Construction of the 30s in the USSR. Construction of the ussr. The working class and its life
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TwitterIn the manufacture of concrete (or "bentonite", as they were then called) blocks, slags, waste from the metallurgical and coal industries began to be widely used. Cinder blocks were also used, which have retained their value to this day. Slag concrete stones and blocks were used in the construction of workers' settlements in the pre-war years. Industrial and public buildings were also built from them. In 1927, on the initiative of G.B. Krasin, E.V. Kostyrko and A.F. Loleit in the USSR, they began to use large textured blocks for multi-storey buildings. Before the war, hundreds of residential buildings and public buildings up to 8 stories high were built from such blocks in Moscow, Leningrad and in some cities of Ukraine. Of greatest interest is the 6-storey residential building in Moscow, built in 1941 by the architects A.K.Burov and B.N.Blokhin. Here, for the first time, a new two-row cutting of walls into blocks was applied and an aesthetically meaningful structure of the facade, saturated with decorative details, was proposed.
In 1936-1937. A. N. Samoilov, M. 3. Simonov, as well as researchers who worked at TsNIPS, proposed and introduced lightweight structures based on slag, expanded clay and other porous materials. In 1958, during the construction of a metro bridge in Moscow, expanded clay concrete was widely used, and then four panel houses were first built from it.
During the war years, and especially after the war, in difficult conditions for the restoration of the national economy, large-block construction played a huge role. Large factories for the production of concrete blocks were built in Moscow, Leningrad, Zhdanov and other cities. Initially, they were made on the basis of slag, and then other lightweight aggregates (expanded clay, aggloporite, perlite). The effectiveness of concrete blocks is due to their industrial nature, that is, factory production of blocks with given dimensions and properties; the possibility of using local raw materials; the use of small-scale mechanization; reduction of construction time.
At the same time, large blocks had their own technical "ceiling", which was well understood by the engineers of the 1920s. This "ceiling" was defined by looking at the blocks as a part of the wall, and not the building as a whole, and was conditioned by the idea of a system of load-bearing walls. Another factor limiting the scope of the large blocks was the material properties: concrete, as you know, worked well only in compression.
The view of concrete as an exceptionally plastic, sculptural rather than structural material is not new; it took shape at the end of the last century during the revival of Roman concrete. This view is legitimate, because concrete really has a plastic form and is used in modern sculpture no less actively than in architecture. However, the plastic possibilities of concrete in architecture should be considered only in connection with the structural system and tectonic logic, which constitute the essential difference between the space of architecture and the space of sculpture.
Topic: Economy of the USSR in 1920-30 Development of building technologies.
The great construction projects of communism - that is how all the global projects of the Soviet government were called: highways, canals, stations, reservoirs.
One can argue about the degree of their "greatness", but there is no doubt that these were grandiose projects of their time.
"Magnitka"
The largest in Russia, the Magnitogorsk Metallurgical Combine, was designed in the late spring of 1925 by the Soviet institute UralGipromez. According to another version, the design was carried out by an American company from Clinwood, and the US Steel mill in Gary, Indiana became the prototype of Magnitka. All three "heroes" who were at the "helm" of the plant's construction - the manager Gugel, the builder Maryasin and the head of the trust Valerius - were shot in the 30s. January 31, 1932 - The first blast furnace was launched. The construction of the plant took place in the most difficult conditions, while most of the work was carried out by hand. Despite this, thousands of people from all over the Union hurried to Magnitka. Foreign experts, primarily Americans, were also actively involved.
Belomorkanal
The White Sea-Baltic Canal was supposed to connect the White Sea and Lake Onega and provide access to the Baltic Sea and the Volga-Baltic waterway. The canal was built by the forces of the Gulag prisoners in record time - less than two years (1931-1933). The canal is 227 kilometers long. This was the first construction in the Soviet Union carried out exclusively by prisoners, perhaps that is why the Belomorkanal is not always ranked among the "great construction projects of communism." Each builder of the White Sea Canal was called a "prisoner canal soldier" or abbreviated "zek", hence the slang word "zek". Campaign posters of that time read: "Your term will melt from hot work!" Indeed, for many of those who made it to the end of the construction site alive, the terms were reduced. On average, the mortality rate reached 700 people a day. "Hot work" also influenced the nutrition: the higher the rate "zek" produced, the more impressive the "ration" received. Standard - 500 gr. bread and seaweed gruel.
Baikal-Amur Mainline
One of the largest railway lines in the world was built with huge interruptions, starting in 1938 and ending in 1984. The most difficult section - the Severo-Mu tunnel - was put into permanent operation only in 2003. Stalin initiated the construction. Songs were composed about BAM, laudatory articles were published in newspapers, films were shot. The construction was positioned as a feat of youth and, naturally, no one knew that prisoners who survived after the construction of the Belomorkanal were sent to the construction site in 1934. In the 1950s, about 50 thousand prisoners worked at BAM. Each meter of BAM is worth one human life.
