Whoever comes to us with a sword will die by the sword.

Alexander Nevskiy

Udelnaya Rus' originates in 1132, when Mstislav the Great dies, which leads the country to a new internecine war, the consequences of which had a huge impact on the entire state. As a result of subsequent events, independent principalities emerged. In Russian literature, this period is also called fragmentation, since all events were based on the disunion of lands, each of which was actually an independent state. Of course, the dominant position of the Grand Duke was preserved, but this was already a nominal figure rather than a truly significant one.

The period of feudal fragmentation in Rus' lasted almost 4 centuries, during which the country underwent strong changes. They affected both the structure, the way of life, and the cultural customs of the peoples of Russia. As a result of the isolated actions of the princes, Rus' for many years found itself branded with a yoke, which was only possible to get rid of after the rulers of the destinies began to unite around a common goal - the overthrow of the power of the Golden Horde. In this material we will consider the main distinctive features of appanage Rus' as an independent state, as well as the main features of the lands included in it.

The main reasons for feudal fragmentation in Rus' stem from the historical, economic and political processes that were taking place in the country at that point in time. The following main reasons for the formation of Appanage Rus' and fragmentation can be identified:

This whole set of measures led to the fact that the causes of feudal fragmentation in Rus' turned out to be very significant and led to irreversible consequences that almost put the very existence of the state at stake.

Fragmentation at a certain historical stage is a normal phenomenon that almost any state has encountered, but in Rus' there were certain distinctive features in this process. First of all, it should be noted that literally all the princes who ruled the estates were from the same ruling dynasty. There was nothing like this anywhere else in the world. There have always been rulers who held power by force, but had no historical claims to it. In Russia, almost any prince could be chosen as chief. Secondly, the loss of the capital should be noted. No, formally Kyiv retained a leading role, but this was only formal. At the beginning of this era, the Kiev prince was still dominant over everyone, other fiefs paid him taxes (whoever could). But literally within a few decades this changed, since first the Russian princes took the previously impregnable Kyiv by storm, and after that the Mongol-Tatars literally destroyed the city. By this time, the Grand Duke was the representative of the city of Vladimir.

Appanage Rus' - consequences of existence

Any historical event has its causes and consequences, which leave one or another imprint on the processes occurring within the state during such achievements, as well as after them. The collapse of the Russian lands in this regard was no exception and revealed a number of consequences that were formed as a result of the emergence of individual appanages:

1. Uniform population of the country. This is one of the positive aspects that was achieved due to the fact that the southern lands became the object of constant wars. As a result, the main population was forced to flee to the northern regions to find safety. If by the time the state of Udelnaya Rus was formed, the northern regions were practically deserted, then by the end of the 15th century the situation had already changed radically.
2. Development of cities and their arrangement. This point also includes economic, spiritual, and craft innovations that appeared in the principalities. This is due to a rather simple thing - the princes were full-fledged rulers in their lands, to maintain which it was necessary to develop a natural economy so as not to depend on their neighbors.
3. The appearance of vassals. Since there was no single system providing security to all principalities, weak lands were forced to accept the status of vassals. Of course, there was no talk of any oppression, but such lands did not have independence, since in many issues they were forced to adhere to the point of view of a stronger ally.
4. Decrease in the country's defense capability. The individual squads of the princes were quite strong, but still not numerous. In battles with equal opponents, they could win, but strong enemies alone could easily cope with each of the armies. Batu’s campaign clearly demonstrated this when the princes, in an attempt to defend their lands alone, did not dare to join forces. The result is widely known - 2 centuries of yoke and the murder of a huge number of Russians.
5. Impoverishment of the country's population. Such consequences were caused not only by external enemies, but also by internal ones. Against the backdrop of the yoke and constant attempts by Livonia and Poland to seize Russian possessions, internecine wars do not stop. They are still large-scale and destructive. In such a situation, as always, the common population suffered. This was one of the reasons for the migration of peasants to the north of the country. This is how one of the first mass migrations of people took place, which gave birth to appanage Rus'.

We see that the consequences of the feudal fragmentation of Russia are far from clear-cut. They have both negative and positive sides. Moreover, it should be remembered that this process is characteristic not only of Rus'. All countries have gone through it in one form or another. Ultimately, the destinies united anyway and created a strong state capable of ensuring its own security.

