Alien speech in Russian. "Methods of transmitting someone else's speech In which sentence someone else's speech is not transmitted

Mankind would not be able to achieve today's progress without the possibility of verbal communication with each other. Speech is our wealth. The ability to communicate with people of both their own and other nationalities has allowed countries to come to the current level of civilization.

someone else's speech

In addition to one's own words, there is such a thing as "foreign speech". These are statements that do not belong to the author, but are included in the general conversation. The words of the author himself are also called someone else's speech, but only those phrases that he spoke either in the past or plans to say in the future. Mental, the so-called "inner speech", also refers to someone else's. It can be oral or written.

As an example, let's quote from Mikhail Bulgakov's book The Master and Margarita: "Do you think?" Berlioz whispered anxiously, and he himself thought: "But he's right!"

Transmission of someone else's speech

Over time, special ways of transmitting someone else's speech appeared in the language:

1. Direct speech.
2. Indirect speech.
3. Dialogue.
4. Citation.

Direct speech

If we consider the ways of transmitting someone else's speech, then this one is intended for verbatim reproduction of the form and content of the conversation.

The constructions of direct speech consist of two parts - these are the words of the author and, in fact, direct speech. The structure of these structures may be different. So, how can there be ways of transmitting someone else's speech? Examples:

• The words of the author come first, followed by direct speech.

Masha entered the hotel room, looked around, and then turned to Kolya and said: “Great room! I would even live here.”

• Here, first there is a direct speech, and only then the words of the author.

"Great room! I would even live here," said Masha Kolya when she entered the hotel room.

• The third method allows you to alternate direct speech with the words of the author.

“Great room!” Masha admired when she entered the hotel room. Then she turned to Kolya: “I would stay here to live.”

Indirect speech

Third person speech can be transmitted in a variety of ways. One of them is the use of indirect speech. Indirect speech is a complex sentence with Thus, someone else's speech can be transmitted. Examples:

Masha told Kolya that the hotel room was excellent, and she would even stay in it.

They greeted each other, and Andrei told Mikhail Viktorovich that he was very glad to see him.

Means of communication

What union or allied word to connect the main and subordinate clauses in indirect speech is called the choice of means of communication. It depends on the original sentence and on the message can be declarative, motivating or interrogative.

• In a declarative sentence, the conjunctions “what”, “as if”, or “as if” are most often used. For example: A student said: "I will speak at a seminar with a report on the environmental problems of the region." / The student said that he would make a presentation at the seminar on the environmental problems of the region.
• In the imperative sentence, the conjunction "to" is used. For example: The principal of the school ordered: "Take part in the city exhibition." / The director of the school ordered that they take part in the city exhibition.
• In an interrogative sentence, the particle “whether” or the double particles “whether…whether” can become a means of communication. For example: Students asked the teacher: “When do you need to take a term paper in your subject?” / The students asked the teacher when it would be necessary to take the term paper.

In indirect speech, it is customary to use pronouns and verbs from the position of the speaker. When sentences are translated from direct speech into indirect speech, the word order is often changed in them, and the loss of individual elements is also noted. Most often these are interjections, particles, or For example: “Tomorrow, maybe it will be quite cold,” my friend said. / My friend suggested that it would be very cold tomorrow.

Improper direct speech

Considering the ways of transmitting someone else's speech, one should also mention such a phenomenon as improperly direct speech. This concept includes both direct and indirect speech. An utterance of this kind retains, in whole or in part, both the syntactic and lexical features of speech, and conveys the manner of the speaker.

Its main feature is the transmission of the story. It's from the perspective of the author, not the character himself.

For example: "She paced the room, not knowing what to do. Well, how to explain to her brother that it was not she who told her parents everything. After all, they themselves will not tell about it. But who will believe her! How many times she betrayed his tricks, and then … We need to come up with something.”

Dialogue

Another way to transmit someone else's speech is a conversation between several people, expressed by direct speech. It consists of replicas, that is, the transmission of the words of each participant in the conversation without changing them. Each spoken phrase is connected with others in structure and meaning, and punctuation marks do not change when transmitting someone else's speech. The dialogue may contain the words of the author.

For example:

Well, how do you like our number? Kolya asked.

Great room! Masha answered him. I would even live here.

Dialog types

There are several basic types of dialogues. They convey the conversations of people with each other and, like a conversation, can be of a different nature.

• The dialogue may consist of questions and answers to them:

Great news! When will the concert take place? - asked Vika.

A week later, on the seventeenth. He will be there at six o'clock. You should definitely go, you won't regret it!

• Sometimes the speaker is interrupted in mid-sentence. In this case, the dialogue will consist of unfinished phrases that the interlocutor continues:

And at this time, our dog began to bark loudly ...

Ah, I remembered! You were still wearing a red dress then. Yes, we had a great time that day. Will have to do it again somehow.

• In some dialogues, the speakers' remarks complement and continue the general idea. They talk about one common subject:

Let's save up some more money and we can already buy a small house, - said the father of the family.

And I'll have my own room! I must have my own room! And doggy! We're getting a dog, aren't we, Mom? - asked seven-year-old Anya.

Certainly. Who else can guard our house? Mom answered her.

• Sometimes the interviewers may agree or refute each other's statements:

I called her today,” he told his sister, “I think she felt bad. The voice is weak and hoarse. Got completely sick.

No, she's already better, - the girl answered. - The temperature subsided, and the appetite appeared. He will recover completely soon.

This is how the main forms of dialogue look like. But do not forget that we do not communicate only in one style. During a conversation, we combine various phrases, situations. Therefore, there is also a complex form of dialogue, containing various combinations of it.

Quotes

When a student is asked: "Name the ways of transmitting someone else's speech," he most often recalls the concepts of direct and indirect speech, as well as quotations. Quotations are verbatim reproductions of the statements of a certain person. They quote phrases in order to clarify, confirm or refute someone's thought.

Confucius once said, "Choose a job you love and you won't have to work a day in your life."

