abroad. Three countries go hand in hand with them: Holland - 236 thousand tons, France - 178 and Italy - 132 thousand tons. In Russia, the nostril is only now becoming peaceful, providing not the formidable sniffing of a predator, but the inhalation of all sorts of amenities. Therefore, in 1994 we grew 2483 tons, but in the next - already 3179.

“They are terribly far from the people,” economists of the Soviet type say to Russian mushroom growers. “There are so many wild mushrooms in Russian forests that it is enough to collect 5% to flood all the markets of the world with them.” Another utopia. Not mushroom growers are far from the people, but mushrooms. Their brothers are somewhere in the remote Siberian taiga and it is incredibly expensive to bring them to Europe. It is cheaper to grow them. It is also important that the grown ones are environmentally friendly. Do you remember the mass poisoning with wild mushrooms in the Volga regions? In developed countries, wild mushrooms have not been eaten for a long time.

INVESTMENT IN HORSE MANURE. Our experience - America

A The Association of Mushroom Growers of the United States is following the course of a shock five-year plan, pledging to double the production of mushrooms by 2010. The program is supported by government subsidies. The Americans decided to cut off the Soviet catering fish days and spend whole months eating mushrooms.

And no matter how much we called various government agencies, it seems that they don’t even know what mushrooms are. The fungus is a non-state unit, it does not receive government assistance. Mushroom growers (and in Russia there are already 70 mushroom growing farms against five in Soviet times) nevertheless united in an association. The calculations of the association's executive director Alexander Khrenov and his colleagues show that it is enough to build 3 new large composting plants and reconstruct 7 old ones - and in 2000 Russia will offer the buyer 30,000 tons of mushrooms. Ten times more than now.

And the development of the industry rests on the lack of compost - the substrate in which mushrooms live and breed. Compost is not enough because there is little investment and ... manure. And what is less - another question. According to the classical technology, for example, horse manure should be put into compost for champignons, but the horse in our country is an endangered species and will soon fall into the Red Book of Russia along with its “apples”. Both cows and birds become rare species. So, gentlemen, investors, you can make investments with manure. Surprisingly, with our total shortage of everything, it was Russian engineers who managed to raise the technology of compost preparation to the level, excuse me, of culinary art. Specialists from the Moscow firm "Greenkompleks" invented a harvester so amazing for this that the Dutch leaders of world agriculture bought a license for its production. Three machines made compost for them, and bright Russians reduced their water, which works nine times more productively. At the same time, the operator is not in a smelly room, but outside and controls the combine from a portable remote control. Similarly, the designers dealt with a complex of three machines for preparing cover soil. The Dutch and then forked out without hesitation.

The factual data accumulated by the 21st century on the structural and functional organization of micro- and macromycete cells, their growth, reproduction, development (onto- and phylogenesis), on the genome as a whole, on the ecology of fungi and the epidemiology of mycoses have become the basis for clarifying the systematic position of individual representatives of mycobiota and existing classification schemes. for them.

It is well known that even Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) attributed fungi and bacteria to the plant kingdom, singling them out into the group “Lower Plants”, which even now “figures” in the works of many botanists, microbiologists and, including mycologists. The great taxonomist also proposed a binominal nomenclature, according to which the first word reflects the name of the genus, the second word - the name of the species.

Various characteristics of fungi (as well as other organisms) now used in determining whether cultures belong to a certain group of organisms, to already known or new species, are more or less clearly defined, quite diverse and relatively reliable. However, it has not yet been possible to completely avoid synonymy. About 150-200 out of almost 800 annually newly described mushroom species turn out to be previously known, and their names become synonymous.

The biodiversity of fungi in nature is numerically quite impressive - according to the forecasts of taxonomists, about 1.5 million, of which only about 4% have been studied.

The components of taxonomy are nomenclature, taxonomy and classification, of which taxonomy is the science of classification, but before classifying objects, they must be well studied and assigned to certain categories - taxa (species, genera, families, etc.). The nomenclature of mushrooms is the prerogative of the International Codabotanical Nomenclature and is adopted at every International Botanical Congress. The last such Congress took place in 1999. Any proposals to change the Code are published in the Taxon publication, discussed and accepted / rejected by voting at the nomenclature section of the Botanical Congress; the Congress also appoints the Committee on Mushrooms (Committeefor Fungi - abbreviated as CF), in which you can get professional answers to relevant questions. The code aims to use a well-founded principle (method) of naming taxonomic groups, avoiding and rejecting such names that may induce ambiguity or error, or, finally, push the science of taxonomy in the wrong direction.

