Moral knowledge and practical behavior. What is moral knowledge and practical behavior of an individual? The attitude of others depends on our actions

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Problem

• Man, as a social being, chooses his own rational behavior.
• The behavior of animals is subject to natural law; they act according to a program and do not know about good and evil.
• What is our choice?
• What happens when we do
• Incorrect choice?

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Terms and Definitions

Moral choice, freedom, responsibility, moral knowledge, practical behavior of the individual. Thoughts and actions, freedom of choice.

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Moral choice

• Moral standards give us examples of correct behavior, but does a person always follow them?
• A person can be kind and evil... mean and tough. Believers know the word “sin”; it is any evil against morality.
• So why does a person act sinfully in some cases, and morally in others?
• Freedom of choice.
• Freedom is a state of mind.
• The state of choice is the creation of oneself
• Moral choice is when a person not only chooses but also acts in accordance with his choice.
• Judge a man not by his words but by his deeds.

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Freedom is responsibility

• Actions.
• All actions have consequences.
• Parable about the woodcutter.
• To be responsible is to foresee the consequences of our actions. There is moral responsibility, responsibility to one's own conscience.
• Freedom is the opportunity to act at your own discretion, but why do people say this: Give your heart free rein - it will lead you into bondage.

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Moral knowledge and practical behavior of the individual

Unlike laws, violation of moral norms is not punishable. What can ensure their implementation:

• Can turn moral standards into laws.?
• The majority is always right. Maybe this is the way out?
• Is violating moral standards related to wealth inequality?
• Let's look at 2 facts on page 57 of the textbook and try to draw a conclusion: what should a person do? What does it depend on..
• Try it yourself.

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Critical analysis of one's own thoughts and actions

Just look at how many ways humanity has come up with to observe morality: public opinion, fear of God.
Guarantees of morality in the person himself:

• In the freedom of his choice.
• The problem of self-esteem and evaluation.
• A man is only what he makes of himself.
• To be or seem.
• The attitude of others depends on our actions.
• The process of moral improvement is endless.
• Moral improvement depends entirely on you, on the amount of good you bring to people.
• So, can we answer the questions posed at the beginning of the lesson?
• What is our choice?
• Why do we choose this way?
• What happens when we make the wrong choice?

Slide 9

Questions and tasks

• How do you understand the words of Christ that man does not live by bread alone?
• “Even if I don’t choose anything, I still choose.
• Morality begins where talk ends.
• Questions “in the classroom and at home” on page 59 can be answered online in the blog “The World and We”, where a flash presentation of the lesson will be posted.

Slide 10

Literature

Social studies: textbook for 8th grade. educational institutions \ L.N. Bogolyubov et al. M. Education, 2010.

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Lesson plan:

• 1. Moral choice.
• 2. Freedom is responsibility.
• 3. Moral knowledge and practical behavior of the individual.
• 4. Critical analysis of one’s own thoughts and actions.

• What behavior evokes moral approval and moral condemnation?
• Is man capable of creating himself?

Animal behavior, as you know from biology lessons, is subject to strict natural laws. And they know nothing about good, evil, or moral responsibility

As a natural being, man, of course, depends on many natural circumstances - heat, cold, atmospheric pressure, hunger, metabolism, etc. But, as a social (social) and rational being , a person still chooses his individual behavior himself.

• WHAT IS OUR CHOICE?

• WHAT HAPPENS...WHEN WE MAKE THE WRONG CHOICE...?

So why does a person act sinfully in one case, and morally, honestly, kindly in another?

• In ancient times, there was a belief that an angel sat on one shoulder of a person, and a devil on the other, and each whispered his own.
• Whomever a person listens to, that’s how he will behave. But he chooses himself.
• However, this is rather a figurative explanation.
• There is something else.

Instead of the program that is laid down by natural evolution, man is given freedom of choice in his actions - between good and evil, moral and immoral. A person himself always decides what to do: to observe or not to observe moral standards.

Freedom to choose between...

Evil

Evil

Good

Evil

This is a great gift that no other living creature possesses.

• Here's a simple example.
• You have two apples, one of them is large and beautiful, the other is clearly worse.
• A friend has come to see you. The thought arises: should I treat you or not? And if you give me a treat, which one should you take for yourself?

• Moral - and you know it - teaches: always share with your neighbor, give the best piece to a friend . But there is another, selfish morality: one’s own shirt is closer to the body.

• Have you wondered what to do? This is the choice of action or, more precisely, the moral choice

What is moral choice?

- THIS IS WHEN A PERSON NOT ONLY CHOOSE BUT AND ACTS IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS CHOICE.

Moral choice - this is the choice of your attitude (good or evil) towards other people

• SITUATION

• In the film by the outstanding director Alexei German “Road Check” there is such an episode from the time of the Great Patriotic War. The partisans have mined the railway bridge and are waiting for a German train with weapons. Suddenly, a huge barge floats out from around a bend in the river, and a terrible picture opens up to the partisans: the barge is filled with our prisoners, they are guarded by fascist machine gunners; obviously people are being taken to their deaths. And at the very moment when the barge is under the bridge, a German train with weapons flies into it...
• To blow up or not to blow up? If you blow it up, all this will fall on the unfortunate people and destroy them. And if you don’t explode, the weapons will go to the front, and the command’s order will be violated. The detachment commander is categorically against the explosion. He clearly sees its dire consequences. And the deputy commander for political affairs, whose entire family was shot by the Nazis, demands that the order be carried out immediately. A serious moral conflict arises...