A quotation as a way of conveying someone else's speech helps to demonstrate one's own education, and sometimes drive the interlocutor into a dead end. Most people know that certain phrases were once uttered by someone, but they don’t know who those people were. When using quotes, you need to be sure of their authorship.

Finally

There are various ways to convey someone else's speech. The main ones are direct and indirect speech. There is also a way that includes both of these concepts - this is improperly direct speech. A conversation between two or more people is called a dialogue. And this is also the transmission of someone else's speech. And, to quote Socrates: "The only true wisdom is in the realization that we essentially know nothing."

Context-variable text division

An essential feature of a literary text is the reflection in it of a plurality of points of view, which, in fact, corresponds to the plurality of voices, points of view in life itself. Indeed, in reality, the most diverse points of view coexist, while their overlap, coincidence, intersection, repulsion or attraction occurs.

If we summarize multiple points of view, then two of the most important stand out among them, generalizing all the rest in the text. These are the author's point of view and the character's point of view, which respectively form basic compositional and speech forms of presentation - the author's speech and the character's speech (someone else's speech).

Arranged linearly, horizontally throughout the text, the statements of the author and characters make up speech parties that express a certain worldview, position. In order to identify these speech parts, it is extremely important to carry out a vertical segmentation of the text in order to find the vertical context for each voice. Vertical contexts, representing various speech parties, permeate the horizontal, the structure of the text and reflect the plurality of points of view. Οʜᴎ appear in the text in various compositional and speech forms.

The system of using different points of view in literary works to express different subjective positions originates in Russian literature from the works of A.S. Pushkin - the novel ʼʼEugene Oneginʼʼ, ʼʼTales of Belkinʼʼ, etc.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the context-variative articulation of the text primarily distinguishes two speech streams in it - the speech of the author and the speech of the character.

A) Description by definition, it is directed to the material, objective world, the human world. In literary texts, this is primarily a description of the macrocosm surrounding a person - nature, place and terrain, space, objects and things that fill it. The microcosm of the person himself is also described - his appearance, physical and emotional state. In literary texts, it is common to pair descriptions of the macro- and microworld of a person: the description of the external world of reality correlates with the internal state of the character of a prose work or the lyrical hero of a poetic text.

Consider the poem 3. Gippius ʼʼMomentʼʼ:

The sky shines through the window,

Evening sky, quiet, clear.

My lonely heart is crying with happiness,

I'm glad the sky is so beautiful.

Quiet, pre-night light burns,

My joy comes from the light.

And now there is no one in the world.

There is only God, heaven and me in the world.

In this poem, the universal features of the description are clearly expressed: static character, the use of imperfective present tense verbs, the expression of a typical logical relationship - existence<существования>, along with characterization (sky - high, quiet, clear; heart - lonely; light - quiet, late night etc.). Usually, the description uses the verbs of being and state. Here are the verbs of manifestation of quality (shine), sound ( cry) and combustion (lit) under the influence of the logical-syntactic construction, delexicalize and acquire existential semantics.

Descriptive texts are rare, mostly the description interacts in literary works with other context-variant speech forms.

b) Narration- the main driving mechanism of the plot; its universal attribute is dynamism. Most often in the narrative, actional verbs are used in the past tense, which convey the sequence of events, their dynamics and make up the narrative outline. The main logical-semantic relations in the narrative are temporal sequence, conditionality relations (causal, conditional, goals, etc.). In terms of formal grammatical, the use of composition and subordination is characteristic. You can consider as an example the narrative context from the story of V. Shukshin ʼʼCut offʼʼ: Last year, Gleb cut off the colonel ...

Usually, verbs of a specific physical action, activity, movement, speech activity, etc. are used in narrative contexts.

The narrative, like the description, can occur in its pure form, when it is not complicated by other context-variant forms. Texts built only on narrative are folklore works (myths and fairy tales mainly), narrative stories, tales, lyric poems.

Many of Igor Irteniev's poems are plot-driven, dynamic, and predominantly verbal. For example, the poem ʼʼForest Schoolʼʼ:

A boy was walking through the forest

curly boy,

And stumbled on a stump

About the stump is clumsy.

And about this about the stump,

About the clumsy stump,

Everyone said he could

The boy is curly.

This boy used to

He spoke harshly.

Taught him a stump

Talk curly.

V) reasoning as a compositional-speech form is characterized by separation from the plot. Reasoning slows down the development of text events. In formal logic, reasoning is usually understood as a chain of reflections, inferences on a topic, presented in a certain rather rigid sequence. In this case, three parts are usually distinguished in the structure of reasoning: thesis, proof (argumentation) and conclusion in the form of a generalization or conclusion.

Let us cite as illustrations the aphorisms of Pyotr Yakovlevich Chaadaev:

They say about Russia that it does not belong to either Europe or Asia, that it is a separate world.
Hosted on ref.rf
So be it. But it is still necessary to prove that humanity, in addition to its two sides, defined by the words - west and east, also has a third side.

There are people who create their hearts with their minds, others create their minds with their hearts; the latter are more successful than the former, because there is much more reason in feeling than in the reason of feelings.

Reasoning is usually timeless, global, generalizing.
Hosted on ref.rf
Οʜᴎ is the mouthpiece of the author's ideas, expressing his worldview, embodied in the explanatory form of the author's speech. In a prose text, the author's reasoning is usually found in the author's digressions, remarks, comments on the events described, the actions of the characters, etc.

As you can already see, reasoning is a compositional-speech form, characteristic of both prose and poetic texts. Let's take another poetic example:

The moon rises in the night sky

And, bright, rests in love.

The evening wind roams the lake,

Kissing the happy water.

Oh what a divine union

Eternally created for each other!

But people made for each other

Connect, alas, so rarely.

N. Gumilyov. Connection

In this poem, the description of the harmony of nature, the beauty of the night landscape served as the reason for the discussion about how rare the divine harmony of people is.

Airships fly across the sky

Trains run along the rails

Ships across the blue sea

They float to no one knows where.

Movement in nature plays

Great value, friends,

Because it makes

The basis of all existence.