Of the many problems and tasks in the field of taxonomy of microorganisms, we focus on the terminology (nomenclature) of mainly medically significant micromycetes and the diseases they cause within the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.

The Code includes 6 principles, 62 articles - prescriptions, non-mandatory recommendations and various applications. The code allows many correct names to be proposed for any taxon, as they can be used for its further inclusion in the appropriate classification scheme.

Once a decision has been made on the taxonomy of a fungus, the Code provides rules for the development of the name to be applied in practice. Each taxon in such a position and rank can only have a single-nomenclature correct name, when choosing which the following 5 actions act as a filter:

1. recognition of the publication as effective if there is no need for further discussion of the titles;

3. typification; names can be excluded due to their belonging to other fungi (as correct names or synonyms);

4. assessing the legality of names listed as synonyms;

5. assessment of the priority of names listed as synonyms.

To be considered effective, a name publication must be published in a journal, book, and communicated to readers, or at least to botanical institutions, by way of exchange, sale, or presentation.

In order for a publication to be valid, the names of newly described taxa must simultaneously meet the following requirements: be of correct form, be described in Latin (their diagnoses), be accepted by the authors themselves, and comply with any appropriate special rulings contained in the Code; have a clear definition of the rank (category) indicating the sample and the place of its conservation, be registered. Replaced names must be accompanied by full bibliographic details indicating the place of publication and citing the replaced name or basionym(bazonym, basonym), that is, the name or epithet of the bearing sionym on which the new transfer or new combination is based. Unpublished titles (nomeninvalidum) are not discussed.

The association of each name with a name-bearing type is the basic principle of stability in the application of names. All ranks from families and below are unconditionally based on the same collection; For example, Cryptococcaceae- on Cryptococcus- on C. neoformans in one collection.

Typical culture samples should be stored in a metabolically inactive state (for example, freeze-dried, in liquid fuel oil) or in the form of micropreparations; actively growing crops are not allowed. If the specimen cannot be preserved, then a picture or description of the specimen is acceptable. In the case when the type collection is mixed, then one part of it should be selected as lectotype(that is, the form selected in the last work with original material in which no holotype;holotype is a single element used by the author as a basis for choosing a name, for example, red color in representatives of the genus Rhodotorula).

Names actually published that do not conform to certain provisions of the Code are illegal (nomenillegitimate) and should be rejected; examples: a) the name has already been used before, b) the names homonymic when words are similar in sound, but different in meaning (compare English bare - naked and bear - bear [‘bεə] and or Latin annus - year and anus - ring).

The priority of publication determines the correct name of the taxon. The correct species name (i.e. the name according to the requirements of the Code) is the combination of the earliest legitimous epithet in the same rank according to the generic name. This can be changed if the generic position or rank changes, i.e. a species may have more than one correct name according to different classifications. Mushrooms in the spleomorphic state in their life cycle acquire separate names. The correct name of a holomorph is the name of a teleomorph.

These are, in summary, the framework of the International Codabotanical Nomenclature. The accepted ranks in the nomenclature hierarchy are presented as follows:

Domain (Superkingdom - N.E.) ................................... . Eukaryota

Kingdom................................................. ................. Fungi

Sub-kingdom .................................................. ...........*

Phylum (Department) .............................................. .......... Basidiomycota

Subphylum (Subdivision) .............................................. Basidiomycotina*

Class................................................. ....................... Basidiomycetes

Subclass… - tide *

Order................................................. ................... Tremellales

Ustilaginales and etc.**

Suborder…- ineae*

Family................................................. ............... Cryptococcaceae***

Subfamily…- oideae*

Tribe… - ieae*

Subtribe…- inae*

Genus................................................. ...................... Cryptococcus

Subgenus… Cryptococcus*

Section................................................. ......................*

Subsection................................................. ...............*

Series................................................. .......................*

Sub-series .................................................. .................*

View................................................. ...................... Cryptococcusneoformans

Subspecies................................................. ......................*

Option................................................. .................... Cryptococcusneoformansvar. neoformans

Sub-option .................................................. ..............*

Form................................................. .......................*

Subform................................................. .................*

Special form .................................................................. .*

Physiological race...................................................*

Notes:*not required for selected Cryptococcus

** the origin of cryptococci is polyphyletic

***for anamorphic cryptococci

The long-term use of a number of terms by specialists of various profiles, involved or not involved in medical mycology, contributed to the "strong rooting" of a number of names, regardless of the revision of certain provisions in the taxonomy of fungi, taxonomy and classification schemes. This, in particular, applies to cryptococci.