So, the situation is a very complex and responsible moral choice. Think about her. Just don’t lose sight, firstly, of the goals for which our people led the liberation struggle,

secondly, humanistic principles of morality.

FREEDOM IS RESPONSIBILITY

Independent work with the textbook. "Parable" p.55

We are obviously talking about human life in general, about his activities and its social consequences.

The fire symbolizes the possible dangers that await a person as a result of thoughtless decisions.

The main idea is that everyone is responsible for the results of their activities.

Questions for the class about what they read: - How did you understand her images: woodcutter, brushwood, fire? -What is the parable really about? - What is the main meaning of the parable?

In life, each of us is like a fairy-tale hero standing in front of a stone with the inscription:

"You'll go right... Left... Straight..." Where to go? Think, decide, choose. You are free.

To be a responsible person means to correctly understand your own and other people’s problems and difficulties, try to foresee the results of your actions and be able to be responsible for them.

There are different types of responsibility, but the most important one is moral responsibility, responsibility before one’s own conscience.

FREEDOM IS THE OPPORTUNITY TO ACT AT YOUR OWN DISCRETION...BUT

Freedom is the right to choose, limited by responsibility.

Freedom and responsibility must be inextricably linked. For example, a family means freedom to marry and considerable responsibility. Or, for example, a contract. We conclude it without coercion from anyone, but we are responsible for its implementation.

• “True responsibility can only be personal. The man blushes alone."
• F. Iskander (b. 1929), Russian writer

FREEDOM IS RESPONSIBILITY

TO BE RESPONSIBLE IS TO FORESEE THE CONSEQUENCES OF OUR ACTIONS.

EXISTS - MORAL RESPONSIBILITY, RESPONSIBILITY TO YOUR OWN CONSCIENCE.

• DATA
• The incident near Ryazan. A passenger car crashed into a walking column of cadets of the Airborne School, despite the warning of the duty officers with flags. Six cadets were killed and twenty were wounded. The driver was drunk.

Let's face it: a free person is always in a difficult position. There are no ready-made answers for all situations and never will be.

You have to decide for yourself what to do and take responsibility for your choice.

How is this case related to human freedom of choice and responsibility?

MORAL KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICAL BEHAVIOR OF PERSONALITY

IN DIFFERENCE FROM LAWS VIOLATION OF MORAL STANDARDS IS NOT PUNISHED

CAN TRANSFORM MORAL STANDARDS INTO LAWS.?

WHAT CAN ENSURE THEIR IMPLEMENTATION:

THE MAJORITY IS ALWAYS RIGHT. MAYBE THIS IS THE WAY OUT?

IS VIOLATION OF MORAL STANDARDS CONNECTED WITH PROPERTY INEQUALITY?

Independent work with the textbook p.57 TWO FACTS

CONCLUSION: HOW SHOULD A PERSON DO?

WHAT DOES IT DEPEND ON..

And the conclusion is this.

Obviously, there are no legislative, social or other guarantees of morality. There is only one guarantee - it is in each individual person, in his ability to act morally.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF YOUR OWN THOUGHTS AND ACTIONS.

The Roman Emperor Nero, considering himself a great dramatic actor, staged theatrical performances almost every day. And since in fact he was a completely useless actor, the courtiers went to them, cursing the evil fate and the emperor to themselves.

Here we are faced with two problems at once:

2 problems of moral actions

problem of assessment and

self-esteem.

problem: to be or to seem.

for a normal person it is simply humiliating to only appear to be what he really is not. After all, the essence of morality is not so much in the attitude of others towards you, but in high demands on yourself

A person is the way he appears in his actions. And no matter what he says about himself, the world will evaluate him only by his actions

A moral person will not allow himself to commit a crime or some kind of falsehood or hypocrisy, even if no one will know about it. The judgment of his own conscience is always higher for him than the human judgment of those around him.

THE PROCESS OF MORAL IMPROVEMENT IS ENDLESS

MORAL IMPROVEMENT DEPENDS ENTIRELY ON YOU, ON THE AMOUNT OF GOOD THAT YOU BRING TO PEOPLE

Learning to act morally

• First and most importantly: check your actions from the point of view of the golden rule of morality. Before you commit an act, ask yourself: is it worth doing this? Would I want others to do this to me?
• Second : strive not to increase evil on Earth. Be guided by moral precepts. You know them (look in the textbook).

• Third : try to do good. You know a lot about goodness. Based on your knowledge, learn to determine what is good and what is evil in life. And do good.

Homework:

WHAT IS OUR CHOICE?

WHY DO WE CHOOSE THIS EXACTLY..?

WHAT HAPPENS..WHEN WE DO

INCORRECT CHOICE…?

“Teacher’s personality” - Approaches to understanding the essence of the concept of normative and official. "Effective teacher" A teacher must be generous. Personally focused: on the teacher, on the student, on all subjects of the educational process. Personality model of a modern school teacher (project). The teacher is always committed to the success of his students.

“Creative personality” - Rule 3. Don’t let yourself be driven into a corner! “The creative personality is a progressive element that gives everything new.” P.K. Engelmeyer. The fifth stage (characterized by high, sustainable creative productivity of the individual). The fourth stage is the stage of the first significant creative achievements of the individual.

“Rules of Conduct” - Thank you - an expression of gratitude. I'll put you back in the nest. Yes, the boy will help the tree get rid of excess water. Goodbye is a greeting when parting. Be quiet and calm at school. I'll stop and watch. Your actions. Pick up trash after yourself! The chick jumps along the path. You saw a beautiful beetle on the road.