And if in the process of movement

You will pass, comrade, for me,

That is your position

I will accept it with dignity.

And feeling depressed chest

The warmth of your heel

I will shout: ʼʼLong live people,

May their tread be light!ʼʼ

Reasoning designed for comic effect is usually characterized by mundane, trivial and primitive judgments, in contrast to serious reasoning, which is characterized by originality and brightness of thought.

This type of speech is the main constructive component of the structure of the character's image. The forms of the speech embodiment of the characters are diverse, and their choice is determined both by the author's subjective and creative intent, and objectively - by the character of the character himself.

2.1) External speech character is a set of statements of the character spoken aloud, which function in the text as independent replicas that make up the speech part of the character and perform the function of his speech characterization. At the same time, the features of oral colloquial speech are preserved at the lexical, syntactic and intonational levels.

Given the dependence on the methods of inclusion in the text, the following constructive varieties of external speech: polylogue, dialogue, monologue, constructions with direct speech, constructions with indirect speech, improperly direct speech.

polylogue is a stream of replicas of various characters, and the persons uttering these replicas are not always indicated. In the text, the replicas of a polylogue are usually drawn up as independent statements occupying separate lines, and the indicator of their oral pronunciation is a dash before the replica. This form of textual representation of someone else's speech actively manifested itself in Russian literature of the 1920s-1930s, which is explained by the desire to portray the people, mass consciousness, and dialogize the text. As an illustration, here is a text fragment from the novel by Artem Vesely ʼʼRussia washed with bloodʼʼ (the punctuation and graphics of the text are preserved by the authors):

A soldier's throat is a cannon mouth.

A thousand sips - a thousand guns.

From every throat - a howl and a roar:

Dug in...

Haba-ba...

Speak, speak more.

Exhausted, exhausted...

Fight, who needs to live.

Three hundred and seven years endured. - Down with the war!

Drop your weapons!

With such an image of oral speech, the content of statements (what is said) is highlighted and, accordingly, the participants in speech acts are not specified (who - to whom), their characterization is reduced and the process of speech activity itself is not characterized (as they say). The author draws speakers in an extremely generalized way with the help of figurative associations. (soldier's throat - cannon mouth etc.) and characterizes speech (howl, roars, screams, like bombs).

Dialogue- a form of verbal communication between two characters. It can also be a collection of lines without specifying the characters who say them. Let's turn again to the fragment from the novel by Artem Vesely:

The words of the stanishnik seemed to me like a mockery, I ask:

Heard what they say about the Bolsheviks? Sold, do you hear?

The dog barks at the master.

What kind of Bolsheviks are they?

Party - down with the war, peace without any indemnities. The right party for us.

Is that right, mate?

Holy work is holy.

Are you a Bolshevik yourself?

So home?

Straight path, light breeze.

My heart ached...

In a prose text, the replicas of the characters in the dialogue may be accompanied by the author's commentary (see, for example, V. M. Shukshin's story ʼʼCut offʼʼ).

The main functions of dialogue and polylogue are the creation of a polyphonic work, the introduction of multiple worldview points of view, the expression of various evaluative positions, as well as the characterological function of creating a speech portrait of a character.

Monologue- this is such a form of textual representation of someone else's speech, which allows the author to more fully and openly express the character's point of view on a specific event, act, express his knowledge of the world, his beliefs. In this regard, the monologue is usually a reasoning on a specific issue. So, in the story of V. M. Shukshin ʼʼ Cut offʼʼ his main character Gleb Kapustin utters a monologue on the topic of candidacy (... Let me tell you, Mr. Candidate, that being a candidate is not a suit that you bought once and for all. But even a suit needs to be cleaned sometimes).

The monologic speech of a character in a prose text is a signal of textual tension, since it is initiated primarily by some kind of emotional experience, passions, and therefore, as a rule, is saturated with emotive, evaluative vocabulary, expressive syntactic constructions.

Polylogue, dialogue, monologue are typical compositional and speech forms of dramatic works, the main essential characteristics of the dramatic genre.

Constructions with direct speech most adequately reflect the structure of speech acts, since they also contain indications of the participants in speech activity (the speaker and the listener), reveal the content of speech and characterize the process of speaking, pronouncing. These constructions graphically interpret the replicas of the characters, which are given in quotation marks or are separated by a prepositive dash, and are also separated from the author's replicaty (in preposition) or by a colon (in postposition).

Such constructions are interesting in that they have unlimited potential for the author's interpretation in a remark to a character's speech. In this case, the position of the predicate ͵ that introduces a replica is especially significant, in which, of course, verbs of speech specialized for this function are used. This semantic class of verbs is very numerous in Russian. Verbs of speech mark various features of pronunciation: diction, clarity, loudness, tempo, intensity of speech, etc.
Hosted on ref.rf
(to lisp, to stammer, to exclaim, to chatter, to yell, to whisper etc.), they are able to denote verbal communication (negotiate, negotiate etc.), voice message (declare, declare, announce etc.), speech impact (praise, scold, insult etc.), verbal expression of emotions ( cry, beg, beg and etc.). But much more interesting and stylistically significant is the use of verbs of various semantic groups as speech predicates. This becomes possible due to the peculiarities of the structure itself with direct speech: the verb word, placed at the junction of the replica as part of the remark, begins to experience semantic buildup along with the main meaning, to convey the idea of ​​speaking. Here are examples from the story ʼʼCut offʼʼ:

(1) - Candidates? - surprised Gleb(Text meaning: said, surprised).

(2) - Kostya was actually good at math, - someone remembered ...

(3) He revived.

Here, as predicates introducing direct speech, the emotive verb is used (to be surprised) mental activity verb (recall) and emotional gesture verb (come to life). This is typical for artistic speech, since it is emotive vocabulary, vocabulary of mental activity, gesture, movement, sound, etc., that are most often used as words that introduce speech.
Hosted on ref.rf
This allows the author to show the inseparable connection of the character's speech with his inner emotional and intellectual world, the unity of speech and gestural behavior, speech and movement of the character.