Whittaker (Wittaker, 1969) singled out mushrooms as an independent kingdom, although earlier many scientists suggested doing the same. Obviously, the insufficient factual argumentation proved to be a constraint in making such a decision by the majority of taxonomists. Now the situation has changed, and Regnum (Kingdom) Fungi justifiably took its rightful place among the other Kingdoms. Mushrooms - slime molds are classified as Protozoa, the kingdom is created Chromista, including Hyphochitriomycetes, Labyrinthulomycetes and Oomycetes; ascomycetes, basidiomycetes, chytridiomycetes and zygomycetes fungi are assigned to the Kingdom Fungi.

Consequently, the Linnean group "Lower Plants" in the Kingdom of Plants was abolished out of necessity and expediency. This cardinal position in mycology has not been properly reflected in monographs, textbooks, scientific and methodological publications in Russia and in a number of foreign countries.

For 15 years, in speeches at meetings of scientific societies, in lectures given to various categories of listeners, in publications, we have made attempts to improve mycological terminology, and, above all, in relation to medical mycology. There are some progress in this direction among young and mature mycologists, but this is still not enough. . Therefore, this publication is aimed at attracting a wider range of specialists - microbiologists, including mycologists, doctors of various specialties, biologists (including botanists) and others to use a single, rational, evidence-based mycological terminology, without going beyond the requirements of the International Code for nomenclature. In case of discussion questions, any proposals on this issue, the editors of the journal "Problems of Medical Mycology" agree to provide the authors with the opportunity to publish such materials.

What mycological terms need to be transformed taking into account the changes that have taken place in mycology? A number of them are named in the table below.

Table

Mycological terms to be transformed

Title

obsolete (obsoletus)

new (novum) transformed

Alternariamycosis Alternariasis Basidiobolomycosis Basidiobolosis Vangyellamycosis Vangiellosis Dermatophytosis Dermatomycosis Dermatophytes Dermatomycetes Dysbacteriosis * Dysbiosis Zygomycosis (!?) These can be: Absidia, Conidiasis, Mucorosis, Rhizoposis Candidiasis Candidiasis Candidiasis Candidiasis Candidiasis Candidiasis Kok cidioid mycosis Coccidioidosis Microsporia Microsporosis Penicillosis Penicilliosis Sporotrichosis Sporothrixosis Epidermophytosis Epidermomycosis

From the table follows:

1. in phrases containing the root word “phyton” (in Latin. phyton - plant) must be replaced by the word "mycosis", if this does not contradict the rules of the botanical code; so, instead of the word "dermatophytes" one should write (say) "dermatomycetes"; it is necessary to replace termi-on "sapro" fit» on «saprobes» (saprotrophs, saprobionts); the same applies to the word "flora" (a set of plant species), when instead of "myco- and / or microflora" it is necessary to use the phrases "mycobiota and / or microbiota", that is, the word "flora" is replaced accordingly by the word "biota";

2. pathological processes induced by fungi should have the endings “oz” or “ez” in the names, for example, aspergillosis, candidiasis, penicillosis, fusarium, etc. (ёз)", for example, Aspergill us - Aspergillus no,candida a - Candide oz,Penicilli um - Penicilli oz and so on.; here, exceptions to this rule are allowed, when the ending "oz(ёz)" is added to the generic name of the pathogen, ending with a consonant, for example, Sporothrix - Sporotrixosis (previously Sporothrichum - Sporotrichosis);

3. instead of generalizing, correctly denoting a group of diseases, the word "zygomycosis" must be used the name of a specific disease, for example, absidiosis, rhizomycosis, etc.; if the species affiliation of the pathogen is not temporarily determined, then the use of the word "zygomycosis" is possible;

4. the pathological process called "dysbacteriosis" should be attributed only to patients who have abnormalities in the composition of bacteriological biota; if we are talking about persons who have a violation of the norm biota caused by fungi (fungi), then one should speak (write) about "dysbiosis".

In various foreign publications, terms such as “hyalo- phomycetes” and “pheohyphomycetes” are widely used; the first of them are not colored, the second are dark-colored (usually referred to as a group Dematiaceae). It should be emphasized that the Greek word hýalos - glass and the Latin hyalinum - glassy do not correspond much to the true color of most fungi - micromycetes in cultures on nutrient media, which, even with initial growth, are white (at the same age, mature dark-colored mushrooms also turn out to be white until the period of sporulation). Therefore, it is more accurate and, therefore, more correct to call such fungi "Leukohyphomycetes" (from Greek and Latin leukos - white).