The collapse of Kievan Rus led to the emergence of 14 independent principalities, each of which had its own capital, its own prince and army. The largest of them were the Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galician-Volyn principalities. It should be noted that in Novgorod a political system that was unique at that time was formed - a republic. Appanage Rus' became a unique state of its time.

Features of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality

This inheritance was located in the northeastern part of the country. Its inhabitants were mainly engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, which was facilitated by favorable natural conditions. The largest cities in the principality were Rostov, Suzdal and Vladimir. As for the latter, it became the main city of the country after Batu captured Kyiv.

The peculiarity of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality is that for many years it maintained its dominant position, and the Grand Duke ruled from these lands. As for the Mongols, they also recognized the power of this center, allowing its ruler to personally collect tribute for them from all destinies. There are a lot of guesses on this matter, but we can still say with confidence that Vladimir was the capital of the country for a long time.

Features of the Galicia-Volyn principality

It was located in the southwest of Kyiv, the peculiarities of which were that it was one of the largest in its time. The largest cities of this inheritance were Vladimir Volynsky and Galich. Their significance was quite high, both for the region and for the state as a whole. Local residents for the most part were engaged in crafts, which allowed them to actively trade with other principalities and states. At the same time, these cities could not become important shopping centers due to their geographical location.

Unlike most appanages, in Galicia-Volyn, as a result of fragmentation, wealthy landowners very quickly emerged, who had a huge influence on the actions of the local prince. This land was subject to frequent raids, primarily from Poland.

Principality of Novgorod

Novgorod is a unique city and a unique destiny. The special status of this city dates back to the formation of the Russian state. It was here that it originated, and its inhabitants have always been freedom-loving and wayward. As a result, they often changed princes, keeping only the most worthy ones. During the Tatar-Mongol yoke, it was this city that became the stronghold of Rus', a city that the enemy was never able to take. The Principality of Novgorod once again became a symbol of Russia and a land that contributed to their unification.

The largest city of this principality was Novgorod, which was guarded by the Torzhok fortress. The special position of the principality led to the rapid development of trade. As a result, it was one of the richest cities in the country. In terms of its size, it also occupied a leading place, second only to Kyiv, but unlike the ancient capital, the Novgorod principality did not lose its independence.

Significant dates

History is, first of all, dates that can tell better than any words what happened in each specific segment of human development. Speaking about feudal fragmentation, we can highlight the following key dates:

• 1185 - Prince Igor made a campaign against the Polovtsians, immortalized in the “Tale of Igor’s Campaign”
• 1223 – Battle of the Kalka River
• 1237 - the first Mongol invasion, which led to the conquest of Appanage Rus'
• July 15, 1240 – Battle of the Neva
• April 5, 1242 – Battle of the Ice
• 1358 – 1389 – The Grand Duke of Russia was Dmitry Donskoy
• July 15, 1410 – Battle of Grunwald
• 1480 - great stand on the Ugra River
• 1485 – annexation of the Tver principality to the Moscow one
• 1505-1534 - the reign of Vasily 3, which was marked by the liquidation of the last inheritances
• 1534 - the reign of Ivan 4, the Terrible, begins.

Among the dozens of principalities, the largest were Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn and Novgorod land.

Vladimir-Suzdal Principality.

This principality occupied a special place in the history of the Russian Middle Ages. He was destined to become a link between the pre-Mongol period of Russian history and the period of Muscovite Rus', the core of the future unified state.

Located in distant Zalesye, it was well protected from external threats. Thick black soils, created by nature in the center of the non-chernozem zone, attracted settlers here. Convenient river routes opened the way to eastern and European markets.

In the 11th century this remote region becomes the “fatherland” of the Monomakhovichs. At first, they do not attach importance to this pearl of their possessions and do not even place princes here. At the beginning of the 12th century. Vladimir Monomakh founded the future capital of Vladimir-on-Klyazma and in 1120 sent his son Yuri to reign here. The foundations of the power of the Suzdal land were laid during the reign of three outstanding statesmen: Yuri Dolgoruky /1120-1157/, Andrei Bogolyubsky /1157-1174/, Vsevolod the Big Nest /1176-1212/.

They were able to prevail over the boyars, for which they were nicknamed “autocrats.” Some historians see in this a tendency to overcome fragmentation, interrupted by the Tatar invasion.