Volga-Don Canal
An attempt to connect the Don and the Volga was undertaken by Peter the Great in 1696. In the 30s of the last century, a construction project was created, but the war prevented its implementation. Work resumed in 1943 immediately after the end of the Battle of Stalingrad. However, the date of the start of construction should still be considered 1948, when the first earthworks began. In addition to volunteers and military builders, 236 thousand prisoners and 100 thousand prisoners of war took part in the construction of the canal route and its structures. In journalism, you can find descriptions of the most terrible conditions in which the prisoners lived. Dirty and lousy from the lack of the opportunity to wash regularly (there was one bath for all), half-starved and sick - this is how the “builders of communism”, deprived of their civil rights, actually looked. The canal was built in 4.5 years - and this is a unique period in the world history of the construction of hydraulic structures.
Nature transformation plan
The plan was adopted at the initiative of Stalin in 1948 after a drought and rampant famine in 46-47. The plan included the creation of forest belts, which were supposed to block the road to hot southeast winds - dry winds, which would change the climate. It was planned to place the forest belts on an area of 120 million hectares - this is exactly how much England, Italy, France, the Netherlands and Belgium take together. The plan also included the construction of an irrigation system, during the implementation of which 4,000 reservoirs appeared. It was planned to complete the project before 1965. More than 4 million hectares of forest were planted, and the total length of forest belts was 5300 km. The state solved the food problem of the country, while part of the grain was exported. After Stalin's death in 1953, the program was curtailed, and in 1962 the USSR was again shaken by a food crisis - bread and flour disappeared from the shelves, and sugar and butter were interrupted.
Volzhskaya HPP
Construction of the largest hydroelectric power plant in Europe began in the summer of 1953. Next to the construction site, in the tradition of that time, the GULAG - Akhtuba ITL was deployed, where more than 25 thousand prisoners worked. They were involved in laying roads, laying power lines and general preparatory work. Of course, they were not allowed to work directly on the construction of the hydroelectric power station. Sappers also worked at the facility, who were engaged in demining the site for future construction and the bottom of the Volga - the proximity to Stalingrad made itself felt. The construction site employed about 40 thousand people and 19 thousand various mechanisms and machines. In 1961, having turned from “Stalingrad HPP” into “Volzhskaya HPP named after the 21st Congress of the CPSU”, the station was put into operation. It was solemnly opened by Khrushchev himself. The hydroelectric power station was a gift for the 21st Congress, at which Nikita Sergeevich, by the way, announced his intention to build communism by 1980.
Bratsk hydroelectric power station
The construction of the hydroelectric power station began in 1954 on the Angara River. The small village of Bratsk soon expanded into a large city. The construction of the hydroelectric power station was positioned as a shock Komsomol construction site. Hundreds of thousands of Komsomol members from all over the Union came to the development of Siberia. Until 1971, the Bratsk hydroelectric power station was the largest in the world, and the Bratsk reservoir became the world's largest artificial reservoir. When it was filled, about 100 villages were flooded. The tragedy of "Angarsk Atlantis" in particular is dedicated to the piercing work of Valentin Rasputin "Farewell to Matera".
The fact that residential buildings became the material for the embodiment of the idea of an ensemble city and were included in the complex development of the reconstructed highways influenced the very type of housing construction in Moscow. The placement of new houses, primarily on the front lines of streets undergoing reconstruction, became the rule already in 1932-1933. The pompous appearance, which began to be demanded from residential buildings, also influenced their internal organization - the new building rules introduced in 1932 for Moscow provided for a decisive improvement in the quality of dwellings. The height of the living quarters increased up to 3.2 m, the arrangement of bathrooms in all apartments became mandatory, the living area of the apartments and their auxiliary premises increased. The layout of the standard sections, along which the construction was carried out, also improved - for the first time, functional zoning of apartments began to be used (bedrooms, grouped together with a sanitary unit, were located in the depths of the apartment). However, with an acute shortage of housing at that time, an increase in the area of apartments led to an expansion of the number of rooms, which nullified the advantages of their new types. The volume of housing construction, which amounted to 2.2 million square meters. m of living space for 1931-1934, was significant, but the high rate of population growth remained (in 1939 the number of Muscovites reached 4137 thousand, twice the number in 1926). Thanks to new buildings, Moscow grew significantly - if in 1913 there were 107 houses in the city of six floors and higher, then in 1940 their number exceeded a thousand.