“Rules of Conduct” - Academic subjects: humanities subjects, psychology. What is "etiquette"? PROBLEM QUESTIONS: Are interpersonal relationships and rules of conduct related? Study topic: Interpersonal relationships. Etiquette. Stages and timing of the project. Didactic goals of the project: FUNDAMENTAL QUESTION: Are the rules of good manners necessary and important in everyday life?

“Moral duty” - Abstract. You will learn what a moral duty is a moral obligation. Take care of the dress again, help out your comrade. Consult with your parents and write a story about a moral action. Listening to and discussing students' stories about responsible human behavior (from literature). Vocabulary dictation. During the classes.

“The concept of personality” - Becoming a person. B.G. Ananyev (1907-1972). "Psychology of Personality". A person's personality is more mysterious than the world. Seminar. In the “Big Psychological Dictionary” (2003, ed. Therefore, individuality is only one of the aspects of a person’s personality. Work in groups. Consciousness. Task “Spell it out.”

Introduction

Chapter 1. Formation and development of personality

1.1. Theories of personality behavior

1.2. The process of formation and development of personality

1.3.Values

1.4. Settings

Chapter 2. Personality typologies

2.1. Personality typologies by temperament

2.2. Personality typologies based on character accentuations

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction.

Relevance research is that the effectiveness of an organization and specific organizational processes depends on the behavior of people at all levels of the organization. A person's behavior in an organization is the main factor influencing the behavior of others in joint activities. And since the dynamics of relationships are quite complex, in order to understand and manage these processes it is necessary to take into account both the properties of the individual occupying a certain status and performing a certain role in the group, the content of the activity and level of organization of the group, and the specifics of other, broader social associations.

Experts in management and psychology talk about personality in different ways. Managers typically strive to identify those characteristics that define the personality of a successful leader.

Psychologists strive to see the main components of personality and understand the mechanisms that ensure the organization of these components and, as a result, human behavior.

In domestic psychology, the task that is highlighted is the study of various personality traits that are formed and manifested in human activity and influence the effectiveness of this activity. One of these properties is temperament - the central formation of the psychodynamic organization of a person, mainly of an innate nature. Therefore, the properties of temperament are the most stable and constant in comparison with other mental characteristics of a person.

A person is always in society, he is surrounded everywhere by other people - familiar and unfamiliar: in the family, at an educational institution, at work, in a store, etc.

In all these cases, a person interacts with a group and members of this group, each of whom has his own individual characteristics: temperamental characteristics, communication characteristics, his own ideas, thoughts, views.

Based on this, object research is the behavior of the individual, its characteristics and features, and subject– the relationship of temperament, character, values ​​in human behavior.

Target research: identify the influence of temperament and character on human behavior. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

1) analyze literary sources;

2) introduce the basic theories and approaches to the research, formation and development of personality;

3) identify types of temperament and character;

4) find out the essence of attitudes and values;

Problem: since temperament is the central formation of a person’s psychodynamic organization, which is formed and manifested in activity and influences it, it can be assumed that some personality traits are interconnected with it, such as, for example, individuality and communicative control, which in turn influences choice behavior strategies. That is, a person with a certain temperament has certain behavioral strategies.

Practical significance: the results of this work can be applied in everyday communication, since each person faces different situations. By observing the behavior of another person, knowing his temperament, one can predict how he will behave and choose appropriate behavioral strategies. This is also relevant in organizations, in the social and pedagogical process, in family life, that is, in any situation where interaction between an individual and a group occurs.

Research methods: To write the work, textbooks and teaching aids of Russian and foreign authors, as well as research papers, were used.

CHAPTER 1. Formation and development of personality.

1.1. Theories behavior personality.

Personality is a concept that reflects the general and unique characteristics (internal and external) of a person, which are responsible for the consistent manifestations of his feelings, thinking and behavior and can be used for self-knowledge, comparison, juxtaposition, influence, understanding of individual people in their interaction with the situation. However, there is no unity among scientists in understanding and describing this concept. The ambiguity of the concept of “personality” is more fully characterized not by the definitions of this concept, but by the variety of roles that correspond to these concepts in many different theories of personality. According to Arthur Reber, this approach seems to be the best, since the meaning of the term for each author tends to be colored by his theoretical predisposition and the empirical tools used to evaluate and test the theory. The simplest procedure would be to present several of the most influential theories and describe how each characterizes the term.

1. Theories of types. The oldest of them is the theory of Hippocrates, who hypothesized four main temperaments: choleric, sanguine, melancholic and phlegmatic. The proposition used here, as in all subsequent theories of types, is that each individual represents a certain balance of these basic elements.

2. Trait theories. All theories of this type are based on the assumption that a person’s personality is a compendium of traits or characteristic ways of behaving, thinking, feeling, reacting. Early trait theories were little more than lists of adjectives, and personality was defined through enumeration. More recent approaches have used factor analysis in an attempt to isolate the underlying dimensions of personality. Perhaps the most influential theory here is that of R.B. Cattell, based on a set of deep traits that each individual was believed to have quite a lot of and which have “real structural influences that determine personality.” According to Cattell, the purpose of personality theory is to construct an individual matrix of traits from which predictions about behavior can be made.

3. Psychodynamic and psychoanalytic theories. It brings together many approaches, including the classical theories of Freud and Jung, the social psychological theories of Adler, Fromm, Sullivan and Horney, and the more modern approaches of Laing and Perls. There are many differences between them, but they all contain an important common core idea: the personality in them is characterized through the concept of integration. Strong emphasis is usually placed on developmental factors, with the assumption that adult personality develops gradually over time, depending on how various factors are integrated. In addition, great importance is given to the concepts of motivation, and therefore no consideration of personality problems is considered theoretically useful without an assessment of the basic motivational syndromes.