Pheohyphomycetes, like dark-colored mushrooms ( Alternariasp., Bipolarissp., Exerohilumsp., Fonsecaeasp., Exophialasp., Phialophorasp., Phomasp., Wangiellasp., Xylohyphasp.) could be called opacomycetes or fuscomycetes (in Latin opacus and fuscus - dark). Therefore, when choosing a term for the first time, it is necessary to take into account its exact correspondence to the described feature, as well as the convenience and ease of pronunciation of the term in different languages. In this sense, the word "Opacohyphomycetes" is the most appropriate for the named signs. We propose, taking into account the chronology of the proposals put forward, to use the term “Opako (feo) hyphomycetes” in such cases, keeping “feo” for the time being, for the time being (nomenprovisorum) as a synonym.

Thus, urgent issues in the field of mycological terminology should attract the attention of the widest range of scientific and practical workers involved in fungi (especially those of medical significance) in their professional activities. The use of science-based terms is dictated by the state of the art of micro- and macromycetes.

Truffle

Truffle(German Trüffel) - a marsupial with underground tuberous fleshy fruiting bodies. Most belong to the order of truffles (Tuberales). They grow in forests as saprophytes or form mycorrhiza with tree roots. Some fruiting bodies in the cut resemble marble. Few truffles are edible. The most valuable is French black, or Perigord truffle. (Tuberbrumale), very fragrant, black on the outside, warty, inside dark gray or reddish black with light veins.

This truffle is a delicacy. It grows in oak and beech groves, mainly in southern France and northern Italy, where it is of great industrial importance. It has a taste of mushroom with a touch of deep-roasted seeds or walnuts. Water, if you put the truffle into it and hold it, acquires the taste of soy sauce. It was not possible to cultivate truffles, unlike champignons. Truffles are searched in wild groves with the help of specially trained search dogs and pigs, which have a phenomenally fine sense of smell. On your own, under the foliage, you can find a truffle, noticing midges hovering over it. The number of harvested truffles is decreasing from year to year.

other truffles. White Polish, or Trinity, T. (Choiromycesmeand-rirormis) has a fruiting body with light flesh, similar in appearance and size to potatoes; grows in the forests of Western Europe, Ukraine, Belarus, and is found even in the Moscow region.

Some truffles are classified as plectus truffles - the so-called steppe truffles, "tombolans" (Terfezia). Among these truffles there are also edible ones, but they are less valuable. They grow in South Europe, North Africa, Southwest Asia - in Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. Sometimes inedible basidiomycetes from the genus Scleroderma (Gasteromycetes order) are mistakenly referred to as truffles, the fruiting bodies of which look like rounded and oblong yellowish tubers 3-10 cm long; found in forests, parks; fruiting bodies are initially dense, blackish inside with light veins, unpleasantly smelling; later their contents are sprayed.

Morels and lines

Morel mushrooms, a group of marsupial mushrooms. Fruiting bodies are voluminous, low-fleshy, fragile, consist of a cap and a stem. The surface of the cap, lined with a spore-bearing layer, is cellular, sinuous, wavy or smooth. A number of genera; the most famous are: morels (Morchella) - with a cellular-ribbed surface of the cap and edges adhering to the stem; caps (Verpa) - with a wrinkled, less often smooth cap surface and free edges; lines (Gyromitra) - with a convoluted surface of the cap and partially adherent edges. Sometimes all genera and species of morel mushrooms are called morels. Morel mushrooms grow more often in early spring in forests, parks and steppes.

The most common are the real morel (M. esculenta), the steppe morel (M. steppicola), the morel cap (V. bohemica) and the common line (G. esculenta), growing in pine forests. These types of morel mushrooms are used for food. However, the line contains a toxic substance that can cause severe poisoning, so the mushrooms should be finely chopped and boiled before cooking, after which the broth should be drained (the toxic substance, easily soluble in hot water, is also removed with it). Dried stitches are considered harmless.

Lines (Gyromitra), a genus of cap poisonous mushrooms from the class of marsupials. They are suitable for food only after boiling in water and removing the decoction, otherwise they can cause severe poisoning.