The successful experience of the complex construction of residential buildings on Gorky Street was developed in the flow-speed method of their construction, proposed by the architect A. Mordvinov and engineer P. Krasilnikov. This method was used most concentratedly on Bolshaya Kaluzhskaya Street (now Leninsky Prospekt), where in 1939-1941. built on the basis of a single section of 11 houses with 7-9 floors (houses No. 12-28). They were designed by A. Mordvinov, D. Chechulin and G. Golts. The most expressive in this group of buildings with facades, finished with bricks with pre-prepared ceramic and concrete details, house number 22 (architect G. Golts). The wall with a calm grid of window openings is clearly dissected horizontally and vertically, the few details are large and impressive. The divisions are frankly decorative; they do not disguise an apartment building as some kind of a palace or a mansion. Note, however, that by focusing on the street facades, the architects left the courtyard facades dull and chaotic. This happened in the 30s on all highways, but on Bolshaya Kaluzhskaya it gave a particularly unpleasant effect - the courtyard facades here are facing Neskuchny Garden and are visible from afar.
Such examples, when the complexity of construction became the basis for an integral concept of a sufficiently large group of buildings, were not numerous, however. More often, large houses on highways were built on separate vacant lots, conceived and designed "piece by piece", even if included in large-scale reconstruction, as was the case on 1st Meshchanskaya Street (now Prospect Mira).
The most impressive example of such a single ceremonial building was the house on Mokhovaya, built according to the project of I. Zholtovsky (now, after refurbishment, it is used by the Foreign Tourism Office). The construction of this house with a giant architectural order, reproducing the shape of the Capitanio Palace in Vicenza, created by the great Italian architect of the 16th century Andrea Palladio, became at that time a kind of creative declaration of the direction in Soviet architecture, which came from the idea of the eternity of the laws of beauty. "Style is a transitory phenomenon," said I. Zholtovsky, "and each style is just a variation on the only theme that human culture is alive with - the theme of harmony." Hence the timeless value of the most harmonious works of the classics, according to the master. The wall of a modern large house with seven identical floors and equivalent rooms forms, as it were, the second plan of the composition, a background against which a magnificent colonnade appears, a decoration that is not subject to the pressure of the utilitarian (the internal organization of the house is also subordinated to it - in some rooms the windows are lowered to the floor level to ensure desired facade drawing). The scenery is drawn with great skill, the basis of which is a deep knowledge of the architectural classics (Zholtovsky devoted years to studying it).
The interiors of the house are also beautifully designed. The rooms in the apartments were connected into beautiful enfilades and could be combined thanks to the wide openings. At the same time, office space is conveniently grouped around the gateway. Every detail has been carefully and skillfully worked out. The work of Zholtovsky made a great impression. It contributed to the development of a hobby for traditional forms, and at the same time, its stylistic homogeneity resisted the eclectic mixtures of the modern and the traditional, its own and borrowed (and sometimes from many random sources).
The impression made by the house on Mokhovaya led to a wide spread of imitations of the techniques of Renaissance architecture. Nine-storey houses built in 1935-1938 designed by architect I. Vainshtein (Chkalov Street, 21 and 23), symmetrically framing the passage. Their L-shaped hulls give the impression of giant monoliths. The impressiveness of the main masses is emphasized by the fragile lightness of the crowning colonnades along the entire perimeter of the facades. The golden main color of the walls is beautifully complemented by the Pompeian red decorative inserts made using the sgraffito technique (they form a continuous belt together with the windows of the fifth floor). Here it was not possible, as in the house on Mokhovaya, to achieve a solid unity of form - the prosaic roughness of the wall perforated by windows and the elegance of the decor exist on their own, they do not form an organized, expressive contrast.
The elegant formal play of decorative forms is equally independent of the prosaic basis on the facades of the house, which was built for Glavsevmorput in 1936-1937. architect E. Iocheles (Suvorovsky Boulevard, 9) The game was complicated by the need to include in the structure of the house, as one of its wings, an overbuilt mansion, which has a different height of floors than the new parts. The architect coped with this cleverly and subtly. The energetic take-off of the colonnades in the central part of the house emphasizes the theatricality of the overall effect.
The expressiveness of house No. 31 on Kropotkinskaya Street, built in 1936 by the project of architect Z. Rosenfeld, is based on the opposition of “quotes” from the Renaissance architecture - a two-tiered portico raised on a high base and a cornice strongly moved forward - with a prosaic background of a wall perforated with windows ... The contrast, however, is weakened by the fact that the windows, despite the obvious uniformity of their placement on the wall, are different in size and shape, which created variegation.
