Definition of stylistics

From the point of view of modern ideas about the structure of the science of language, stylistics could be included both in linguistic semantics (since it is associated with the expression of a certain class of meanings) and in linguistic pragmatics (since it involves the expression of a certain attitude of the speaker to the utterance; it is not for nothing that some authors call pragmatic components meanings expressive and/or stylistic), and in the theory of speech influence (since stylistically determined choice is one of its tools), and in the general theory of language variation. This, however, is not done due to the historical circumstance that stylistics is noticeably older than any of these disciplines: in the European philological tradition, ideas about linguistic styles can be traced back to antiquity, and during the 18th century. they were formulated explicitly. Throughout the 19th century. the idea of ​​stylistics as an independent branch of linguistics was formed, which became generally accepted in the first third of the 20th century, after the works of S. Bally and representatives of the Prague Linguistic Circle.

Style is always an expression of the speaker's commitment to some value that can be formally expressed. In the case of linguistic stylistics, this is a commitment to such a value category as the appropriateness of the chosen form of expression in a given communication situation - taking into account its subject, social context and mutual social status of the communicants (in a pub they speak differently than from a university department, a message to the nation is constructed differently than a message to a beloved, one communicates with a representative of the authorities differently than with a dentist or subordinate, etc.). Language styles typify all this diversity and introduce into it some coarsening, but also ordering division, supported by tradition - which, in fact, is one of the functions of language in general. It is significant that if the incorrectness of a statement is described as its falsity, and the incorrectness of a speech act - as its failure (in the case of a speech act of a statement, expressing, in particular, its falsity), then stylistic incorrectness is described precisely as inappropriateness - such a style is inappropriate here, expressed, in particular, and in pragmatic failure.

A set of stylistically opposed variants of linguistic expression is usually considered as describing the same extra-linguistic content, but at the same time additionally informing about the speaker’s attitude to the communicative situation, to the content of the utterance, to the addressee, to himself (it has long been a practice to classify means of expression as stylistic expressive components of meaning, see below), finally, in the case of stylization of a statement or, more often, a text to some value-laden tradition. At the same time, stylistic options are considered in stylistics from the point of view of the mechanism of their formation, the scope of their use and the principles of selection, depending on the goals and context of speech communication.

Stylistic features

Stylistic roughness, inaccuracies, and direct deviations from stylistic literary norms make up in our chronicle of errors from 20% to 25% of all cases recorded in it. At first glance, it may seem that errors in style are not as linguistically crude as grammatical or lexical ones. Moreover, since they represent only a discrepancy in the functional-genre orientation of speech and do not directly affect the systemic laws of language, they should be attributed more to violations of the canons of communication than to linguistic irregularities themselves. It is not without reason that when evaluating school essays they are not equated with grammatical errors, nevertheless, they have the same negative impact on listeners as the other types of errors we have considered. The fact is that stylistics covers the aesthetic and ethical qualities of speech, and they directly characterize the speaker. The thought “style is a person,” which has become banal, but has not ceased to be true, fully corresponds to our position in assessing stylistic sloppiness, which leaves the same impression as dirt under the fingernails of an interlocutor.

Repetitions affect the listener's aesthetic sense.

The linguistic-psychological mechanism of their occurrence has an unconscious basis: as a rule, one of the repeated units turns out to be two-word and has signs of a stable turnover, which is used by the speaker as a single, integral formation, as a separate word; compare: to matter, to express readiness, active struggle, historical excursion, upon closer examination, according to rumors, the pursuit of happiness, etc., therefore the speaker himself does not always hear the repetition he made. Obscenisms and simply “strong words” are deliberately inserted into public speech and act as weapons prohibited by the social contract, directed against the speaker’s real and potential opponents and destroying the ethical and aesthetic expectations of listeners. Thus, we can only classify repetition as a stylistic error, while the public use of fecal-genital vocabulary should be classified as immoral acts.

Among other deviations from the stylistic norms of the literary language, the most noticeable is the use of various kinds of jargon. The reason for the appearance of defective utterances can be not only the inclusion of stylistically reduced elements in speech, i.e. jargon and vernacular, but also erroneous, often completely unnecessary and generated only by “neurosis of originality”, the desire to “speak beautifully”, the use of “high” - bookish and poetic - vocabulary or “fashionable” foreign words.

The ancestor of stylistics was ancient rhetoric. Rhetoric was initially interpreted as the science of oratory. According to Aristotle, the creator of rhetoric was the philosopher Empedocles, who lived in the 6th-5th centuries. BC...

History of stylistic doctrines: ancient theories of language and style

Stylistics and the concept of style are closely related to the communicative point of view of language, as well as to the problem of its use and functioning. The history of the stylistics of the Russian language begins with the development of Russian rhetoric...