Mycorrhiza

Mycorrhiza(Greek μύκης- mushroom and ρίζα- root) (mushroom root) - a symbiotic association of the mycelium of the fungus with the roots of higher plants. The phenomenon of mycorrhiza was described in 1879 by F. M. Kamensky. There are three types of mycorrhiza exomycorrhizae, endomycorrhiza And exoendomycorrhiza.

Ectomycorrhiza

Ectotrophic mycorrhiza occurs when the hyphae of a fungus are wrapped in a dense network, forming either a sheath or mycorrhizal tubes. The hyphae of the fungus penetrate through the root rhizoderm and spread through the intercellular spaces without penetrating into the cells. This type of mycorrhiza is characterized by the absence of root hairs and the reduction of the root cap down to one or two layers of cells. The hyphae of the fungus divide the root into zones (in the form of a network of hyphae - the Hartigg network).

Endomycorrhiza

The main difference between endotrophic mycorrhiza is that the hyphae of the fungus penetrate into the cells of the root cortex (through the pores, without passing through the plasmalemma). Mycorrhiza is weakly expressed on the root surface, that is, the entire main part of the fungus is located inside the root. In the cells of the root, accumulations of hyphae fungus in the form of balls can form. Hyphae can branch out inside the cell - these formations are called arbuscules.

Exoendomycorrhiza

It combines the signs of both endo- and exomycorrhiza. A transition between ectomycorrhiza and endomycorrhiza is possible.

Symbionts

On the part of higher plants, all gymnosperms participate, about 70% of monocots and 80-90% of dicots. On the part of the fungi - ascomycetes, basidiomycetes and zygomycetes.

The fungus receives carbohydrates, amino acids and phytohormones from the tree, and itself makes water, minerals and nitrosalts available for absorption and absorption by the plant. In addition, the fungus provides the tree with more absorption surface, which is especially important when it grows on soil with a lack of nitrogen.

Alexander Fleming

Scottish bacteriologist Alexander Fleming was born on August 6, 1881 in Ayrshire to farmer Hugh Fleming and his second wife, Grace (Morton) Fleming.

When the boy was seven years old, his father died, and the mother had to manage the farm herself. Fleming attended a small rural school nearby, and later Kilmarnock Academy.

At the age of 13, he followed his older brothers to London, where he worked as a clerk, attended classes at the Polytechnic Institute on Regent Street, and in 1900 joined the London Scottish Regiment.

A year after the end of the war, he received an inheritance of 250 pounds sterling (a considerable amount in those days!) and, on the advice of his older brother on his father, applied for a national competition for admission to medical school. In the exams, he received the highest scores and became a fellow of the medical school at St. Mary. Fleming studied surgery and, having passed the exams, in 1906 became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons. Mary, he received his Master's and Bachelor of Science degrees from the University of London in 1908.

After Britain's entry into the First World War, Fleming served as a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps, participating in the war effort in France. While working in the Wound Research Laboratory, Fleming tried to determine if antiseptics were of any benefit in treating infected wounds. Through experiments, Fleming proved that antiseptics such as carbolic acid, then widely used to treat open wounds, kill white blood cells, which create a protective barrier in the body, which contributes to the survival of bacteria in tissues.

In 1922, after unsuccessful attempts to isolate the causative agent of common colds, Fleming unexpectedly discovered lysozyme, an enzyme that kills some bacteria and does not harm healthy tissues. Prospects for the medical use of lysozyme proved to be rather limited, since it was effective against non-causative bacteria and completely ineffective against disease-causing organisms. This discovery, however, prompted Fleming to look for other antibacterial drugs that would be harmless to the human body.

Fleming's discovery of penicillin in 1928 was the result of a series of circumstances so improbable as to be almost unbelievable. Unlike his meticulous colleagues who cleaned the bacterial culture dishes after work was done, Fleming slovenly left the cultures for 2-3 weeks until his laboratory table was cluttered with 40 or 50 dishes. Then he set about cleaning, looking through the cultures one by one, so as not to miss anything interesting. In one of the cups, he found a mold that, to his surprise, inhibited the inoculated culture of Staphylococcus bacteria. After separating the mold, he found that “the broth on which the mold grew ... acquired a distinct ability to inhibit the growth of microorganisms, as well as bactericidal and bacteriological properties in relation to many common pathogens bacteria."

The mold with which the culture was infected belonged to a very rare species of Penicillium.

Notable is the fact that Fleming shared culture samples of Penicillium with some colleagues in other laboratories, but never mentioned penicillin in any of the 27 articles or lectures he published in 1930-1940, even if they were talking about substances that cause death. bacteria.