Constructions with direct speech allow the author to simultaneously convey the speech of the character, describe the features of this speech, evaluate it (in the author's remark) and directly reflect the features of the character's speech at the lexical and grammatical level as part of remarks.

Structures with indirect speech less expressive, their function is to display, first of all, the content of the character's statement in a literary processed form, without deliberately emphasizing pronunciation features. Οʜᴎ is a complex sentence, where the main part is functionally similar to the author's remark, and the explanatory clause conveys the content of the statement. Here is a context containing such constructions from A. Platonov's story ʼʼThe Origin of the Masterʼʼ, which tells how ʼʼZakhar Pavlovich was looking for the most serious party in order to immediately enroll in itʼʼ:

Nowhere was he exactly told about the day when earthly bliss would come. Some answered that happiness is a complex product and the goal of a person is not in it, but in historical laws. And others said that happiness consists in a continuous struggle that will last forever.

In the next game, they said that man is such a magnificent and greedy creature that it is even strange to think about saturating him with happiness - it would be the end of the world.

Improperly direct speech. The term itself was proposed in the 1920s. V. V. Voloshinov. The peculiarity of this type of speech is the contamination of the voices of the author and the character, or, according to V. V. Vinogradov, ʼʼsliding of speech in different subjective spheresʼʼ. Eg:

The boy was lying on a sheepskin between the drivers. I stumbled near Kulubek and listened with all my ears to the conversation of adults. No one guessed that he was even glad that such a blizzard suddenly happened, forcing these people to seek refuge in their cordon. Secretly, he really wanted the storm not to subside for many days, at least three days. Let them live with them. So good with them! Interesting. Grandpa, it turns out, knows everything. Not themselves, so fathers and mothers (Ch. Aitmatov. White ship).

As you can see, contamination is found in the superimposition of signs of direct character and author's speech. Punctuationally, formally, the boundaries between these speech varieties are not marked in any way. In terms of expression, everything is drawn up in the same way, as one holistic author's description. The author's text usually dominates quantitatively. Character speech signals are a change in intonation (from narrative to motivating, emotionally expressive), the appearance of expressive syntactic constructions, incl. characteristic of oral speech: packaged, phraseologized. These constructions expose the inner experiences of the character, they are a way of depicting him from the inside, from the evaluative position of the character himself.

It is characteristic that improperly direct speech - the most complex way of organizing the speech parties of the author and the character - has become widespread in the literature of the 20th century. The voices of the author and the character in it are often so intertwined and merge that it is difficult to find the boundary between them.

2.2) Inner speech of the character. Along with the external, the character's speech part is also made up of his internal speech. Although it resembles external speech and is derived from it, it has its own characteristics, identified by psychologists (L. S. Vygotsky, A. A. Leontiev, N. I. Zhinkin and many others): associativity, truncation / deduction of structures, semantic curtailment, uncertainty, etc.
Hosted on ref.rf
This type of speech is used in a literary work primarily for the psychological analysis of the character's inner world, for describing his intellectual and emotional world. There are different textual varieties of inner speech, distinguished taking into account its volume (length), nature and methods of inclusion in the text, taking into account its content and the lexical and grammatical means used in it.

V. A. Kukharenko proposed the following typology of inner speech: stream of consciousness, inner monologue, auto-dialogue, small inclusions of inner speech (Kukharenko V.A. Text interpretation. 1988).

Mindflow. The term itself expresses the essence of the textual phenomenon it denotes - a reflection of the character's inner speech in a form that is closest to the real work of consciousness. The author in this case stands, as it were, above the character, does not interfere directly in the description of his experiences. The term ʼʼstream of consciousnessʼʼ was recorded in 1890 ᴦ. in the work of W. James ʼʼPrinciples of Psychologyʼʼ, where it is used to denote the flow of human experiences, and in 1922 ᴦ. he was remembered in connection with the work of J. Joyce ʼʼUlyssesʼʼ. It is this work that is usually pointed out as the most striking example of the depiction in literature of the flow of human experiences.

This way of describing the consciousness and subconsciousness of a character is extremely difficult for the writer and difficult for the reader to understand. It is necessary to have a high level of literary and artistic competence in order to adequately comprehend the character's stream of consciousness depicted in the text, which usually conveys the uncontrolled work of consciousness and subconsciousness, saturated with associations, folded images and devoid of clear logic.

internal monologue, just like an ordinary spoken monologue, contains reflections on some problems, most often difficult, insoluble. Its content should be addressed both to the past, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ evaluate, analyze, and to the future, to what they dream about, what they assume and plan. Signals of inner speech - the words of the author, indicating the thought process, usually these are verbs think, think thought and etc.
Hosted on ref.rf
For example, the story of V. M. Shukshin ʼʼThe suffering of young Vaganovʼʼ is saturated with various forms of inner speech. It also has an internal monologue:

But now, suddenly, it was clear and simply thought: ʼʼMaybe she is like that? Is she capable of loving like that?ʼʼ After all, if you think calmly and soberly, you need to calmly and soberly answer yourself: hardly. I didn’t grow up like that, I wasn’t brought up like that, I wasn’t used to such a life. In general, he can’t, and that’s all.

Autodialog signals discord in the inner world of the character, about the doubt that has settled there, about the struggle between good and evil, emotional and rational, mind and heart. The signal of disharmony of the inner world is ʼʼdialogization of consciousnessʼʼ (M. Bakhtin). This is also reflected in the lexico-grammatical level of auto-dialogue, in which evaluative vocabulary, interrogative, regulatory syntactic constructions, and reduced statements are actively used.

This story by Shukshin also contains auto-dialogues, ᴛ.ᴇ. character talking to himself:

Well, all right, - Vaganov was completely angry with himself, - if you are already a coward, then tell yourself so - soberly. After all, this is what happened: this Popova in some incomprehensible way strengthened you in a secret thought that Maya is the same, in essence, a professional consumer, an egoist, only one acts stupidly, while the other knows how and has immeasurably more. But this is even worse - it will kill more painfully. After all, that's what you sensed here, what a danger. Then just say so directly: ʼʼThey are all the same!ʼʼ - and put an end to it without starting the letter. And cowardly, and argue further - it's safer that way. Office hook!