4. Behaviorism. The basis of this direction was the dissemination of personality research based on learning theory. Although there is no influential purely behaviorist theory of personality, this movement has stimulated other theorists to carefully consider the integral problem: how much of the consistent behavior exhibited by most people is a consequence of basic types or traits or personality dynamics, and how much is a consequence of environmental constancy and sequences of randomly occurring reinforcers.

5. Humanism - this movement arose as a reaction to what was perceived as the dominance of psychoanalysis and behaviorism in psychology. The main problems of humanism concern the difficulty of scientifically testing many of its theoretical concepts. However, it remains an important approach to the study of personality and gave rise to the human potential movement.

6. Social Learning Theories The concept of personality is viewed here as those aspects of behavior that are acquired in society. Leading theorist Albert Bandura bases his position on the position that, although learning has a decisive influence, to explain the development of complex social behaviors (such as roles), which essentially constitute a person’s personality, require factors other than simple reaction-stimulus connections and random reinforcements. In particular, cognitive factors such as memory, memory retention processes, and self-regulatory processes are important, and many studies have focused on modeling and observation of learning as a mechanism that can provide a theoretically satisfactory description of human behavior in society.

7. Situationism. This direction, the founder of which was Walter Michel, is derived from behaviorism and social learning theory. Its adherents believe that any observable stable pattern of behavior is largely determined by the characteristics of the situation rather than by any internal personality types or traits. The concept of personality traits, from this point of view, is nothing more than a psychological construct of the observer trying to give some meaning to the behavior of others, which exists only in the mind of the observer. Constancy of behavior is attributed more to the similarity of situations in which a person tends to find himself than to internal consistency.

8. Interactionism. This theory states that personality emerges from the interaction of certain qualities and predispositions and the way in which the environment influences the way in which these qualities and behavioral tendencies are expressed. It is not at all obvious that, according to this view, personality exists as a separate “thing”. Rather, it becomes a kind of general term for complex elements of interaction.

1.2. Process formation And development personality.

The process of personality formation and development is most understandable when considering its three components: determinants, stages and personality traits. Determinants of personality are groups of factors that predetermine the formation and development of personality. The most studied determinants are biological, social and cultural.

Biological (hereditary, genetic, physiological) factors influence both directly and indirectly (for example, the theory of the existence of a direct relationship between personality type and the shape of the human body). Social factors (parents, family, peers, neighbors, friends, self-concept, archetypes) also determine a person's personality. The influence of social factors does not stop when a person reaches adulthood, and the processes of socialization in the workplace and social roles influence the human personality, its perception and behavior. Cultural factors are characteristics of a vast sociocultural environment that significantly influences an individual and shapes his hierarchy of values ​​and social dynamics. Value priorities, motives, forms of acceptable behavior (for example, cooperation, competition), attitudes towards authority, and gender-role stereotypes change and differ in different countries. Personality is also influenced by situational factors, often in unpredictable ways. They can decisively influence the formation of a personality or reveal some of its hidden traits that appear only in special situations (for example, spontaneous heroic actions, crimes).

The Stages of Personality Development approach views each human personality as developing through specific stages in interaction with the environment. The main proponents of the concept of personality development by stages (stages) - 3. Freud, E. Erikson - define it as a succession of crises of psychosocial identity; A. Maslow and K. Rogers - as the realization of the need for self-actualization; J. Piaget - as a periodization of mental development; S. Buhler - as the development of intentions (intentions, goals) and the ability to independently make an informed choice; A.V. Petrovsky - as a process of entry of human subjectivity through reflection.

Socialization is the assimilation by an individual of social experience, during which a specific personality is formed. The dialectical unity of adaptation, integration, self-development and self-realization in the process of socialization ensures optimal development of the individual throughout a person’s life in interaction with the environment. Both conscious and unconscious stages of personality development are marked by various crises of transition periods (“cultural and organizational shock” when entering an organization, etc.)

An approach to the formation of personality, based on identifying its traits, determines their combination that best reflects the personality. It is generally accepted that personality traits are organized into a hierarchy, ranging from specific reactions to general styles of psychological functioning. The most famous theorists in this area are G. Allport, G. Yu. Eysenck, R. Cattell, M. Goldberg and P. Costa with R. McCrae.

A personality trait is the basic unit of personality and represents a broad, generalized disposition (tendency) to behave in a certain way, which is manifested in a person's behavior in a wide range of situations at different times. Traits can be characterized by three properties - frequency, intensity and range of situations.

1.3. Values.

Values ​​expressed in the form of normative ideas (attitudes, imperatives, prohibitions, goals, projects) act as guidelines for human activity. And yet, values ​​that are objective and enduring for the culture of the entire society, for a specific person acquire subjective meaning only after coming into contact with them. Personal values ​​are the general components of the meaning of his life, realized and accepted by a person. Personal values ​​must be supported by a meaningful, emotionally experienced, personally affecting attitude towards life. A value can be called something that is of particular importance to a person, something that he is ready to protect and protect from encroachment and destruction by other people. Every person has personal values. These values ​​include both unique ones, characteristic only of a given individual, and values ​​that unite him with a certain category of people.

Parents, friends, teachers, social groups can influence the formation of a person’s individual values. The hierarchical value system of an individual is formed in the process of learning and acquiring life experience under the influence of prevailing cultural conditions. Since everyone has their own process of learning and gaining experience, differences in the composition and hierarchy of the value system are inevitable.