Penicillin might have been forever forgotten had it not been for the earlier discovery of lysozyme. It was this discovery that led other medical scientists - Flory and Chesh to study the therapeutic properties of penicillin, as a result of which the drug was isolated and subjected to clinical trials.

The 1945 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was jointly awarded to Fleming "for the discovery of penicillin and its curative effects in various infectious diseases." In the Nobel lecture, Fleming noted that "the phenomenal success of penicillin has led to intensive study of the antibacterial properties of molds and other lower representatives of the plant world."

Over the last 10 years of his life, Fleming was awarded 25 honorary degrees, 26 medals, 18 prizes, 13 awards and honorary membership in 89 academies of sciences and scientific societies, and in 1944 - a title of nobility.

In 1952 he married Amalia Koutsuris-Vureka, a bacteriologist and former student of his. Three years later, he died of myocardial infarction at the age of 73.

Who is the first?

From the history of medicine. Who discovered penicillin?

What's with the weird question? The schoolboy knows that penicillin was discovered by the English physician Alexander Fleming, who was awarded the honorary Nobel Prize for this discovery, which saved and continues to save many thousands and thousands of human lives.

However, take your time, because today there is every reason to believe that the miraculous drug was discovered years before Fleming: by the French medical student Ernest Augustin Duchenne, who in his dissertation described in detail the surprisingly effective effective drug he discovered for fighting various bacteria that adversely affect the human body.

The young Frenchman (he was then 21 years old) failed to develop and study his discovery in detail - illness prevented him, and then his early death. Colleagues, apparently, either simply forgot about this work or did not pay attention to it. Alexander Fleming, of course, did not know anything about this. Only recently in France, in Leon, was accidentally found a dissertation by Ernest Duchense.

Interesting about mushrooms

1) Mushrooms have a selective feature for the accumulation of elements, in particular, dangerous to human health. The level of their content serves as an indicator of environmental pollution. Of particular danger is the tendency of edible mushrooms to accumulate heavy metals in areas of industrial emissions, large cities, railways and highways.
This ability is much more pronounced in them than in higher plants and other organisms. That is why it is impossible to collect mushrooms in places contaminated with industrial waste. This applies to absolutely all mushrooms, and not just pigs. There can be 30-550 times more mercury in mushrooms than in the soil below them. As you move away from the center of pollution, the content of harmful substances decreases. The maximum content of mercury is established for representatives of the genus "champignon", and there is a lot of it in white fungus. The high content of heavy metals in edible mushrooms causes severe poisoning, like poisonous mushrooms.

The group of unconditionally poisonous mushrooms consists of about 20 species. The nature of the poisoning is characterized by the number of fungi and the state of human health. Fatal poisoning causes: pale grebe (green fly agaric), fly agaric - panther, smelly, red spring, combed umbrella, orange-red cobweb, yellow-skinned champignon, Fibrous Patuillard, sulfur-yellow honey agaric, whitish and waxy talker, gray entoloma, brindle, white and gray-yellow row, fringed galleyrina, false raincoat, line.

False honeycomb brick-red formerly considered poisonous, now classified as an edible mushroom.

Muscarine and a derivative of ibotenic acid - tricholic acid, muscimol and muscazone, present in the red fly agaric, panther and Fibrous Patuillard, cause disorders of the central nervous system, expressed in hallucinations, fits of laughter or crying, lowering blood pressure, loss of consciousness. Causes fatal poisoning in many cases.

Certain types of tinder fungus have medicinal properties.

The name "tinder fungus" did not appear by chance. Before the invention of matches, the dried tissue of these mushrooms was used as tinder, i.e. material that ignited when hit by a spark carved using silicon. Later, this use of tinder fungus was forgotten, but the name has remained to this day. These mushrooms also had another curious application - the manufacture of a material that is a cross between leather and felt. To do this, the lower (tubular) layer of the fungus was separated from the upper one and soaked for one month in an alkaline solution, then beaten with a hammer and, if necessary, embossed. Jackets, hats, mittens, etc. could be sewn from such material. It is with this craft that a historical fact is connected. In the last century in Germany, from the material obtained from one huge tinder fungus, a cassock was sewn for the Archbishop of Freiburg.

The weight of the fruiting body in large specimens can reach 20 kg. In the UK, for example, at present, a tinder fungus with a diameter of about 4 m is growing on the territory of the Mycological Institute (Eden). The largest edible tinder fungus in terms of mass was found in the USA; its weight was 32 kg. Among the tinder fungi, there are real centenarians, whose age is estimated at tens of years (up to 80).