Yuri, with his irrepressible thirst for power and desire for primacy, turned his possession into an independent principality that pursued an active policy. His possessions expanded to include the colonized eastern regions. The new cities of Yuryev Polsky, Pereyaslavl Zalessky, and Dmitrov grew. Churches and monasteries were built and decorated. The first chronicle mention of Moscow dates back to the time of his reign /1147/.

Yuri more than once fought with Volga Bulgaria, a trade competitor of Rus'. He waged a confrontation with Novgorod, and in the 40s. got involved in a grueling and useless struggle for Kyiv. Having achieved his desired goal in 1155, Yuri left Suzdal land forever. Two years later he died in Kyiv /according to one version, he was poisoned/.

The master of North-Eastern Rus' - tough, power-hungry and energetic - was Dolgoruky's son Andrei, nicknamed Bogolyubsky for the construction of a palace in the village of Bogolyubovo near Vladimir. While his father was still alive, Andrei, Yuri’s “beloved child”, to whom he intended to transfer Kyiv after his death, leaves for the Suzdal land without his father’s consent. In 1157, the local boyars elected him as their prince.

Andrei combined several qualities that were important for a statesman of that time. A courageous warrior, he was a calculating, unusually astute diplomat at the negotiating table. Possessing an extraordinary mind and willpower, he became an authoritative and formidable commander, an “autocrat” whose orders even the formidable Polovtsians obeyed. The prince decisively placed himself not next to the boyars, but above them, relying on the cities and his military service court. Unlike his father, who aspired to Kyiv, he was a local Suzdal patriot, and he considered the fight for Kyiv only a means of elevating his principality. Having captured the city of Kyiv in 1169, he gave it to the army for plunder and put his brother there to rule. In addition to everything, Andrei was a well-educated person and was not devoid of original literary talent.

However, in an effort to strengthen princely power and rise above the boyars, Bogolyubsky was ahead of his time. The boyars grumbled silently. When, by order of the prince, one of the Kuchkovich boyars was executed, his relatives organized a conspiracy, in which the prince’s closest servants also participated. On the night of April 29, 1174, the conspirators broke into the prince's bedroom and killed Andrei. The news of his death became a signal for a popular uprising. The prince's castle and the courtyards of the townspeople were plundered, the most hated mayors, tiuns, and tax collectors were killed. Only a few days later the riot subsided.

Andrey's brother Vsevolod the Big Nest continued the traditions of his predecessors. Powerful, like Andrei, he was more prudent and careful. Vsevolod was the first among the princes of the Northeast to receive the title of “Grand Duke”, dictated his will to Ryazan, Novgorod, Galich, and led an attack on the lands of Novgorod and Volga Bulgaria.

Vsevolod had 8 sons and 8 grandchildren, not counting female descendants, for which he received the nickname “Big Nest”.

Having fallen ill in 1212, he bequeathed the throne to his second son Yuri, bypassing the elder Constantine. A new strife followed, lasting 6 years. Yuri ruled in Vladimir until the Mongol invasion and died in a battle with the Tatars on the river. City.

Novgorod land.

The vast expanses of Novgorod land, inhabited by Slavs and Finno-Ugric tribes, could successfully accommodate several European states. From 882 to 1136, Novgorod - the “northern guard of Rus'” - was ruled from Kyiv and accepted the eldest sons of the Kyiv prince as governors. In 1136, the Novgorodians expelled Vsevolod /the grandson of Monomakh/ from the city and from then on they began to invite the prince from wherever they wanted, and expelled the unwanted one / the famous Novgorod principle of “liberty in princes”/. Novgorod became independent.

A special form of government developed here, which historians call a boyar republic. This order had long traditions. Even in the Kiev period, distant Novgorod had special political rights. In the X1st century. a mayor had already been chosen here, and Yaroslav the Wise, in exchange for the support of the Novgorodians in the fight for Kyiv, agreed that the boyars would not have jurisdiction over the prince.

The Novgorod boyars descended from the local tribal nobility. It became rich through the division of state revenues, trade and usury, and from the end of the 11th century. began to acquire fiefdoms. Boyar land ownership in Novgorod was much stronger than princely land ownership. Although the Novgorodians tried more than once to “feed” a prince for themselves, their own princely dynasty never developed there. The eldest sons of the great princes, who sat here as governors, after the death of their father, aspired to the Kiev throne.