History of stylistic doctrines: ancient theories of language and style

Vinogradov’s works are not only an in-depth study of the canonical sections of the science of language, but have expanded research boundaries...

Linguistic and ecological examination of a student newspaper

The concepts of style and stylistics have been used in philological science for a long time, but the scientific discipline began to take shape in the 20s - 30s of the 20th century. The definition of style is very varied: “a historically established stable community of figurative system...

Basics of stylistics

The predecessors of modern stylistics were ancient and medieval poetics and, to a greater extent, rhetoric. Poetics was understood as the science of poetry...

Basics of stylistics

Stylistics is a branch of linguistics that studies the functioning of sound units within the literary language, in accordance with its functional stratification in various conditions of linguistic communication...

Speech etiquette in proverbs and sayings

Stylistic differences in the use of speech etiquette units are largely determined by the belonging of speech to different functional styles. In fact, each functional style has its own etiquette rules. For example...

Specifics of using stylistically colored vocabulary in business speech

Business documents appeared in Rus' after the introduction in the 10th century. writing. The first written documents recorded in the chronicle are the texts of treaties between the Russians and the Greeks in 907, 911, 944 and 971. In the 11th century...

Stylistics as a science. Stylistic diversity of the Russian language

Practical stylistics (stylistics of language resources). A branch of linguistics that studies the functioning of units and categories of all levels of language in a literary language in typical speech situations, in contexts of different semantic...

Stylistics of the Russian language

Stylistic norms are historically established and at the same time naturally developing generally accepted implementations of the stylistic possibilities, meanings and colors inherent in the language, determined by the goals...

Stylistic properties of synonyms (based on the novel “Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov)

The synonymy of a literary language is largely based on the fact that the vocabulary of a language is divided into two opposite stylistic layers (layers) - colloquial words and bookish words...

Phonetic styles of spoken speech

Phonetic styles of spoken speech, their varieties and main functions

Phonostylistics as a linguistic discipline is not new; it has deep roots and a long history in linguistics, since it is aimed at solving, perhaps, the main task of the theory of language - understanding the patterns of connection between sound and meaning...

Phraseologisms in modern print media

The current state of literature is associated with the emergence at the beginning of the 20th century and the subsequent development of mass communication. Mass communication is periodic and complex (including various components: radio, cinema, television...

Oral public speech is a functional type of literary language that belongs to the sphere of book speech. Its texts are consolidated, united into a special functional variety, due, on the one hand, to the fact that group communication, which involves verbal communication within unstable social groups, finds its verbal embodiment in them. In such groups, native speakers are united by some occupation, common work, passing interests, or circumstances.

On the other hand, all texts of this functional variety are oral. The same tasks and goals of social communication that are inherent in written styles - journalistic, scientific, official business - are realized in the PPR. Accordingly, within the framework of management, fragments are distinguished: political eloquence; academic eloquence; administrative and legal eloquence.

Obviously, these fragments of the UPR are correlated with journalistic, scientific, official business styles:

• * according to the main functional parameters - tasks and goals of social communication;
• * on the main linguostylistic categories and phenomena, principles and techniques of combination, integration, use of speech means, specific to the speech structure of each of the “written” styles.

Meanwhile, the UPR is considered as an independent functional-style formation, since, on the one hand, in its texts verbal communication is carried out in conditions of group communication. They are not read, but pronounced, finally created in the process of pronouncing.

Syntax of oral public speech

Simple sentences, as the study of the syntax of the UPR shows, make up 41.6% of the total representation of syntactic structures in oral scientific speech. Simple sentences are characterized by the actual use of verb tense. If in written scientific speech the 2nd person forms and the pronouns you, you, as the most concrete, are practically not used, the percentage of the 1st person singular forms is very small, the 3rd person forms and the pronouns he, she, it are mainly used as the most abstract by meaning, then in the UPR all these forms (with the exception of the forms of the 2nd person singular and the pronoun you) are actively used. 1st person forms in the subject position account for 53%.

SSP. Among sentences of open structure (i.e., allowing the connection of more than two predicative units), sentences with a closing conjunction and or a predominate.

Among the SSPs of a closed structure in the UPR, the compositional and distributive sentences with the conjunction and attract attention. The second part of such proposals serves to disseminate the content of the first.

SPP. In the UPR, sentences with attributive and explanatory clauses are most widely used. These two types of clauses account for 73.69% of all clauses.

In the UPR there is a tendency towards redundancy of speech in complex sentences, which manifests itself in the repetition of the main and subordinate subjects, expressed by a pronoun. Duplication of the same word is observed in both parts of the SSP.