Plebeian, son of a plebeian! Well, make a mistake, break the wood ... If you really break through this thickness of life, then not on all fours! Do not deprive yourself of a sober understanding of everything, do not build illusions, but already delve into everything ... this is also a dirty trick, pettiness!

Along with expanded textual forms of inner speech, there are also laconic, non-expanded forms, or, as we have already mentioned, ʼʼsmall inclusions of inner speechʼʼ, according to V. A. Kukharenko. Their function is to record the instantaneous emotive reactions of the character to the events of the outside world. In the story by N. A. Teffi ʼʼVyvalovyʼʼ, a number of similar inclusions of the inner speech of the boy Leshka, whom his parents from the village identified as ʼʼboys for room servicesʼʼ, describe his emotional reaction to the events taking place in the master's house.

Lyoshka held his breath, pressed himself against the wall and stood quietly until an angry cook swam past him, angrily rattling starched skirts.

ʼʼNo, pipes, - Leshka thought, - I won't go to the village. I'm not a fool guy, I want to curry favor so quickly. You won’t thrash me, not like that ʼʼ.

And, having waited for the return of the cook, he with decisive steps went to the rooms ʼʼ "Be, grit, before your eyes." And what eyes will I see when no one is ever at home ...ʼʼ

The tenant was not alone. With him was a young lady in a jacket and under a veil. Both shuddered and straightened up when Lyoshka entered.

ʼʼI'm not a fool, - Leshka thought, poking the poker into the burning firewood. - I'll get those eyes wet. I'm not a parasite - I'm all in business, all in business!..ʼʼ<...>

He found the tenant and guest silently bent over the table and immersed in the contemplation of the tablecloth.

ʼʼLook, they stared, - Leshka thought, - they must have noticed the spot. They think I don't understand! Found the fool! I understand everything. I work like a horse!ʼʼ<...>

The lodger bounced off his lady like a bullet.

ʼʼAn eccentric, - Leshka thought, leaving. - It's light in the room, and he gets scared!ʼʼ<...>

The tenant sat quietly next to the lady, but his tie was on his side, and he looked at Lyoshka with such a look that he only clicked his tongue:

ʼʼWhat are you looking at! I myself know that I am not a parasite, I do not sit idly by.<...>

This time the tenant did not hear Leshka's steps: he was kneeling in front of the lady and, bowing his head low to her legs, froze without moving. And the lady closed her eyes and her whole face cringed, as if looking at the sun ...

what is he doing there? Leshka was surprised. - Like a button on her shoe chews! Not ... apparently, he dropped something. I'll go look...ʼʼ

N. A. Teffi so persistently and consistently alternates narrative contexts and accompanying inclusions of the character’s inner speech, inadequately evaluating the actions of others, that this technique gives rise to a comic effect. In the text of the story, inclusions of inner speech are punctuated.

In conclusion, it should be noted that in a literary work, all the forms of context-variant division of the text discussed above interact, match, and complement each other.

2. Connectivity of the text

This is the most important text category, it is its presence that raises the status of a certain set of statements, turning them into text. Now there is a firm belief that, along with lexical and grammatical syntagmatics, there is a textual syntagmatics, which is found in the laws of interphrase compatibility, in the presence of special intratextual connections.

Text is a very complex sign, and therefore it has a flexible system of intratextual links: it is known that the lower the level of the language system, the more stringent the rules for combining its constituent units, and vice versa, the higher the level of the language system, the softer the rules for combining of its units.

The dominant feature of intratextual links is semantic agreement in a broad sense. All components of the text - from large (STS) to small (word) - must be semantically related to each other and correlated with the global content of the text. It is the semantic connection that is the foundation of the text, it determines its unity and integrity. All private lexical, formal-grammatical and other manifestations of coherence are due to the general semantic idea of ​​the text.

In our opinion, classification of intertext links should be based on the level representation of the text, since they are found at all its levels.

At the level of semantics, the existence of intratextual connections is due to the conceptual nature of the text and its correlation with a certain fragment of reality.

At the level of text grammar, they are determined by the laws of grammatical agreement and grammatical dependence, which are motivated by the laws of linguistic syntagmatics.

At the pragmatic level, these connections are due to the peculiarities of the individual author's style.

Taken all together, a variety of intratextual connections constitute a set of specialized components that are means of text formation.

Consider types of intratext links according to the named levels of the text.

Someone else's speech is the speech of the interlocutor, a third person, or the speaker's own speech, uttered earlier. Alien speech is also called what a person thinks that he writes. Alien speech is transmitted in various ways: with the help of sentences with direct speech, indirect speech, as well as a simple sentence.

Direct speech is exactly reproduced someone else's speech, transmitted on behalf of the one who uttered it (aloud or mentally). A sentence with direct speech consists of two parts: the speech of a stranger and the words of the author that accompany direct speech. For example: “Live Grisha! Our dear one is alive!” - Dunyashka yelled in a sobbing voice from afar (Sholokhov). Direct speech is enclosed in quotation marks. A colon is placed between the words of the author and direct speech when direct speech comes after the words of the author, and a dash when it comes before the words of the author or is broken by the words of the author. For example: Grigory, perking up, blinked at Natalya: “Petro will cut the Cossack at once, look.” "Did everyone leave?" thought Irina. “I will go with the Cossacks,” Listnitsky warned the platoon officer. - Tell me to saddle a black ”(Sholokhov). Each sentence in direct speech is written with a capital letter and at the end of it is put the sign that is needed for the purpose of the statement and the intonation of this sentence (a period, a question mark or an exclamation point).