Situated on infertile lands along the famous route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” Novgorod developed primarily as a craft and trade center. Metalworking, woodworking, pottery, weaving, tanning, jewelry, and fur trading reached a particularly high level. Lively trade took place not only with Russian lands, but also with foreign countries of the West and East, from where cloth, wine, ornamental stone, non-ferrous and precious metals were brought.

In exchange they sent furs, honey, wax, and leather. In Novgorod there were trading yards founded by Dutch and Hanseatic merchants. The most important trading partner was the largest among the cities of the Hanseatic League, Lübeck.

The highest authority in Novgorod was a meeting of free owners of courtyards and estates - the veche. It made decisions on issues of domestic and foreign policy, invited and expelled the prince, elected the mayor, the thousand, and the archbishop. The presence without the right to vote of the masses of the urban population made veche meetings stormy and loud events.

The elected mayor actually headed the executive branch, administered court, and controlled the prince. Tysyatsky commanded the militia, judged trade matters, and collected taxes. The archbishop /"lord"/, who was appointed by the Kiev metropolitan until 1156, was also later elected. He was in charge of the treasury and foreign relations. The prince was not only a military commander. He was also an arbitrator, participated in negotiations, and was responsible for internal order. Finally, he was simply one of the attributes of antiquity, and in accordance with the traditionalism of medieval thinking, even the temporary absence of a prince was considered an abnormal phenomenon.

The veche system was a form of feudal "democracy". The illusion of democracy was created around the actual power of the boyars and the so-called “300 golden belts”.

Galicia-Volyn land.

Southwestern Rus', with its highly fertile soils and mild climate, located at the intersection of numerous trade routes, had excellent opportunities for economic development. In the XIII century. Almost a third of the cities of all Rus' were concentrated here, and the urban population played an important role in political life. But the princely-boyar feuds, acute as nowhere else in Rus', turned internecine conflicts into a constant phenomenon. The long border with the strong states of the West - Poland, Hungary, the Order - made the Galician-Volyn lands the object of the greedy claims of their neighbors. Internal turmoil was complicated by foreign interference that threatened independence.

At first, the fate of Galicia and Volyn was different. The Galician principality, the westernmost in Rus', until the middle of the 12th century. was divided into small holdings.

Prince Vladimir Volodarevich of Przemysl united them, moving the capital to Galich. The principality reached its highest power under Yaroslav Osmomysl /1151-1187/, so named for his high education and knowledge of eight foreign languages. The last years of his reign were marred by clashes with the powerful boyars. The reason for them was the prince’s family affairs. Having married Dolgoruky’s daughter Olga, he took a mistress, Nastasya, and wanted to transfer the throne to his illegitimate son Oleg “Nastasich”, bypassing the legitimate Vladimir. Nastasya was burned at the stake, and after the death of his father, Vladimir expelled Oleg and established himself on the throne /1187-1199/.

After the death of Yaroslav the Wise, Volyn passed from hand to hand more than once until it fell to the Monomakhovichs. Under Monomakh's grandson Izyaslav Mstislavich, she separated from Kyiv. The rise of the Volyn land occurs at the end of the 12th century. under the cool and energetic Roman Mstislavich, the most prominent figure among the Volyn princes. He fought for 10 years for the neighboring Galician table, and in 1199 he united both principalities under his rule.

The short reign of Roman /1199-1205/ left a bright mark on the history of southern Rus'. The Ipatiev Chronicle calls him “the autocrat of all Rus',” and the French chronicler calls him “the Russian king.”

In 1202 he captured Kyiv and established control over the entire south. Having initially begun a successful fight against the Polovtsians, Roman then switched to Western European affairs. He intervened in the struggle between the Welfs and the Hohenstaufens on the side of the latter. In 1205, during a campaign against the king of Lesser Poland, Roman's army was defeated, and he himself was killed while hunting.

Roman's sons Daniil and Vasilko were too young to continue the broad plans to which their father fell victim. The principality collapsed, and the Galician boyars began a long and ruinous feudal war that lasted about 30 years. Princess Anna fled to Krakow. The Hungarians and Poles captured Galicia and part of Volhynia. Roman's children became toys in a major political game that the warring parties sought to gain. The national liberation struggle against foreign invaders became the basis for the consolidation of forces in Southwestern Rus'. Prince Daniil Romanovich grew up. Having established himself in Volyn and then in Galich, in 1238 he again united both principalities, and in 1240, like his father, he took Kyiv. The Mongol-Tatar invasion interrupted the economic and cultural rise of Galician-Volyn Rus, which began during the reign of this outstanding prince.