Psychologist M. Rokeach defined values ​​as deep beliefs that determine actions and judgments in various situations. He also developed the now most common method for studying value orientations, based on direct ranking of a list of values. He divides values ​​into two large groups: terminal values ​​(goal values) - the belief that some ultimate goal of individual existence is worth striving for, and instrumental values ​​(means values), which reflect the belief that that some course of action or personality trait is preferable in any situation. Basic values ​​include those that are significant for a person in themselves. Examples include success, peace and harmony, safety and freedom, common sense and salvation of the soul. Instrumental values ​​include everything that matters as a means or way of achieving goals, for example, courage and generosity, ability and outlook, help and independence.

Another classification of values ​​was developed in the 1930s. psychologist Gordon Allport and his colleagues. They divided values ​​into six types:

♦theoretical interest in discovering truth through argumentation and systematic reflection;

♦economic interest in utility and practicality, including the accumulation of wealth;

♦aesthetic interest in beauty, form and harmony;

♦social interest in people and love as relationships between people;

♦political interest in having power and influencing people;

♦religious interest in unity and understanding of the cosmos.

The influence of personal values ​​on human behavior depends on the degree of their clarity and consistency. The blurring of values ​​causes inconsistency in actions, since it is easier to influence such a person than a person with a clear and obvious value system. The strength of personality directly depends on the degree of crystallization of personal values. Clear and consistent values ​​are manifested in an active life position, a person’s responsibility for himself and the situation around him, willingness to take risks to achieve goals, initiative and creativity.

The criteria for clarity of personal values ​​are:

♦ regular reflections on what is important and unimportant, good and bad;

♦ understanding the meaning of life;

♦ the ability to question established personal values;

♦ openness of consciousness to new experiences;

♦ the desire to understand the views and positions of other people;

♦ open expression of one's views and readiness for discussion;

♦ consistency of behavior, correspondence between words and deeds;

♦ serious attitude to issues of values;

♦ manifestation of firmness and resilience on fundamental issues;

♦ responsibility and activity.

The discrepancy between value systems is sometimes caused by the fact that people grow and develop as individuals in different periods of time and in different socio-economic conditions. Cultural backgrounds can also be a source of mismatched value systems. Value priorities are what distinguishes one national culture from another. Given the existence of cultural differences, problems can be expected to arise when people from different ethnic backgrounds work together. Ways in which people try to influence the values ​​of others include the following: moralizing, leading by example, non-interference, helping to clarify specific values, for example, when a corresponding change is needed. So, a value system is an individual property of a person, depending on cultural roots.

1.4. Settings.

To describe and explain the behavior of an individual, the term “attitudes” is often used, the totality of which is considered as an integral component of the inner essence of the individual. Attitudes dictate guidelines for a person in the world around him, contribute to the direction of the process of cognition of the world to improve adaptation to its conditions, optimal organization of behavior and actions in it. They provide a connection between cognition and emotions, between cognition and behavior, “explain” to a person what to “expect”, and expectations are an important guide in obtaining information. Attitudes help predict human behavior in the workplace and help the employee adapt to the work environment. Thus, they play an important role in creating organizational behavior.

Most modern researchers identify the following components of the installation:

♦ the affective component (feelings, emotions: love and hate, sympathy and antipathy) forms the attitude towards the object, prejudice (negative feelings), attractiveness (positive feelings) and neutral emotions. This is the core component of the installation. The emotional state precedes the organization of the cognitive component;

♦ the cognitive (informational, stereotypical) component (perception, knowledge, belief, opinion about an object) forms a certain stereotype, model. It can be reflected, for example, by factors of strength, activity;

♦ the conative component (effective, behavioral, requiring the application of volitional efforts) determines the way behavior is included in the process of activity. This component includes the motives and goals of behavior, the tendency to certain actions.

The following properties of settings can be distinguished.

♦ Acquisitions. The overwhelming majority of personality attitudes are not innate. They are formed (by family, peers, society, work, culture, language, customs, media) and acquired by the individual on the basis of his own experience (family, work, etc.).

♦ Relative stability. Settings exist until something is done to change them.

♦ Variability. Attitudes can range from very favorable to unfavorable.

♦ Directions. Attitudes are directed towards a specific object towards which a person may experience certain feelings, emotions or have certain beliefs.

The behavioral component is the intention to behave in a certain way in response to a feeling, the result of an attitude, or a tendency to perform characteristic actions.

Attitude is a variable that lies between prior expectations, values, and the intention to behave in a certain way. It is important to recognize that there may not be a consistent relationship between attitudes and behavior. An attitude leads to the intention to behave in some way. This intention may or may not be fulfilled under the circumstances.

Attitudes provide the individual with a great service in the expedient execution of intended behavior and in satisfying his needs. The attitude creates the psychological basis for a person’s adaptation to the environment and its transformation depending on specific needs.

Conclusion: People adapt to life conditions in different ways. Knowledge about the possibilities and types of adaptation of people to the organizational environment allows you to intelligently build business relationships with them. In the process of familiarization with culture, a person develops mechanisms of self-control, expressed in the ability to regulate a wide range of drives, instincts, etc. through volitional effort. This self-control is essentially social control. It suppresses impulses that are unacceptable for a given social group and constitutes a necessary condition for the life of society. Historically established norms of law, morality, everyday life, rules of thinking and grammar, aesthetic tastes, etc. shape human behavior and mind, make an individual a representative of a certain way of life, culture and psychology.