Built by architect L. Bumazhny in 1940, house no. 87-89 on 1st Meshchanskaya differs from the quotation eloquence of many neo-Renaissance buildings in the restraint of the decoration and its organic unity with the emphasized smooth surface of the wall. Here the opposition between wall and decor has disappeared, decorative details are felt as modulations of the wall itself. The restraint of this building distinguishes it favorably from the variegated diversity of other houses that appeared on this highway at the end of the 30s.
A different reading of the Renaissance heritage than that coming from Zholtovsky was suggested by the students and followers of the architect I. Fomin, who has his roots in Leningrad, its architecture and cultural traditions. A typical example of it is house number 45 on the Arbat, in 1933-1935. built by the architect L. Polyakov. Through the restraint of its architecture, Fomin's desire for rigor, clarity, and integrity of the solution, learned from the "proletarian classics", appears. There is no contrast between decor and utilitarian massif - the Doric colonnade with arches carries the rusticated wall of the four upper floors. This motive comes from the palaces of Renaissance Rome, but a lot of Petersburg classicism (as, incidentally, from the Petersburg neoclassicism of the beginning of our century) was also brought into it. A similar technique for a house on the corner of Krasnoprudnaya and Nizhnyaya Krasnoselskaya streets (1935-1937) was used by the architect I. Rozhin. However, if in a house on the Arbat the two-storey columns harmoniously correlate with the four-storey array above them, then here seven storeys rise above the same colonnade, forming an overwhelmingly huge mass. Such techniques were not widely used.
A different line of creative searches was developed in the 30s by I. Golosov. He believed that reliance on the principles and techniques of classical composition contributes to the solution of new problems, but this does not mean at all the need to copy some samples, literal repetition of certain details. In fact, Golosov again turned to the principles of romantic symbolism and, on its basis, combined, led to a kind of synthesis of the beginning of classical composition and modern architectural thinking. “I decided to take the path that I had outlined for myself at the beginning of the revolution - the path of creating a modern form based on the study of the classical form,” he said. According to the project of I. Golosov himself in 1934-1936. on Yauzsky Boulevard, 2/16, a powerful monumental residential building was built (the second phase of the building along Yauzsky Boulevard was completed already in 1941). In a peculiar drawing of details, and even in the system of articulations that organize the composition, Golosov does not resort to "quotations" or direct associations. He strives to artistically comprehend the properties and possibilities of new structures for the development of plasticity, monumentality and scale of form. Among the houses that were built in the 30s to form the new face of Moscow highways, this one is undoubtedly one of the most impressive.
The voice was imitated a lot. However, his talent and experience were needed to achieve success on a path similar to the one he was on. In the works of his followers, the freedom of shaping, inherent in the master, often turned into capricious arbitrariness, amateurism. Among the most notable works of this kind is house No. 5 on Kolkhoznaya Square. Back in the early 30s, the building was made of monolithic warm concrete according to the joylessly utilitarian project of the German architect Remel, and in 1936 it was completed and reconstructed by the architect D. Bulgakov. Overcoming the primitiveness of the box, he used purely pictorial, "suprematist", as he himself said, not subject to compositional logic, techniques in order to dismember the monotonous volume, to give it dynamism and plasticity. The lack of constructive logic gives the building the character of a cardboard layout, a huge volume breaks down into abstract, non-material planes.
A special and very interesting page of the residential architecture of Moscow in the 1930s is made up of experiments with large-block buildings, which became the beginning of that powerful system of industrial housing construction, without which the city is unthinkable today. We have already mentioned the construction of large concrete blocks in Moscow in the 1920s. Then the task was posed as a purely technical one, and the facelessness of the structures was aggravated by the fact that the blocks were made uncoated and they had to be finished with plaster. In the 1930s, enthusiasts of large-block construction, architects A. Burov, B. Blokhin and engineer Yu. Karmanov, saw in this design not only a way to make the construction process more efficient, but also a new means of artistic expression. They realized that a way was opening from the semi-theatrical props of "houses on the highway" to genuine, organic architecture.
In 1938-1939. a house was built on Velozavodskaya (no. 6), then repeated on Bolshaya Polyanka (no. 4/10). The floor in these houses was divided in height into four parts, determined by the size of the blocks. Their processing imitated cyclopean blocks of natural stone - with a relatively thin wall, this technique became false. The large scale of the blocks did not resonate with other elements of the house and was not commensurate with human sizes. Overcoming this drawback, on the facade of house no. 11 at Bolshaya Polyanka (1939), the same authors, as it were, dissolved the boundaries of the blocks in a drawing covering the entire surface of the facade wall. This flat drawing was made in colored plaster and created the illusion of a faceted rustic texture. Such a decorative technique made it possible to replace the original sizes of structural elements with arbitrary ones; the frankness of the peculiar game is amusing, the house is elegant and light. Such an approach to industrial architecture today may seem naive, but the energy with which its enthusiasts achieved aesthetic expressiveness remains a good example today.