Punctuation marks in sentences with direct speech

Dialogue. Dialogue punctuation marks

Dialogue is a conversation between two or more people. The words of each person participating in the conversation are called replicas. The words of the author may accompany the replica, or they may be absent. Each replica of the dialogue usually begins on a new line, a dash is placed before the replica, and quotes are not put. For example: Pan pointed to a chair with his hand: - Sit down. Gregory sat on the edge. - How do you like our horses? - Good horses. Gray is good too. - You drive it more often (Sholokhov).

Sentence with indirect speech

Sentences with indirect speech serve to convey someone else's speech on behalf of the speaker, and not the one who actually said it. Unlike sentences with direct speech, they convey only the content of someone else's speech, but cannot convey all the features of its form and intonation. Sentences with indirect speech are complex sentences consisting of two parts (the words of the author and indirect speech), which are connected by unions what, if, to, or pronouns and adverbs who, what, what, how, where, when, why, etc. , or a particle. Indirect speech with unions that, as if, expresses the content of the narrative sentences of someone else's speech. For example: The hunter said that he saw swans on the lake. The hunter said that he saw swans on the lake. Indirect speech with the union to expresses the content of the incentive sentences of someone else's speech. For example: The captain ordered the boats to be launched. Indirect speech with pronouns and adverbs what, who, what, how, where, where, when, why, etc., or whether a particle expresses the content of interrogative sentences of someone else's speech. For example: I asked what time it is; We asked the people we met where they were going; I asked a friend if he solved this problem. A question conveyed in indirect speech is called an indirect question. There is no question mark after an indirect question. When replacing sentences with direct speech with sentences with indirect speech, special attention should be paid to the correct use of personal and possessive pronouns, since in indirect speech we convey other people's words on our own behalf. It is also important to understand that not all features of someone else's speech can be conveyed indirectly. For example, in indirect speech there can be no appeals, interjections, forms of the imperative mood, and many other forms characteristic of oral speech.

When translating direct speech into indirect speech, such words and forms are either omitted altogether or replaced by others. For example: The teacher said: "Alyosha, go get some chalk." - The teacher told Alyosha to go get some chalk. The words of the author usually precede indirect speech and are separated from it by a comma.

Quotes and punctuation marks attached to them

Quotations are verbatim (accurate) excerpts from the statements and writings of someone, cited to confirm or clarify their thoughts. Quotations can stand at the words of the author and represent direct speech. In this case, punctuation marks in quotations are placed, as in sentences with direct speech. For example: V. G. Belinsky wrote: "Pushkin's verse is noble, elegantly simple, nationally true to the spirit of the language." But a quotation can also be introduced into the author's speech as part of a sentence. Then it is separated by quotation marks and is written with a lowercase letter. For example: The thought of Leo Tolstoy “time is the relation of the movement of one's life to the movement of other beings”, expressed in his diary, has a deep philosophical content. According to F. I. Chaliapin, art can go through times of decline, but "it is eternal, like life itself."

Ex. 79. Make diagrams of the following sentences with direct speech.

1. More and more often the words were recalled: “And maybe - at my sad sunset, love will flash with a farewell smile” (Pushkin). 2. “Follow me,” she said, taking my hand (Lermontov). 3. "Let me ... - Emil whispered in a trembling voice, - let me go with you." 4. “Conductor! shouted an angry voice. Why don't you give tickets? (Paustovsky). 5. “Well, this is positively interesting,” the professor said, shaking with laughter, “what is it with you, whatever you miss, there is nothing!” (Bulgakov). 6. He said: “I already heard it!” - and asked not to repeat.

Ex. 80. Rewrite sentences with direct speech, placing punctuation marks.

1. Shut up sternly said Dyers. 2. I want to dine with you the day after tomorrow at Prague, she said. Never been there and generally very inexperienced. I imagine what you think of me. In fact, you are my first love. 3. You are already talking to me on “you”, gaspingly, I said you could at least not speak to him on “you” in front of me. Why did she ask raising her eyebrows. 4. Finally, Sonya said Well, go to sleep and saying goodbye to them, I went to my place ... 5. When I ran up to them, he looked at me and managed to shout cheerfully And the doctor, hello, while she turned pale to deathly blue ... 6. How shining eyes he said You are not cold.

Ex. 81. Make sentences with direct speech using these replicas.

1. We won't be late? 2. No, I don't think so. 3. The fact is that I will not go. 4. Well then. I'm even envious. 5. In general, I confess, it will be better here than in the Crimea. 6. Farewell!

Ex. 82. Make a few sentences with indirect speech.

1. Will we have time to arrive at the station? 2. We have enough time. 3. His friend will not go with us. 4. They can be envied. 5. These places are better than Crimea. 6. When will they arrive? 7. How did they rest?

Ex. 83. Rewrite the text, replacing direct speech with indirect speech.

"Do you like our city?" the children asked. “I like it, especially the flowers decorate it,” I said. “We already have fifty thousand rose bushes. We will complete the plan next year. - "And here's the plan," - I was surprised. “But how? How many inhabitants in the city - so many bushes should bloom! - "Who came up with this?" - "Ivan Ivanovich". "And who is he, this Ivan Ivanovich?" I asked. “He is one of the first builders of the city,” the girl announced proudly. He plants flowers himself.

Ex. 84. Compose and write down sentences with these quotes according to the rules of punctuation, accompanying them with the words of the author. Use different verbs that introduce quotations.

1. Strictly speaking, the language is never finally established: it constantly lives and moves, developing and improving ... (Belinsky). 2. Grammar does not prescribe laws to the language, but explains and approves its customs (Pushkin). 3. ... Our extraordinary language itself is still a mystery (Gogol). 4. In the linguistic sense, the people are all people who speak the same language (Chernyshevsky). 5. Brevity is the sister of talent (Chekhov).

someone else's speech are the statements of other persons included in the author's narrative.

There are three main ways to transmit someone else's speech:

• sentences with direct speech;
• sentences with indirect speech;
• quotes.

Direct speech sentences

Direct speech- this is a way of transmitting someone else's speech with the preservation of all its features: intonation, vocabulary, incompleteness of sentences, word order; the use of interjections, addresses, exclamations, particles, introductory words ...