All this means that the inherent diversity of desires, aspirations, life and value orientations and needs, realized in the course of social interaction with other people, has essentially one source - social life.

CHAPTER 2. Personality typologies.

The typology is rooted in the history of sixty years ago, when C. Jung expressed the idea that human behavior is non-random. In his opinion, the difference in people's behavior is determined by different preferences, which are revealed very early and form the basis of individuality. It is these preferences that determine likes and dislikes for people, tasks and events throughout a person’s life.

In modern psychology, a sufficient number of personality typologies have already been created, however, within the framework of organizational behavior, the most significant are:

1. E. Kretschmer’s typology, based on the connection between constitutional features of the body structure and behavioral characteristics.

2. Psychophysiological typologies that determine personality type, depending on the innate properties of the nervous system (I.P. Pavlov).

3. Psychoanalytic typologies reveal the deep structures of the psyche depending on the specific type of information exchange between the individual and the environment (K. Jung).

In addition, for organizational behavior it is essential to diagnose such stable personality characteristics that are the result of socialization. These are, first of all: the level of self-esteem, risk appetite, locus of control, achievement orientation, etc.

Self-esteem is the ability to relate in a certain way (positively or negatively) to oneself, one’s capabilities and behavior. Self-esteem is directly related to the level of aspirations and attribution. People with high self-esteem, as a rule, apply for tasks of increased complexity, not always having the ability to solve them; in the situation of choosing a job, they are more free from conventions and prone to risk. People with low self-esteem need more attention and support from others, tend to conform, and are usually less satisfied with their work.

Risk appetite. A number of studies show that managers tend to be afraid of risk. A correlation has been identified between risk propensity and the amount of information, the speed of its processing and decision-making. Thus, risk-taking managers request less information and make decisions faster.

Locus of control - its diagnosis allows you to determine the degree of responsibility of a person for his actions and his life. An increased locus of control is characteristic of internals who prefer to use personal attribution and therefore are more active, independent and independent in their work, more often have positive self-esteem, are tolerant of others, their behavior is task-oriented rather than emotional, effective in solving them, and able to withstand stress well and the requirements for changing one’s attitudes (attitude is an attitude that expresses a person’s predisposition and readiness to act in the surrounding situation and make changes to it). A low locus of control is characteristic of externalists who prefer situational attribution and therefore tend to work in a group, are more passive, dependent and lack self-confidence. They are more likely to exhibit conformist behavior. The locus of control of a particular person is quite universal in relation to different events.

Achievement orientation. D. McClelland believes that this property is formed from childhood and becomes one of the leading needs, manifesting itself in various types of behavior. This property determines the desire to achieve a certain improvement in a specific activity. It has been experimentally established that a high achievement orientation receives the greatest reinforcement among employees when performing tasks of average complexity, in particular, when some of the tasks are allowed to be controlled independently. So, human behavior is too complex, depends on a huge number of variables and cannot be clearly explained, however, numerous studies allow J. Gibson to formulate the following points:

1. Personal behavior always has reasons.

2. Behavior is purposeful.

3. Behavior - motivated.

4. Any characteristic of behavior is significant for achieving the goal.

2.1. Personality typologies according to temperament.

The most famous and popular concept of four types of temperament was formulated by Hippocrates, Galen and I.P. Pavlov. In recent decades, studies of temperament have been carried out both as an isolated mental factor of behavior (B.M. Teplov, V.D. Nebylitsina, N.I. Krasnogorsky), and in direct connection with anxiety, extraversion - introversion, rigidity, etc. (R. Cattell, G. Eysenck, J. Strelyau). Temperament is determined by the innate dynamic properties of the nervous system, which determine the speed of response, adaptation and the degree of emotional excitability. The main types of temperament are as follows.

Cholerics are active, purposeful, emotional, courageous individuals. The nervous system is characterized by great strength with a predominance of excitation over inhibition. As a rule, choleric people are prone to command and leadership, are unjustifiably hasty in accusations and actions, are quick-tempered and conflictual, with swings in mood and performance. They quickly grasp everything new, immediately tune in to a high rhythm of activity, but are not able to engage in monotonous work for a long time. Sanguine people are fast, easily switch from one job to another, sociable, optimistic, pragmatic and flexible. Just like choleric people, they are risk-oriented, quick results, and freedom of action. They prefer a career in business, politics, and management. Sanguine people have a strong, balanced, mobile nervous system, which provides quick and thoughtful reactions, a constantly good mood, and excellent adaptability to people and changing social situations. Conditioned inhibitory reactions, unlike choleric people, are formed quickly, they are strong and stable.

Phlegmatic people are slow, withdrawn, patient, peace-loving, calm, and conservative. They have a strong, balanced, inert nervous system that ensures a stable mood, constancy of feelings, attachments, interests, views, endurance, resistance to long-term adversity, slowness, and perseverance in work. The phlegmatic person easily, although somewhat longer than the choleric and sanguine person, adapts to the social environment and resists strong and prolonged stimuli well.

Melancholic people are characterized by weakness of both the processes of excitation and inhibition, are prone to heightened experiences, thoughts, increased sensitivity and fatigue, and are immersed in their own world of experiences and thoughts. They often have creative abilities. Melancholic people are people with a complex sensitive nature, a weak nervous system, which in tense situations (conflicts, dangers) often comes into a state of frustration and blockage. As a result, motivation decreases and performance results deteriorate. Unbalanced type and with a general decreased excitability of the cortex. Slowly adapts to changing circumstances.