In 1940-1941. Burov and Blokhin continued a series of their experiments during the construction of house no. 25 on Leningradsky Prospekt. Here, it was decided to partition the wall into piers and lintels, from which its frame was formed, as it were. The system turned out to be technically feasible, it made it possible to significantly reduce the number of types of elements manufactured at the plant (thanks to this, the principle of two-row cutting was used in mass construction back in the 1960s). At the same time, the wall was dissected vigorously and beautifully. In front of the kitchens, facing the street facades, there are utility loggias in this house, where you can clean your dress, dry clothes, etc. Due to the fact that the loggias are covered from outside with decorative gratings made of concrete, they are inaccessible for public viewing. The openwork reliefs for the loggias are made according to the sketches of the artist V. Favorsky. The alternation of windows and loggias enriched the harsh rhythm of the facade, gave it decorativeness (however, and some exoticism too - for her the house was called "accordion"). However, this early example already showed many possibilities of artistic expressiveness inherent in industrial housing construction, which, unfortunately, were somehow forgotten at the subsequent stage of its development.
The house on Leningradsky Prospekt is also interesting because the architects tried to return on a new basis to the idea of a dwelling in combination with a public service system. Internal corridors connected the apartments of the six upper floors with staircases, and on the first, a complex of public premises was designed, including a cafe-restaurant, a grocery store, a kindergarten-nursery and a service bureau, which was supposed to fulfill orders for the delivery of food or meals, cleaning of apartments, laundry, etc. pr. The outbreak of war did not allow to finish the public part of the house. Then its premises were used for other purposes, and the plan remained unfulfilled.
Cultural construction in the ussr in the 20-30s
Among the key factors that allowed the Soviet Union to become the second industrial power in the world (after the United States) in an unprecedentedly short historical period - by the end of the 1930s - was a qualitative turn in the cultural development of the masses. This social process went down in the history of the country as cultural revolution ... Its main tasks were to create an all-encompassing system of public education and enlightenment, the development of science and the training of cadres of the people's intelligentsia, the upbringing of a person capable of fruitfully participating in the construction of a new society, and the introduction of working people to the spiritual riches developed by mankind. The emphasis in the formation of Soviet culture was placed on enriching the peoples of the country with "the knowledge of all the riches that mankind has developed."
It was an extremely difficult task - to catch up in a short time what had been missed over the centuries. Before the Great October Socialist Revolution, three quarters of the population of Russia were illiterate. Most of the nationalities and ethnic groups, including the small peoples of the North, the Far East, and partly the North Caucasus, did not even have their own written language, were at an extremely low level of cultural life. The situation was complicated by an acute shortage of trained or simply competent personnel, material and financial resources, the destructive consequences of the imperialist and civil wars, foreign military intervention.
State, party and public organizations, overcoming difficulties, contradictions and mistakes, persistently solved numerous problems of radical restructuring of the whole matter of public education and enlightenment, the development of higher education, science and creativity, culture and everyday life of workers, peasants, and all strata of the population.
Already in the first days and months after the revolution, the Soviets in the center and in the localities took vigorous measures to preserve the cultural heritage of the past. Thus, on October 25 (November 7), 1917, the Petrograd Military Revolutionary Committee appointed commissars for the protection of museums and palaces; and on October 27 (November 9), the People's Commissariat for Education organized the registration of libraries, created a commission for the registration and control of the treasures of the Winter Palace.
In the first months of Soviet power, the Council of People's Commissars adopted a number of decrees on the registration and registration of monuments of art and antiquity, on the prohibition of the export and sale abroad of items of special artistic and historical significance, on the preservation of libraries and book depositories, on the nationalization of the Tretyakov Gallery and other art collections, on the taking under protection of the estate of Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy in Yasnaya Polyana, about increasing funds (and this with an extreme financial deficit) for the development of cultural, educational and publishing activities.