Example:

Kazbich interrupted him impatiently: “Go away, mad boy! Where can you ride my horse! (M. Lermontov)

Sentences with direct speech include the words of the author (the commentary part, which indicates to whom this speech belongs, how, under what conditions it was said, to whom it is addressed ...) (A, a) and direct speech (P, p).

Options for writing direct speech in writing

1. If direct speech is in front of the words of the author, then it is enclosed in quotation marks, written with a capital letter, followed by a comma (after quotation marks) or an exclamation point, question mark or ellipsis (before quotation marks) and a dash.

Example:

"P" - a.

“We once lived here,” Ivan sighed.

"P!" - A.

“Why, this is our school!” Ilya exclaimed.

"P?" - A.

“What do you hear about Sidorov?” Oleg asked.

2. If direct speech is in a sentence after the words of the author, then it is enclosed in quotation marks and begins with a capital letter, and a colon is placed after the words of the author.

Example:

A: "P".

Looking up at the sky, Igor thoughtfully said: “The birds have already flown away.”

A: "P!"

Andrei exclaimed: “I have seen many such people!”

A: "P?"

The doctor asked: “What was your temperature?”

3. If direct speech is broken by the words of the author, then quotation marks are placed at the beginning and end of the sentence, and the words of the author are separated from direct speech by dashes on both sides.

Example:

"P, - a, - p (?!)".

“Still, it’s better, Maxim Maksimych,” he answered, “to have a clear conscience” (M. Lermontov).

“P(?!), - a. - P(?!)".

"What are you thinking about? Ira asked. “Maybe about the future?”

Dialogue

Dialogue- This is a type of direct speech, which is a conversation of two or more persons.

Example:

“Maybe we can leave today? the father asked.

Arkhip thought for a moment, then answered confidently:

“It’s early today, better tomorrow morning.”

Each replica is written from a new line, and a dash is placed before the replica. Quotation marks are not put. An important difference between dialogue and direct and indirect speech is that the dialogue may not contain the words of the author at all.

Example:

“Are you going to the skating rink?

- I can not today.

- And when?

- I don't know yet".

If you liked it, share it with your friends:

Join us atFacebook!

See also:

Preparation for exams in Russian:

Essentials from theory:

We offer online tests:

indirect.

Direct and indirect speech differ not only in verbatim or non-verbatim transmission of someone else's speech. The main difference between direct speech and indirect speech lies in the way in which both are included in the author's speech. Direct speech is an independent sentence (or a series of sentences), and indirect speech is formed as a subordinate part as part of a complex sentence, in which the main part is the words of the author. Wed, for example: The silence went on for a long time. Davydov turned his eyes to me and said muffledly: “I was not the only one who gave his life to the desert.”(Paust.). - Davydov turned his eyes to me and said muffledly that he was not the only one who gave his life to the desert.. When translating direct speech into indirect, if necessary, the forms of pronouns change (I - he).

The lexical distinction between direct and indirect speech is by no means necessary. For example, direct speech can reproduce someone else's speech not verbatim, but necessarily with the preservation of its form (in the form of an independent sentence). This is evidenced by the words with the meaning of assumption, introduced into the author's speech: He said something like this... At the same time, indirect speech can literally reproduce someone else's speech, but it is not formed independently, cf .: He asked: “Will father come soon?”(direct speech). - He asked if his father would come soon(indirect speech).

With the convergence of forms of transmission of someone else's speech, i.e. direct and indirect, a special form is formed - indirect speech. For example: A gloomy day without sun, without frost. The snow on the ground had melted during the night, lying only on the roofs in a thin layer. Grey sky. Puddles. What sleds are there: it’s disgusting even to go out into the yard(Pan.). Here, someone else's speech is given verbatim, but there are no words introducing it, it is not formally singled out as part of the author's speech.

Direct speech conveys: 1) the statement of another person, for example: Startled, he asked: “But why do you go to my lectures?”(M. G.); 2) the words of the author himself, for example: I say, "What does he want?"(T.); 3) an unspoken thought, for example: It was only then that I straightened up and thought: “Why is my father walking around the garden at night?”(T.).

In the author's speech, there are usually words that introduce direct speech. These are primarily verbs of speech, thought: say, say, ask, ask, answer, think, notice(meaning "say") to speak, to object, to shout, to address, to exclaim, to whisper, to interrupt, to insert etc. Direct speech can also be introduced by verbs that characterize the target orientation of the statement, for example: reproach, decide, confirm, agree, assent, advise and others. In addition, sometimes verbs are used that denote actions and emotions accompanying the statement, for example: smile, be upset, be surprised, sigh, take offense, be indignant etc. In such cases, direct speech has a pronounced emotional coloring, for example: "Where are you?" Startsev was horrified(Ch.); "Also, please tell me!" Dymov smiled.(Ch.); “Yes, where are we going?” Spouses giggled.(Pan.).

Some nouns are sometimes used as introductory words. Like verbs that introduce direct speech, they have the meaning of statements, thoughts: words, exclamation, question, exclamation, whisper and others, for example: "Did the boy lie down?" - Panteley's whisper was heard a minute later(Ch.).

Direct speech can be located in relation to the author's in preposition, in postposition and in interposition, for example: "Tell me about the future," she asked him(M. G.); And when he held out his hand to her, she, kissing her with hot lips, said: “Forgive me, I am guilty before you.”(M. G.); And only when he whispered: “Mom! Mother!" He seemed to feel better...(Ch.). In addition, direct speech can be broken by author's words, for example: “The signorina is my constant opponent,” he said, “doesn’t she think that it would be better in the interests of the case if we get to know each other better?”(M. G.).

Depending on the location of direct speech, the order of the main members of the sentence in the author's speech usually changes. The words that introduce direct speech are always next to it. So, in the author's speech preceding the direct, the verb-predicate is placed after the subject, for example: ... Kermani cheerfully said: "A mountain becomes a valley when you love!"(M. G.). If the author's words are located after direct speech, the verb-predicate precedes the subject, for example: "You're going to be an architect, right?" she suggested and asked(M. G.).