The dismemberment of syntactic structures is associated with the desire to “present” the irreversible oral speech flow in “portions” in order to facilitate both its formation and, most importantly, perception.

Along with intonational division, utterances resort to some lexical means, for example, the particle here.

The desire to facilitate the perception of a phrase, a text as a whole, explains the limitations in the UPR of constructions with verbal nouns, which cannot be dispensed with in the UPR, and in texts of administrative-legal eloquence, and often in political speech.

The UPR is characterized by a general tendency towards a reduction in the volume of syntactic constructions compared to written speech.

Vocabulary of oral public speech

The UPR presents the main composition of lexical units and compound names (primarily terminological and nomenclature), relevant for the corresponding “written” styles.

In contrast to written scientific and official business texts, EPR texts (within the framework of oral scientific speech and especially political speech) widely involve emotionally charged lexical and phraseological units from both book and colloquial speech.

The use of stylistically reduced, colloquial and, at the same time, bookish, expressively colored lexical and phraseological units in educational development, including in oral scientific speech, is explained by the factor of targeting the speaker’s speech (he addresses a specific audience) and the function of influence, i.e. the speaker’s desire to give his speech maximum clarity for the audience and persuasiveness.

Among the expressive means used in oral texts, including the texts of the UPR, that express an emotional and subjective assessment, there are lexical and phraseological units that express a positive and negative assessment.

These lexical units can equally belong to both book and colloquial speech

The UPR texts also practice metaphorical use of words.

The presence of speech metaphors and phraseological units arising from the tendencies of oral communication towards a freer way of expression sharply distinguishes the UPR from its book and written counterparts.

This use of words and metaphor in general are extremely relevant in the field of political eloquence.

cold war, parade of sovereignties

So, the oral form determines the main functional and stylistic characteristics of the UPR, the features of the use of speech means in its texts, clearly correlated with the speech structure of “written” styles.

Stylistic features in the speech of modern politicians

Introduction

Definition of stylistics

Stylistic features of speech

Chernomyrdin's ambiguity and flexibility

"Economy" Luzhkov

Conclusion

Introduction

What is the basis for the contact of a political leader with the people? Why does one, having started his career to deafening national applause, quickly lose popularity, while another, having entered politics to the accompaniment of mocking comments from the press, gains an unprecedented rating in a matter of months, which then lasts for years? Of course, the biblical “by their works you will know them” always remains in force, but for the mass consciousness, as a rule, the true meaning of what people in power are doing is closed. A man of the masses is not a political scientist, but he is a great esthete and perceives political chronicles as a “soap opera”: he recognizes some characters as “his own” and then worries about them as if they were relatives, but for others he resolutely refuses his sympathy . The ideal democratic politician must renounce all personal passions and only “represent” the interests of those who elected him.

But those who take the demands of the democratic ideal seriously never make bright, any noticeable politicians - except perhaps industry lobbyists. Already in order to be noticed and chosen as a “representative”, you need to be someone, and the “will of the people” (which no one has ever known or knows anything about) you must first be able to formulate yourself, and then convince your voters that this - what you drum into them at every rally - is their true will. And for this you need to have a specific “artistry”, which is a derivative not only of individual talent and external human “texture”, but also of the political culture of the country where it happened to live and be educated as a politician. A significant, if not significant, role in this “artistry” relates to the style used by political figures. What is the concept of stylistics, its significance, if it is capable of winning the minds and hearts of millions of voters, ordinary citizens of the country.

Definition of stylistics

From the point of view of modern ideas about the structure of the science of language, stylistics could be included both in linguistic semantics (since it is associated with the expression of a certain class of meanings) and in linguistic pragmatics (since it involves the expression of a certain attitude of the speaker to the utterance; it is not for nothing that some authors call pragmatic components meanings expressive and/or stylistic), and in the theory of speech influence (since stylistically determined choice is one of its tools), and in the general theory of language variation. This, however, is not done due to the historical circumstance that stylistics is noticeably older than any of these disciplines: in the European philological tradition, ideas about linguistic styles can be traced back to antiquity, and during the 18th century. they were formulated explicitly. Throughout the 19th century. the idea of ​​stylistics as an independent branch of linguistics was formed, which became generally accepted in the first third of the 20th century, after the works of S. Bally and representatives of the Prague Linguistic Circle.