At the height of the civil war, local Soviets, party and public bodies helped the RSFSR People's Commissariat of Education to register and preserve more than 550 old estates, about a thousand private collections, and 200 thousand works of art. The owners of these estates and valuable collections were issued special letters of protection. “We walk without boots,” wrote a prominent historian, Deputy People's Commissar of Education M.N. Pokrovsky (1888-1932), - and the Hermitage during the revolution and thanks to it becomes the first collection of the world after the Louvre and the Vatican ... art, it seemed to them that it was completely alien, did not let these rare greenhouse plants ruin at critical moments, and, starving and cold, he warmed them up and left them for future generations. "
As a priority, the Soviet government put forward the task of familiarizing the entire mass of working people, especially the younger generations, with literacy. For example, already on November 9 (22), 1917, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars, by their decree, established the State Commission on Education under the chairmanship of the People's Commissar of Education A.V. Lunacharsky, and on June 18, 1918, the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR adopted the Regulation on the organization of public education in the Russian Republic, according to which the country introduced free and compulsory general and polytechnic education for all children under the age of 17. In the fall of 1918, the Regulation of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee on a unified labor school of the RSFSR came into effect, a new spelling was introduced, a network of courses was developed to train teachers who could build a new school, raise a person into a person. This was one of the main tasks of the Cultural Revolution. For "culture," as M. Gorky (1868–1936) aptly put it, "is a mind-organized violence against the zoological instincts of people."
The network of primary, incomplete secondary and secondary schools has grown significantly: from 124,000 in the 1914/15 academic year. - up to 199 thousand in 1940/41 academic year Accordingly, the number of students in schools increased from 9.7 million to 34.8 million. In the 1940/41 academic year, the number of teachers exceeded 1.2 million against 280 thousand in the 1914/15 academic year. G.
An enormous amount of work was done by the All-Russian Voluntary Society “Down with Illiteracy,” created in 1923, by volunteers from the Cult Army and by the Komsomol. For 1920-1940 60 million people were taught to read and write. The general literacy of citizens between the ages of 9 and 49 reached 87.4% in 1939. For the first time, Soviet power helped 48 nations and peoples of the USSR acquire a national script, including 13 small peoples of the Far North. The Russian language has become a means of communication voluntarily adopted by the peoples of the USSR for more than 120 ethnic groups of the country, which opened up wide access for all of them to the spiritual riches of national and world culture. The Russian people rendered enormous amount of disinterested assistance to the nations and peoples of the USSR in the development of culture, the organization of book printing, the publication of newspapers and magazines in 60 languages, in the revival of various types of national arts.
In the 1930s, universal primary education became compulsory in the country, and the transition to compulsory seven-year education was completed. Secondary, general and special vocational education for young people has been intensively developing. This noticeably affected the increase in the level of development of production, the growth of labor productivity and the rationalization movement. All expenses for education, including higher education, were borne by the state.
Qualitative changes have taken place in the development of the network of higher educational institutions, in the training of specialists in various fields. The state, despite the tight budget associated with the acceleration of industrialization, found funds to finance universities, the number of which increased from 105 in 1915 to 817 in 1940. Accordingly, the number of students in them increased from 127 thousand to 812 thousand, or in 6.4 times. In 1937, in the USSR, there were almost twice as many university students per thousand inhabitants as in England and Italy, three times as many as in Germany. Workers' faculties played an important role in the training of workers and peasants. Those who successfully graduated from the workers' faculty had the right to enter universities without exams.
As a result, over the years of the military five-year plans, the number of specialists with higher education employed in the national economy increased from 233,000 in 1928 to 909,000 in 1940, that is, almost fourfold. With the general growth of personnel with higher education, priority was given to the training of engineers (1928 - 48 thousand, 1940 - 295 thousand).
The system of public education created in the USSR provided real right and free access to knowledge to all citizens, contributed to the socio-economic progress of society, the rapid development of science, literature and art.
The USSR Academy of Sciences became the leading scientific center. The Academies of Sciences of the Union republics, numerous sectoral research institutes and laboratories, created in the 1920s and 1930s, worked fruitfully. The works of N.E. Zhukovsky, K.E. Tsiolkovsky, I.P. Bardin, V.I. Vernadsky, G.O. Graft, P.L. Kapitsa, S.I. Vavilova, A.F. Ioffe, N.F. Gamaleya, I.M. Gubkina, L. D. Landau, S.V. Lebedeva, A.N. Tupolev, S.V. Ilyushin, V.M. Petlyakova, A.N. Nesmeyanova, I.P. Pavlova, D.V. Skobeltsyna, B.V., I.V. Kurchatov, F.A. Zandler, S.P. Queen and many others. The number of scientific workers in 1940 in the USSR reached 98.3 thousand against 11.6 thousand people in 1914. Soviet scientists made an enormous contribution to solving the problems of technical and economic independence, strengthening the defense power of the USSR, developing scientific, technical and social progress of our Motherland.
Young Soviet literature left a deep imprint on public life, consciousness and spiritual life of people. Overcoming the difficulties of growth, negative nihilistic tendencies, the ideological pressure of the political leadership, writers, poets, playwrights have created many works, the value of which has not diminished over the past decades. The core of Soviet literature in those years was M. Gorky, D. Bedny, V. Ya. Bryusov, A.A. Blok, V.V. Mayakovsky, S.A. Yesenin, M.A. Sholokhov, A.A. Fadeev, F.I. Parfenov, A.S. Serafimovich, A.N. Tolstoy ... At the same time, the work of A.P. Platonova, M.A. Bulgakova, O.E. Mandelstam, B.A. Pilnyak.