After the death of the Kyiv prince Yaroslav the Wise in 1054, the process of disintegration of the previously unified state began in Rus'. Similar events occurred in Western Europe. This was the general trend of the feudal Middle Ages. Gradually, Rus' divided into several de facto independent principalities with common traditions, culture and the Rurik dynasty. The most important year for the country was 1132, when Mstislav the Great died. It is this date that historians consider the beginning of the finally established political fragmentation. In this state, Rus' existed until the middle of the 13th century, when it survived the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar troops.

Kyiv land

Over the course of many years, the principalities of ancient Rus' were divided, united, the ruling branches of the Rurik dynasty changed, etc. However, despite the complexity of these events, several key destinies can be identified that played the most important role in the life of the country. Even after the actual collapse of the de jure, it was the Kiev prince who was considered senior.

A variety of appanage rulers tried to establish control over the “mother of Russian cities.” Therefore, if the appanage principalities of ancient Rus' had their own hereditary dynasties, then Kyiv most often passed from hand to hand. After the death of Mstislav Vladimirovich in 1132, the city briefly became the property of the Chernigov Rurikovichs. This did not suit other representatives of the dynasty. Due to the subsequent wars, Kyiv first ceased to control the Pereyaslavl, Turov and Vladimir-Volyn principalities, and then (in 1169) it was completely plundered by the army of Andrei Bogolyubsky and finally lost its political significance.

Chernigov

Ancient Rus' on Chernigov land belonged to the descendants of Svyatoslav Yaroslavovich. They have been in conflict with Kiev for a long time. For several decades, the Chernigov dynasty was divided into two branches: the Olgovichi and the Davydovichi. With each generation, more and more new appanage principalities arose, breaking away from Chernigov (Novgorod-Severskoye, Bryansk, Kursk, etc.).

Historians consider Svyatoslav Olgovich the most prominent ruler of this region. He was an ally It was with their allied feast in Moscow in 1147 that the history of the Russian capital, confirmed by chronicles, begins. When the principalities of ancient Rus' united in the fight against the Mongols who appeared in the east, the appanage rulers of the Chernigov land acted together with the rest of the Rurikovichs and were defeated. The invasion of the steppe inhabitants did not affect the entire principality, but only its eastern part. Nevertheless, it recognized itself as a vassal of the Golden Horde (after the painful death of Mikhail Vsevolodovich). In the 14th century, Chernigov, along with many neighboring cities, was annexed to Lithuania.

Polotsk region

Polotsk was ruled by the Izyaslavichs (descendants of Izyaslav Vladimirovich). This branch of the Rurikovichs stood out earlier than others. In addition, Polotsk was the first to begin an armed struggle for independence from Kyiv. The earliest such war happened at the beginning of the 11th century.

Like other principalities of ancient Rus' during the period of fragmentation, Polotsk eventually split into several small fiefs (Vitebsk, Minsk, Drutsk, etc.). As a result of wars and dynastic marriages, some of these cities passed to the Smolensk Rurikovichs. But the most dangerous opponents of Polotsk, without a doubt, were the Lithuanians. At first, these Baltic tribes staged predatory raids on Russian lands. Then they moved on to conquest. In 1307, Polotsk finally became part of the growing Lithuanian state.

Volyn

In Volyn (the southwest of modern Ukraine), two large political centers emerged - Vladimir-Volynsky and Galich. Having become independent from Kyiv, these principalities began to compete with each other for leadership in the region. At the end of the 12th century, Roman Mstislavovich united the two cities. His principality was named Galicia-Volyn. The influence of the monarch was so great that he sheltered the Byzantine Emperor Alexius III, expelled from Constantinople by the crusaders.

Roman's son Daniel eclipsed his father's successes with his fame. He successfully fought against the Poles, Hungarians and Mongols, periodically concluding alliances with one of his neighbors. In 1254, Daniel even accepted the title of King of Rus' from the Pope, hoping for help from Western Europe in the fight against the steppe inhabitants. After his death, the Galicia-Volyn principality fell into decline. At first it split into several fiefs, and then was captured by Poland. The fragmentation of Ancient Rus', whose principalities were constantly at enmity with each other, prevented it from fighting against external threats.