The most, most ... (from the Guinness Book of Records)

The largest: the puffball mushroom Galvatiagigantea, with a girth of 194.3 cm, was found in 1985 in Wisconsin (USA), in Washington (USA) in 1946 they found the tinder fungus Oxyporus (Fomes) nobilissimus, 142x94 cm in size, weighing about 136 kg.

The most poisonous: species of the genus fly agaric (Amanita). One of the most poisonous is the pale grebe (A. phalloides). The highest content of fungal spores in the air is 161,037 pieces per 1 cu. Registered in 1971 near Cardiff (UK).

Oldest: Antarctic crustose lichens over 100 mm in diameter are at least 10,000 years old.

Symbiosis of fungi with animals. “They take this parenchyma to their nests, chew it there and use it as fertilizer to breed the mycelium of the fungus they need.”

Read the story Gullivers of the twentieth century.“The mushrooms differed in taste, they resembled either meat, or bread, or cheese, and sometimes their taste was unfamiliar, but still pleasant ...”

Garlic mushroom (Marasmius scorodonius). Synonyms: garlic, musseron, onion mushroom, cartilage. It has a pronounced garlic odor. Garlic mushrooms have excellent flavor retention when dried, so their powder can be used throughout the year. It is extremely highly valued as a spice in Western European cooking.

In Georgia, mushrooms are used in cheese making as a milk-clotting enzyme instead of traditional rennet, for these purposes they use rough panus (Panus rudis) and ear-shaped panus (Panus conchatus). In cheese making, molds are also used - lower mushrooms - in the manufacture of cheeses such as Roquefort and Camembert. For cheeses like Roquefort, Penicillium roquefortii is used, and Camembert is Penicillium camemberti.

psilocybin mushrooms(genus Psilosybe) or the so-called "hallucinogenic" have been used for many hundreds of years in various ritual practices.

Modern studies of water suggest that it is not just a liquid, but a living substance that has memory, the ability to carry information (living, dead water - fabulous statements are not so groundless) and even reason.

Such a picture was obtained from frozen water, which stood in a bottle for a long time, on a shelf in a room where mushrooms grow.

2) People knew about mushrooms already in the distant past. In the 4th century BC, the Greek scientist Theophrastus mentioned truffles, morels, mushrooms in his writings. After 5 centuries, the Roman naturalist Pliny also wrote about mushrooms. He was the first to try to divide mushrooms into useful and harmful. Mushrooms are amazing living things. They have neither roots nor leaves, they do not bloom and do not produce the usual fruits with seeds. They reproduce by spores, which are carried by those mushrooms that we pick from a mushroom tree located underground. There are many types of edible mushrooms. The most famous are white, boletus, boletus, boletus, milk mushrooms, mushrooms, chanterelles, russula, honey mushrooms. Less well-known are goats, mossiness mushrooms, yellow mushrooms, whites, serushkas, valuis, blackies, pigs, bittersweet. All of them are combined into a hat group, as they consist of a hat, legs and hemp. Mushrooms that differ in structure from cap mushrooms are also edible - these are lines, morels and truffles. Fresh mushrooms contain a significant amount of water, 90% on average. During heat treatment, the amount of water is almost halved, during drying it is reduced to a minimum.

In terms of their nutritional content, mushrooms are superior to many vegetables and fruits, and in terms of chemical composition and a number of features they are close to products of animal origin. But, as shown by numerous studies, the cell membranes of fungal tissues, consisting of cellulose, are practically indigestible by humans, and therefore the substances contained in them are inaccessible to the human body. In this respect, the champions among mushrooms are chanterelles and honey mushrooms. They pass through the entire digestive tract unchanged in the form in which they appeared after chewing. Therefore, mushrooms in human nutrition are just a very pleasant TASTING SUPPLEMENT to food, which improves the motility of the gastrointestinal tract due to its volume, promotes proper digestion, but practically does not give away the substances contained in it. Picking mushrooms is best in the morning. When collecting, they should be cut with a knife (leg at the base), but not uprooted. This preserves the mycelium from which the fungi reproduce. If the mushroom is not very familiar by external signs, pull it out very carefully and inspect the lower part, determining the signs by which it can be attributed to a certain type of edible mushroom. You can not collect unfamiliar, overripe and wormy mushrooms. The collected mushrooms perish quickly, so no later than after 4–5 hours they must be used for cooking or harvesting for future use.