Depending on temperament, a person is predisposed to the dominance of certain emotions: some are initially prone to interest, joy, surprise (sanguine temperament), others - to anger, disgust, hostility (choleric temperament), others - to sadness and dreams (melancholic), and fourth - to stable positive self-esteem and intense work (phlegmatic). Hence the peculiarities of organizational behavior. Cholerics are good for working in non-standard situations where an instant reaction is needed; Sanguine people realize themselves in entrepreneurship and cope well with the functions of management and conflict resolution; phlegmatic people are the best snipers, polar explorers, farmers; melancholic is suitable for working as a seamstress-machine operator, on an assembly line, etc.

2.2. Personality typologies based on character accentuations.

Character is the result of a person’s interaction with the world, a set of acquired qualities that express a person’s attitude towards himself, other people, things, society and are manifested in stable habitual forms of behavior. Most people have accentuated certain character traits. The severity of accentuations can vary: from mild, noticeable only to the immediate environment, to extreme forms - psychopathy. Over time, accentuations may smooth out or intensify.

As you know, our shortcomings are a continuation of our advantages. Any even the most remarkable quality, being hypertrophied, complicates life for the owner and those around him. Constantly cheerful, carefree, cheerful people often direct their increased activity towards hedonistic goals (search for pleasure and entertainment, alcoholism, drugs, sexual relations). An overdeveloped sense of responsibility and duty usually leads to neuroses.

K. Leonhard identifies the following main types of character accentuation:

1.Demonstrative type. A demonstrative type personality strives to constantly be the center of attention. Demonstrators know how to please, conquer the victim with their courtesy and acting talent, and are able to captivate gullible people into various adventures. They are often talented actors and achieve their goals by any means: lies, tears, scandals, even illness. The demonstrator easily forgets about his lies, betrayal and meanness, displacing everything that interferes with high self-esteem. Adapts perfectly to colleagues and work partners.

2. Hyperthymic (hyperactive) type. A person of this type has an elevated mood, which is combined with a thirst for activity and increased talkativeness, which sometimes leads to racing thoughts. He strives for leadership, risk and adventure.

Hyperthymic natures always look at life optimistically, overcome sadness without much difficulty, and in general it is not difficult for them to live in the world. Thanks to an increased thirst for activity, they achieve production and creative success. The thirst for activity stimulates their initiative and constantly pushes them to search for something new. Deviation from the main idea gives rise to many unexpected associations and ideas, which also contributes to active creative thinking. In the company of employees, hyperthymic individuals are brilliant interlocutors, capable of talking and telling endlessly, as long as they are listened to. By temperament, hyperthymic people are sanguine or choleric.

3. Dysthymic type. This type of people is constantly in a low mood, pessimistic, they are withdrawn and taciturn, and are burdened by a noisy campaign; They don’t get along closely with their colleagues. Distims are serious and usually focus on the dark, sad aspects of life much more than the joyful ones. These are very subtle, sensitive people, with sublime feelings, always observing ethical standards. Altruism, morality, loyalty are positive traits of a dysthymic character. Dysthymic types are conservative and do not like changes in the content and rhythm of activity. These people do well in jobs that do not require a wide range of communication. By temperament they are melancholic.

4. Cyclothymic type (cyclothymic). The accentuation of character is manifested in cyclically changing periods of rise and fall of mood. During periods of rising mood, cyclothymic people manifest themselves as people with hyperthymic accentuation, and during periods of declining mood - with dysthymic accentuation. These frequent changes in mental states tire a person, make his behavior less predictable, contradictory, and prone to changing professions, places of work, and interests. This type of character is found in persons of choleric temperament.

5. Emotive type. This person is overly sensitive, vulnerable and deeply worries about the slightest troubles. He is overly sensitive to comments and failures, so he is often in a sad mood. He prefers a narrow circle of friends and relatives who would understand him perfectly. People of this temperament are usually called soft-hearted. They are compassionate and are moved by attention to themselves and the noble deeds of their colleagues. The sincerity of emotive personalities is due to the manifestation of their external reactions. They easily succumb to joy, and joy also captures them more deeply than other people.

The emotive personality is influenced only by the internal state (experience) itself. A person of an emotive nature cannot be “infected” with fun in a cheerful society; he cannot become either funny or happy for no reason.

6. Excitable type. These people have increased irritability, lack of restraint, a tendency to be rude, gloomy, boring, but flattery, helpfulness, and silence are also possible.

They actively and often conflict, and do not get along well in a team. The main thing in organizational behavior of the excitable type is often not the logical weighing of one’s actions, but uncontrollable impulses. If he doesn’t like something, he doesn’t look for an opportunity to reconcile. As their anger increases, they usually turn to assault, which outstrips their thoughts and awareness of the consequences. Intelligence is usually low. Outside of fits of anger, these people are conscientious, careful and care about colleagues and subordinates. This accentuation most often manifests itself in persons with a sanguine or choleric temperament.

7. Stuck type. People with this type of accentuation get stuck on their feelings and thoughts. They cannot forget defeats, criticism, and stubbornly “settle scores” with their offenders. They are prone to intractability and protracted squabbles. In a conflict, they are most often an active party and clearly define for themselves a circle of enemies and friends.

Stuck types do well in challenging, creative work that gives them a sense of independence and the opportunity to express themselves.

8. Pedantic type. These people in the service are capable of tormenting visitors with formal requirements, “hookwork”, and their excessive neatness. They prefer professions associated with stable, familiar “paper work.” Persons of the pedantic type “pull back” with a decision even when the stage of preliminary deliberation is finally completed.