Smolensk region

The Smolensk principality was located in the geographical center of Rus'. It became independent under the son of Mstislav the Great, Rostislav. At the end of the 12th century, the principalities of Ancient Rus' again began a fierce struggle for Kyiv. The main contenders for power in the ancient capital were the Smolensk and Chernigov rulers.

The descendants of Rostislav reached the pinnacle of power under Mstislav Romanovich. In 1214-1223 he ruled not only Smolensk, but also Kiev. It was this prince who initiated the first anti-Mongol coalition, which was defeated at Kalka. Subsequently, Smolensk suffered less than others during the invasion. Nevertheless, its rulers paid tribute to the Golden Horde. Gradually, the principality found itself sandwiched between Lithuania and Moscow, which were gaining influence. Independence in such conditions could not last long. As a result, in 1404, the Lithuanian prince Vitovt naturally annexed Smolensk to his possessions.

Outpost on the Oka

The Ryazan principality occupied lands on the Middle Oka. It emerged from the possessions of the Chernigov rulers. In the 1160s, Murom broke away from Ryazan. The Mongol invasion hit this region hard. The inhabitants, princes, and principalities of ancient Rus' did not understand the threat posed by the eastern conquerors. In 1237, Ryazan was the first Russian city to be destroyed by the steppe inhabitants. Subsequently, the principality fought with Moscow, which was gaining strength. For example, the Ryazan ruler Oleg Ivanovich was an opponent of Dmitry Donskoy for a long time. Gradually Ryazan lost ground. It was annexed to Moscow in 1521.

Novgorod Republic

The historical characteristics of the principalities of Ancient Rus' cannot be complete without mentioning the Novgorod Republic. This state lived according to its own special political and social structure. An aristocratic republic with a strong influence of the national council was established here. The princes were elected military leaders (they were invited from other Russian lands).

A similar political system developed in Pskov, which was called “the younger brother of Novgorod.” These two cities were centers of international trade. Compared to other Russian political centers, they had the most contacts with Western Europe. After the Baltic states were captured by the Catholic military, serious friction began between the knights and Novgorod. This struggle reached its climax in the 1240s. It was then that the Swedes and Germans were defeated in turn by Prince Alexander Nevsky. When the historical path from Ancient Rus' to Great Russia was almost completed, the republic was left alone with Ivan III. He conquered Novgorod in 1478.

North-Eastern Rus'

The first political centers of North-Eastern Rus' in the 11th-12th centuries. there were Rostov, Suzdal and Vladimir. The descendants of Monomakh and his youngest son Yuri Dolgoruky ruled here. Their father's successors, Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest, strengthened the authority of the Vladimir principality, making it the largest and strongest in fragmented Rus'.

Under the children of Vsevolod the Big Nest, a major development began. The first appanage principalities began to appear. However, real disasters came to North-Eastern Rus' with the Mongols. The nomads ravaged this region and burned many of its cities. During the Horde rule, the khans were recognized as elders throughout Rus'. Those who received a special label were put in charge there.

In the struggle for Vladimir, two new opponents emerged: Tver and Moscow. The peak of their confrontation occurred at the beginning of the 14th century. Moscow turned out to be the winner in this rivalry. Gradually, its princes united North-Eastern Rus', overthrew the Mongol-Tatar yoke and ultimately created a single Russian state (Ivan the Terrible became its first king in 1547).

It moved into a new period called Specific Rus', during which Russian territories were divided into independent states.

This was due to a number of reasons:

• Confused principles of inheritance and proliferating offspring;
• Increase in boyar land ownership;
• Politics in the principalities, oriented towards the interests of the nobility, which benefits from having a prince who defends his own rights rather than standing on the side of the prince of Kyiv;
• Veche power, which existed in many cities in parallel with the princely power and contributed to the independence of individual settlements;
• The impact of subsistence farming.

But such a device interfered with the fight against external enemies (the aggressive actions of the Mongols, attacks by German knights trying, together with the Swedes, to force a change of religion), which was the main reason for the unification of the Russian principalities and lands, which had their own development characteristics.

One of these lands is the Novgorod Republic, which came out of the control of the princes of Kyiv in 1136, the peculiarity of which is the type of political governance. Unlike the rest of the Russian lands, the head was the posadnik, not the prince. He and the thousand's chief were elected with the help, and not the prince (as in other lands). The Novgorod land was a feudal republic until 1478. Then, the collector of Russian lands, abolished the veche and annexed the territory of the Novgorod Republic to Moscow.