Do not get carried away with prolonged washing of mushrooms, because. because they absorb a very large amount of water, and their consistency deteriorates. It is better to rinse under running water and let the water drain. Porcini mushrooms are poured 2-3 times with boiling water, tubular and lamellar ones are boiled for 4-5 minutes. This is necessary to reduce the volume, give softness, eliminate crumbling when cutting. At home, mushrooms are harvested for future use by drying, pickling, salting and canning in hermetically sealed glass jars.

When drying mushrooms, up to 76% of their water is removed from them. The remaining moisture for the development of microorganisms is not enough. They either die or become inactive. When preparing natural canned food, the microflora is killed by the high temperature at which canned food is sterilized. During pickling, the vital activity of microorganisms is suppressed by high temperature during cooking, and then by the action of acetic acid and common salt. When pickling mushrooms, fermentation occurs, during which the sugars are converted into lactic acid. The latter, together with table salt, is a preservative.

The message about mushrooms for children can be used in preparation for the lesson. The story about mushrooms for children can be supplemented with interesting facts.

report about mushrooms

Mushrooms are very interesting organisms. They are not plants or animals. Mushrooms constitute a special kingdom of living organisms. What we call a mushroom is its fruiting body. The mushroom itself is hidden in the soil. Consists of thin white threads - mycelium.

The mushroom picker sometimes lives for hundreds of years. When there is a lot of heat and moisture, in some places of the mycelium, a fruiting body breaks out of the ground - a leg with a hat. Spores form in the lower part of the cap, they disperse and give rise to new mycelium.

There are many different mushrooms on earth. Currently, more than 100 thousand species of mushrooms are known. They can be found in a variety of places - in fresh and sea water, in the field and garden, in the meadow and in the mountains. Among them there are microscopic species, there are also giants.

Mushrooms are divided into two types:

• edible(white mushroom, real camelina, real breast; birch boletus, boletus, oak, butterdish, champignons, russula, autumn honey agaric, common chanterelle, etc.)
• inedible(pale grebe, fly agaric, gall fungus, etc.)

There are about 30 species of inedible mushrooms in our forests. They coexist with edible mushrooms, they often look like them and show their cunning not immediately, but a few hours after eating.

report about b spruce mushroom

Porcini- delicious, amazingly aromatic.
It got its name because of its pulp: it is white, does not change color on the cut, remains white both in the dried mushroom and in the boiled one.
At the bottom of the cap is a layer of tubules. In a young mushroom, it is white, but then becomes yellow-green.
But the upper side of the cap of porcini mushrooms is different - from dark brown to light, almost white. The mushroom grows in spruce, pine and birch forests.

report about boletus

Boletus (birch) - a common edible mushroom, a bit like white. But his hat is softer, the leg is thinner and longer. Hat color from dark brown to white. It is called "baby", "grandmother", "grey mushroom", "chernysh". It occurs in birch or birch-mixed forests. Grows alone and in groups.

report about russula

Russula- Mushrooms are very diverse in coloring of caps. They all got their name, probably due to the fact that some of them can be eaten raw with salt. But although most russula are edible, among them there are inedible, poisonous ones. Russula is very brittle, and therefore not all mushroom pickers like to collect them.

report about chanterelles

Chanterelles- famous edible mushrooms. They resemble fox fur in their bright color, for which they got their name. This mushroom is found in coniferous, deciduous and mixed forests. Chanterelles almost always grow in families. Chanterelles are remarkable in that they are not wormy.

report about mushrooms honey mushrooms

honey agaric autumn grows in large groups on stumps, roots and near the trunks of living and dead trees. They appear at the end of summer and autumn, often in such quantity that mushroom pickers collect them in bags. The pulp is white, with a pleasant smell. It is undesirable to collect old mushrooms with large straightened hats.

report about champignon

Champignon ordinary- a valuable edible mushroom of white or grayish color. The flesh is white, but turns pink when cut.
Champignon can be found in the meadow, pasture, garden, park. This mushroom is specially grown and sold in stores.

report about boletus

Butterdish is an edible mushroom that got its name because of the slimy, as if smeared with oil, sticky hat.

Report about the loader

real breast all white. Having broken off a piece, we will see white pulp, white juice, which quickly turns yellow. In Rus', this mushroom has long been very much appreciated. He loves aspen forests.

We hope that the above information about mushrooms has helped you. And you can leave your report on mushrooms through the comment form.