Indirect speech

Indirect speech is someone else's speech, transmitted by the author in the form of a subordinate part of a sentence with the preservation of its content.

Unlike direct speech, indirect speech is always located after the author's words, designed as the main part of a complex sentence. Wed: "Now everything will change," said the lady(Paust.). - The lady said that everything will change now.

To introduce indirect speech, various unions and allied words are used, the choice of which is associated with the purposefulness of someone else's speech. If someone else's speech is a declarative sentence, then when making it in the form of an indirect one, the union is used that, for example: After some silence, the lady said that in this part of Italy it is better to travel at night without light. Wed: After some silence, the lady said: “In this part of Italy it is better to drive at night without lights.”(Paust.).

If someone else's speech is an incentive sentence, then when making indirect speech, the union is used to, for example: The guys are screaming for me to help them tie the grass(Shol.). Wed: The guys shout: “Help us tie the grass!”.

If someone else's speech is an interrogative sentence, which includes interrogative-relative pronominal words, then when making indirect speech, these pronominal words are preserved, and additional unions are not required. For example: I asked where this train goes. Wed: I asked, "Where is this train going?".

If in someone else's speech, designed as an interrogative sentence, there are no pronominal words, then the indirect question is expressed using the union whether. For example: I asked him if he would be busy. Wed: I asked him, "Will you be busy?". In those cases where an interrogative particle is present in someone else's speech, it turns into a union when making an indirect one, for example: “Should I put out the cinder?” Andersen asked(Paust.). Wed: Andersen asked if the cinder should be extinguished..

When making someone else's speech in the form of indirect, some lexical changes occur. So, for example, emotional lexical elements that are present in someone else's speech (interjections, particles) are omitted in indirect speech, and the meanings expressed by them are conveyed by other lexical means, and not always exactly, but approximately. Wed: Sometimes Chmyrev sighs, deeply and sadly; “Oh, if only I were literate and learned, I would have proved all the beginnings, she-bo-oh! ..”(M. G.). - Sometimes Chmyrev sighs, deeply and sadly, that if he were literate and scientific, he would prove everything he started.

In indirect speech, personal and possessive pronouns, as well as forms of personal verbs, are used from the point of view of the author, and not the speaker's face. Wed: “You are sad,” the stove-maker interrupts.(M. G.). - The stove-maker notices that I speak sadly; He told me, "I'll help you write the report." - He said he would help me write the report..

Direct speech and indirect speech can sometimes be mixed. In this case, in the subordinate part (indirect speech), all the lexical features of direct speech are preserved up to expressive and stylistic features. Such a mixture of two forms of transmitting someone else's speech is characteristic of a colloquial style, such speech is called semi-direct. For example: Stepan told me on my return that "Yakov Emelyanovich did not rest almost all night, everyone walked around the room"(Ax.); My father answered indifferently that he had something more important than concerts and all the visiting virtuosos, but, however, he would look, he would see, and if he had a free hour - why not? ever coming down(Dost.).

Improper direct speech

There is a special way of transmitting someone else's speech, which contains the features of both direct speech and partly indirect speech. This indirect speech, its specificity is as follows: like direct speech, it retains the features of the speaker's speech - lexical-phraseological, emotional-evaluative; on the other hand, as in indirect speech, it follows the rules for replacing personal pronouns and personal forms of verbs. The syntactic feature of improperly direct speech is its non-selection in the composition of the author's speech.

Improper direct speech is not formalized as a subordinate clause (unlike indirect speech) and is not introduced by special introductory words (unlike direct speech). It does not have a typed syntactic form. This is someone else's speech, directly included in the author's narration, merging with it and not delimiting from it. An improperly direct speech is conducted not on behalf of the person, but on behalf of the author, narrator, someone else's speech is reproduced in the author's speech with its inherent features, but at the same time does not stand out against the background of the author's speech. Wed: Friends visited the theater and unanimously declared: “We really liked this performance!”(direct speech). - Friends visited the theater and unanimously declared that they really liked this performance(indirect speech). - Friends visited the theater. They really enjoyed this show!(inappropriately direct speech).

Improper direct speech is a stylistic figure of expressive syntax. It is widely used in fiction as a technique for bringing the author's narration closer to the characters' speech. This way of presenting someone else's speech allows you to preserve the natural intonations and nuances of direct speech and at the same time makes it possible not to sharply delimit this speech from the author's narration. For example:

Just went out into the garden. On high ridges covered with snow, the sun was spreading. The sky was carefree. Sparrow sat down on the fence, jumped up, turned right and left, the sparrow's tail provocatively stuck up, his round brown eye looked at Tolka with surprise and merriment - what is happening? What does it smell like? After all, spring is still far away!(Pan.);

She was ruthless, she forgave nothing to people. In her youthful enthusiasm, she did not understand how it was possible to stoop to nodding at the conveyor. What are you dreaming of, citizen? Go home to sleep, I'll manage without you...

Sometimes she was also streaked with fatigue. Then she did not sing songs, as others did: singing distracted her from work. She preferred to quarrel with someone to cheer up - for example, to find fault with the controllers that they looked through the same fuse twice. Apparently, the two of them have nothing to do here; so let, which is superfluous, go to the conveyors. Let them throw lots - who will stay on the conveyor, who will carry carts ...

And then it was possible to raise a noise on the whole shop so that the trade union organizer, and the party organizer, and the Komsomol organizer, and the zhenorg, all the organizations, how many of them there are, and the head Comrade Grushevoy himself: what a disgrace, again the boxes are not served on time, it takes twelve minutes she sat without capsules, they keep idlers when it’s over!(Pan.).

In fiction, improperly direct speech is often used in the form of the second part of a non-union complex sentence and reflects the reaction of the actor to the phenomenon he perceives. For example: Oh, how good it was for the district police officer Aniskin! He looked at the cotton curtains - oh, how funny! He touched the rug with his foot - oh, how important! I inhaled room smells - well, as in childhood under the covers!(Lip.).