The Pskov Republic, ruled by the governors of Kyiv until 1136, in turn, became part of the Novgorod Republic, while enjoying broad autonomy (independence). And from 1348 it became completely independent until 1510, when it was also annexed to the Moscow Principality.

The Principality of Moscow itself in the 13th century separated from the Great Principality of Vladimir. In the early years of the 14th century, the Principality of Moscow entered into competition with the Principality of Tver for the expansion of territory. In 1328, by order, Tver was destroyed for its uprising against the Horde, and soon received the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir. Ivan's descendants, with rare exceptions, retained their place on the princely throne. The victory finally and firmly secured the importance of the center for the unification of Russian lands in Moscow.

Under the reign of Ivan 3, the period of unification of the Russian principalities around Moscow came to an end. Under Vasily 3, Moscow became the center of the Russian centralized state. By this time, having annexed, in addition to the entire North-Eastern Rus' (“Suzdal land” until the 13th century, since the end of the 13th century called the “great reign of Vladimir”) and Novgorod, also the Smolensk lands conquered from Lithuania (a Russian principality located in the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Volga and Western Dvina) and the Chernigov Principality (located on the banks of the Dnieper).

The Chernigov land included the Ryazan principality, which became a separate Murom-Ryazan principality, and since the mid-12th century has been a grand principality, with its capital in the city of Ryazan. The Ryazan principality was the first to be brutally attacked by the Mongol-Tatars.

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, an Eastern European state that existed from the mid-13th century to the 18th century, was a rival of the Moscow Principality in the struggle for power.

The Principality of Polotsk was one of the first to emerge from the Old Russian state, which later became independent with its capital in Polotsk (in the 14th-18th centuries, a large city in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania).

Since the mid-13th century, the neighbors and competitors of the Principality of Lithuania have been the Principality of Galicia-Volyn, one of the most extensive Russian southwestern principalities. It was created by the merger of two principalities: Volyn and Galician.

Feudal fragmentation of Rus' name a historical period in the history of Rus', which is characterized by the fact that, formally being part of Kievan Rus, the appanage principalities gradually separated from Kyiv

The main reasons for the feudal fragmentation of Rus'

1. Preservation of significant tribal disunity under conditions of dominance of subsistence farming

2. The development of feudal land ownership and the growth of appanage, princely-boyar land ownership

3. Power struggle between princes and feudal feuds

4. Constant raids of nomads and outflow of population to the northeast of Rus'

5. The decline of trade along the Dnieper due to the Polovtsian danger and the loss of Byzantium’s leading role in international trade

6. The growth of cities as centers of appanage lands

Consequences of feudal fragmentation of Rus'

The main appanage principalities of Rus'

The largest appanage principalities of Rus' and their features

Peculiarities	Vladimir-Suzdal Principality	Galicia-Volyn principality	Novgorod Boyar Republic
Territorial	Territory: North-Eastern Rus', between the Oka and Volga rivers	The territory of South-West Rus', between the Dnieper and Prut rivers, the Carpathians Fertile lands, mild climate. Vulnerable to nomad raids	The climate and soils are unsuitable for agriculture. Outpost from Western aggression
Economic	The main branch of the economy is agriculture due to the abundance of fertile lands suitable for crop production With the influx of population from the southern Russian lands (XI-XII centuries), the development of new lands intensifies, new cities appear The location of the principality at the intersection of trade routes (along the Oka and Volga rivers)	The ancient center of Russian arable farming due to the abundance of fertile lands Development of rock salt production and supply of it to the territory of Southern Rus' Long-standing center of trade with South-Eastern and Central Europe, eastern countries	Leading sectors of the economy: trade and crafts Wide development of industries: salt making, iron production, fishing, hunting, etc. Active trade with Volga Bulgaria, the Baltic states, North German cities, Scandinavia
Socio-political	A constant influx of population in search of protection from nomad raids and normal conditions for farming Rapid growth of old cities: Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov, Yaroslavl; new: Moscow, Kostroma, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky In new cities and lands there are weak veche traditions and weak boyars, which led to strong princely power The unlimited nature of the power of the prince and the advisory powers of the veche	The struggle for supremacy in Rus' and the capture of Kiev A powerful boyars arose early, challenging the power of the princes	Weak princely power. Strong boyars and merchants, who held real political power Special state administrative structure of Novgorod (see diagram below)

Special state-administrative structure of Novgorod (diagram)