In professional activities, a pedantic personality manifests itself positively, as it performs the work very conscientiously. You can always rely on such an employee: he is always entrusted with work that requires great accuracy and thoroughness.

9. Anxious-fearful type. People of this type of accentuation are characterized by low mood, timidity, and self-doubt. They constantly fear for themselves and their loved ones, experience failure for a long time and doubt the correctness of their actions. They rarely enter into conflicts and play a passive role. It is enough for the enemy to speak out more energetically, and people with an anxious-fearful temperament fade away. Therefore, anxious types are characterized by timidity and a tendency toward melancholy. Such people cannot be leaders or make responsible decisions, since they are characterized by endless worry and weighing of their words and actions.

10. Exalted type. People with this type of accentuation have very changeable moods and react to life more violently than others. Exalted individuals equally easily become delighted with joyful events and despair with sad ones. Conflicts between exalted artistic natures and life often occur due to too much sensitivity; the “prose” of life, its sometimes rude demands, are beyond their ability to handle. Their environment of existence is the sphere of arts, artistic sports, professions associated with closeness to nature. This type of character is found in people of melancholic temperament.

In the considered typology, accentuations are associated, as a rule, with borderline forms of personality disadaptation. Like any typology, it cannot cover the entire diversity of people's behavioral reactions. Even K. Leonhard himself notes: “It is not always easy to draw a clear line between the traits that form an accentuated personality and the traits that determine variations in a person’s individuality. Oscillations are observed here in two directions. First of all, the characteristics of a stuck or pedantic or hypomanic personality can be expressed in a person so insignificantly that accentuation as such does not take place, one can only state a deviation from a certain “pattern” pattern. This is especially clearly expressed when determining certain properties of temperament, representing all the intermediate stages of its types, up to almost neutral. Accentuation always generally involves increasing the degree of a certain feature. This personality trait thus becomes accentuated."

Conclusion: character is an individual combination of essential personality traits that express a person’s attitude to reality and are manifested in his behavior and actions. Character is interconnected with other aspects of personality, in particular with temperament. Temperament influences the form of manifestation of character, uniquely coloring certain of its features. Thus, perseverance in a choleric person is expressed by vigorous activity, in a phlegmatic person - in concentrated thinking. The choleric person works energetically and passionately, while the phlegmatic person works methodically, slowly. On the other hand, temperament itself is restructured under the influence of character: a person with a strong character can suppress some of the negative aspects of his temperament and control its manifestations.

Conclusion.

Personality is a conscious individual (B.G. Ananyev) in the unity of his individual characteristics and the social roles he performs.

From the perspective of a systems approach, the activity and behavior of an individual is considered as a dynamic functional system, characterized by multidimensionality and hierarchy, in which three main subsystems are distinguished, including:

Cognitive, which embodies such cognitive processes as perception, attention, memory, thinking, etc.;

Regulatory, consisting of emotional-volitional processes and providing the ability to self-regulate behavior and manage the activities of other people;

Communicative, which is regulated in communication and interaction with others.

Along with general psychological manifestations, a person has individual psychological properties: temperament, character, abilities, which, forming his individuality, form the uniqueness and uniqueness of each person. Moreover, individuality makes its own adjustments to each of the subsystems indicated above.

The psychological structure of the personality is formed in ontogenesis, starting from natural inclinations and ending with the external levels of socially mediated forms of behavior. Thus, personality is a multi-level system that combines psychophysiological, psychological and socio-psychological levels.

The development and formation of personality is determined by biological, social and cultural factors. Biological factors influence the formation of personality in both direct and indirect ways.

Social and cultural factors primarily ensure the socialization of the individual, i.e. the individual’s assimilation of social experience, during which a specific personality is formed. Moreover, the influence of these factors does not stop when a person reaches adulthood. Socialization, which includes adaptation, integration, self-development and self-realization, ensures the development of personality throughout a person’s life in interaction with the environment.

In addition, a person’s behavior also depends on situational factors that can have both positive and negative influence on him, in particular, they can reveal any hidden traits that appear only in extreme situations.

Research has found that age has a negative correlation with turnover and a positive correlation with job satisfaction. Marital status was found to be positively correlated with satisfaction and negatively correlated with turnover. No significant correlation was found between gender and performance.

Behavioral personality traits are characteristics of behavior characterized by relative stability and constancy of manifestation. Experts (T. Allport, T. Eysenck, R. Cattell) in this field believe that behavioral traits are organized into a hierarchy, starting with specific reactions and ending with general styles of psychological functioning.

Analyzing the behavioral traits of a person, one cannot help but touch upon the theory of attribution (attribution is the process of a person’s perception of the causes of his behavior and its results, which allows him to give meaning to his surroundings), which allows us to determine the process of perceiving the causes and results of behavior.

The reasons for behavior are usually explained by individual and personal characteristics, or the situation in which the behavior manifested itself. Dispositional attribution (personal) emphasizes certain characteristics of an individual (the presence or absence of abilities, skills). Situational attribution (external) emphasizes the influence of the external environment on behavior.

G. Kelly offers the following criteria for analyzing the causes of behavior:

1. Consistency.

2. Unusuality.

3. Consistency.

There are typical attribution errors:

1. Most people tend to ignore situational reasons for behavior in favor of dispositional ones.

2. “False agreement” is an overestimation of the typicality of one’s behavior, expressed in the fact that a person considers his point of view to be the only correct one.

3 “Unequal opportunities” - this error occurs when the role positions of the actor are not taken into account.

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