Soviet musical and theatrical art made a loud statement. It was in the 30s that S.S. Prokofiev, D.D. Shostakovich, D.B. Kabalevsky, T.N. Khrennikov, Yu.A. Shaporin, B.V. Astafiev, I.O. Dunaevsky and others wrote works that were included in the golden fund of national and world culture. The network of theaters, clubs, palaces of culture, houses of pioneers, libraries, various cultural and educational societies and institutions grew rapidly. By the beginning of the 1930s, the practically newly created Soviet cinema had shown on screens about a thousand "silent" films, and then up to 500 sound films. The progress in cultural construction can be judged by the data given in the table below (figures at the end of the year):
The implementation of the program of the cultural revolution turned a previously semi-literate country into one of the most educated in the world, brought Soviet society to the heights of cultural progress of that time, became a prerequisite for strengthening the economic and defense power of the USSR, social progress of society. The most important result of the first five-year plans was the formation of a multinational intelligentsia that emerged from the people. Most of the old intelligentsia went into the service of the people. And although in the second half of the 30s the intelligentsia suffered tangible losses due to Stalin's tyranny and mass repressions, the process of its formation was growing.
Thanks to the powerful industry created by the intellect and labor efforts of the people, the effective system of training specialists in all sectors of the national economy, the cultural development of the people, the USSR won a historic victory over Nazi Germany in the Great Patriotic War.
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Many couch warriors have already erased their tongues, proving the impossibility of building the Egyptian pyramids by ordinary people. I decided to share the Internet and, as an example, picked up photographs of the Great Construction sites of the 30s.
Only 80 years ago, our ancestors with a pick and a shovel got up to such a thing that the pharaohs nervously smoke in the corner.
Let's start with white sea channel... 227 km, 3 years, from materials only stone and wood. technology NO.
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Building magnets 1929-1932
the world record set by Galiullin's team - 1196 mixes per shift on the Yeger concrete mixer. This world record has remained unsurpassed.
At the construction of the coke-chemical plant, records were also achieved in terms of reinforcement work. by Pouh's brigade (4 people) mounted - 15.5 tons per shift.
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bridge test Kiev 1914 year. an example of what you can do with your hands.
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construction of a tram line in Tver
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DneproGES 1927-1932
The project was completed back in 1905. however - Bishop of Samara and Stavropol Simeon - to Count Orlov-Davydov: "On your ancestral domains, the projectors of the Samara Technical Society, together with the apostate engineer Krzhizhanovsky, are planning the construction of a dam and a large power station. Show mercy by your arrival to save God's peace in the Zhiguli lands and destroy conception ". abolished by the king.
there were also accidents. One of the largest happened in the spring of 1928: a fence made of metal tongue and groove fell. There were rumors of sabotage. But it turned out that the accident was caused by the theft of the fastening cables. After 18 days, the tongues were put back in place. Throughout 1932, 90 thousand people were hired on the construction site, and 60 thousand were fired.
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In 1941 the dam was blown up. in 1944 they began to clear the rubble, the mass of which was a quarter of a million tons of crushed concrete. The tools are the same - a pick and a shovel. On July 7, 1944, the first cubic meter of concrete was poured into the destroyed dam. He was again kneaded with feet, and the construction site was mostly women. The working day lasted 12-15 hours. There were no days off. For a shift, a team of 15 girls laid up to two hundred cubic meters of concrete.
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Novokuznetsk rolling shop (KMK) 1929-1932-1935
A team of excavators A.S. Filippova, on the backfill of the trench of the main water conduit running from the water intake on the Tom River to the plant, set a world record for manually moving earth soil.
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memoirs of the foreman-bricklayer V.Ya. Shchideka:
“When we finished the first battery as a gift to the XYI party conference, I didn’t leave the oven for 4 days, I didn’t come home. The rail served as a pillow for me to rest, and to make it softer, I put canvas gloves on.
Just before that, my wife fell ill, and I sent her to Tomsk, and two guys remained at home, one is 3 years old, the other is 7 years old. And so, on the second day after my departure, the youngest son fell ill and suddenly died. I forgot about the kids under the industrial frenzy. On the fifth day I come home and see - my youngest child has died, and the eldest is somewhere walking around the site and looking for me ...
Then we worked at the blast furnace. Here we immediately went wrong.
Komsomol members worked at the Komsomol cowper. They entered into a competition with us, and we did not even know about it until they brought us a surprise: you lost, they say, Shidek ...
The persecution of our brigade began, they made a call. The next day, the meeting of shock workers and we were covered in all, they outright disgraced us at the meeting. They promised to make some kind of cart and pull us on this cart in tow.
I turned to Rabochaya Gazeta for help. She helped us, and we exceeded the task by 370 percent at the 5th and 6th cowper. We were awarded with housing. They moved from the barracks to a stone house, gave me a room. ” 
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one of the foremen A.M. Zaev caught a cold in the fall, fell ill, but did not leave an important facility. Soon A.M. Zaev realized that he would no longer rise, would not finish building the tunnel. And when his comrades came to visit him, he asked to be buried not in the cemetery, but in his own section, which he headed. They buried Zaev on a searing frosty day. Smooth rubble was poured on his grave, and so that the rubble would not freeze overnight, they put four large braziers. The next morning, the grave was filled with concrete "
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Uglich hydroelectric complex 1935-1941 (first of all)
Zholudev B.L. 1907 “I started working on the scaffolding after an accident. When the scaffolding was made and huge vessels were raised on them for cementing, and the whole team entered, the scaffolding collapsed. Some were crippled, some went to the bottom. This was done by the 3rd department. The foreman had a term of 10 years. They planted him. After that, I was given the task of making forests. I did all these forests from top to bottom. I checked each line under a load of 10 tons. He stood there himself and the foreman for 5 minutes until we checked everything. German prisoners worked. They worked honestly, well. You could rely on them. Our prisoners also worked. They worked for me too. He took it because there weren't enough people of his own. Those who were on the 58th article could be trusted. They carried out the task. And crooks - rations stole from honest workers. Soldering - 800 grams. Or the linen will be stolen ... And the 58th were reliable. "
Hubert D. German prisoner of war. He went to war at the age of 18. In 1943, he was wounded in Romania. The hospital was seized by the Russians and sent to prisoners in stages. We drove and walked across Russia, lodged in villages. The Russians fed them. Hubert got to Uglich in 1944. “The camp was on the left bank. There was a wooden barrack - 4 halls, beds, stoves, a corridor, a toilet, a dining room, a kitchen, a bread slicer. Various workshops: shoe, repair, fire department, boiler room. He worked in Uglich for 22 months. 148 steps ran up and down the stairs in the lock arch with a bucket for water to replace the cement.
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Yaroslavl tire and asbestos plant 1929-1933
more than 20 thousand peasants of Yaroslavl, Kostroma and other provinces took part in the construction.
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school cleanup at construction
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Bridge Nizhny Novgorod
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Turksib 1927 -1930
In summer, the heat here reached + 60 ° С and from 11 to 15 hours, when the sun was burning especially unbearably, we had to take a break. And for all the time, not a single rain. Cold drinking water was rare. in winter - long snowstorms and frosts below -40 ° С.
in order to open the movement of utility trains on the other bank of the Irtysh, a heavy sleigh was built, a steam locomotive was loaded onto them, and a road train of four cars moved on the ice. To the dismay of the members of this expedition, the cable holding the sled from behind could not withstand the load and broke off. The sleigh rushed quickly, the ice trembled, but did not break. The locomotive was successfully pulled to the steppe coast and put on the rails.
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foreman of the 6th section of the 4th distance A.Ya. Eliseev announced that a complex team will build a house with an area of 395 m 2 from adobe bricks in 15 days. Previously, it took more than a month to build such a house. Skeptics declared Eliseev "crazy", "upstart", but the house at the Aina-Bulak station grew exactly as scheduled and was completed in 15 days. The workers' earnings increased by 50% compared to previous jobs, the savings in bricks and timber were 20%. A strict commission, meticulously accepting the house, came to the conclusion that "the work was done properly in 15 days."
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the path was laid by hand, but the pace was very high. On average, it was about 1.5 km per day, and on some days, 4 km were laid. The annual volume of laying the main track was in the north: in 1927 - 150 km, in 1928 - 187 km, in 1929 - 343 km, in 1930 - 120 km; in the south, respectively, 5 km, 202, 350, 85 km 1930
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Great Fergana Canal 1939-1940
350 km, attracted about 160,000 people. 18 million cubic meters of earth-stones, sand, clay were taken out by hand, using only catmen, picks and shovels.
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Pay attention, there were prisoners, but there were also ordinary workers who tore their veins not at gunpoint, and not for a long ruble, but for an IDEA. For their children and grandchildren, i.e. you and I lived in peace and happiness.
then they threw a shovel, took a rifle in their hands, these people did not need detachments. they laid their lives on the altar of victory.
and what are we? Did they do everything in order not to increase, no, at least to preserve the fruits of their labor?
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