Style is always an expression of the speaker's commitment to some value that can be formally expressed. In the case of linguistic stylistics, this is a commitment to such a value category as the appropriateness of the chosen form of expression in a given communication situation - taking into account its subject, social context and mutual social status of the communicants (in a pub they speak differently than from a university department, a message to the nation is constructed differently than a message to a beloved, one communicates with a representative of the authorities differently than with a dentist or subordinate, etc.). Language styles typify all this diversity and introduce into it some coarsening, but also ordering division, supported by tradition - which, in fact, is one of the functions of language in general. It is significant that if the incorrectness of a statement is described as its falsity, and the incorrectness of a speech act - as its failure (in the case of a speech act of a statement, expressing, in particular, its falsity), then stylistic incorrectness is described precisely as inappropriateness - such a style is inappropriate here, expressed, in particular, and in pragmatic failure.

A set of stylistically opposed variants of linguistic expression is usually considered as describing the same extra-linguistic content, but at the same time additionally informing about the speaker’s attitude to the communicative situation, to the content of the utterance, to the addressee, to himself (it has long been a practice to classify means of expression as stylistic expressive components of meaning, see below), finally, in the case of stylization of a statement or, more often, a text to some value-laden tradition. At the same time, stylistic options are considered in stylistics from the point of view of the mechanism of their formation, the scope of their use and the principles of selection, depending on the goals and context of speech communication.

Stylistic features

Stylistic roughness, inaccuracies, and direct deviations from stylistic literary norms make up in our chronicle of errors from 20% to 25% of all cases recorded in it. At first glance, it may seem that errors in style are not as linguistically crude as grammatical or lexical ones. Moreover, since they represent only a discrepancy in the functional-genre orientation of speech and do not directly affect the systemic laws of language, they should be attributed more to violations of the canons of communication than to linguistic irregularities themselves. It is not without reason that when evaluating school essays they are not equated with grammatical errors, nevertheless, they have the same negative impact on listeners as the other types of errors we have considered. The fact is that stylistics covers the aesthetic and ethical qualities of speech, and they directly characterize the speaker. A thought that has become banal, but does not cease to be true style is a person fully corresponds to our position in assessing stylistic sloppiness, which leaves the same impression as dirt under the fingernails of the interlocutor.

Repetitions affect the listener's aesthetic sense.

The linguistic-psychological mechanism of their occurrence has an unconscious basis: as a rule, one of the repeated units turns out to be two-word and has signs of a stable turnover, which is used by the speaker as a single, integral formation, as a separate word; compare: to matter, to express readiness, active struggle, historical excursion, upon closer examination, according to rumors, the pursuit of happiness, etc., therefore the speaker himself does not always hear the repetition he made. Obscenisms are just that strong words are deliberately inserted into public speech and play the role of a weapon prohibited by the social contract, directed against the real and potential opponents of the speaker and destroying the ethical and aesthetic expectations of listeners. Thus, we can only classify repetition as a stylistic error, while the public use of fecal-genital vocabulary should be classified as immoral acts.

Among other deviations from the stylistic norms of the literary language, the most noticeable is the use of various kinds of jargon. The reason for the appearance of defective utterances can be not only the inclusion of stylistically reduced elements in speech, i.e. jargon and vernacular, but also erroneous, often completely unnecessary and generated only neurosis of originality , desire speak beautifully , consumption high - book and poetic - vocabulary or fashionable foreign words.

Putin's laconicism and tactfulness

style political leader brevity

Why did Putin succeed in what Yeltsin failed to do? After all, Boris Nikolaevich, without any doubt, is a gifted person in his own way, endowed with will and determination, and purely outwardly and much more “textured”, much closer to the standard image of a “big politician”. And he ruled, most importantly, very colorfully, so to speak, turning every turn of the winding historical plot into a spectacular performance. This was a man of gestures, turning almost every public appearance into an element of the show! What was there: speeches from a tank, and the picturesque signing of a decree banning the Communist Party, and the dispersal of the Supreme Council, and an extravagant promise to lie on the rails, and all sorts of “castlings”.

In a word, Yeltsin worked in a shock, overstrained “storm and stress” style, and it is impossible to remain at the height of such pathos for a long time: the actor turned out to be not a titan of spirit, and the audience’s nerves were not of iron. In addition, the audience had enough time to notice: threats to enemies and, in general, everything destructive that Yeltsin planned were carried out, but with promises of something good, the situation was different. And then very soon the hero’s fatigue began to show: among the pathos gestures, comic ones appeared, and then completely shameful ones - like conducting an orchestra in Berlin. The heroic performance began to turn into a farce, and the audience had every right to boo the actor who failed to meet the given level. In the last years of Boris Nikolayevich's presidency there was a frank, unartistic disintegration of his heroic style: he endlessly parodied his former self, and this humiliated not only him, but also all sensible witnesses.

Observing the sad decline of the patriarch from a close distance, Putin apparently understood one very important thing for himself: the political style of a leader in a country mortally tired of turmoil and disorder should not be emotionally overloaded. It may be worth starting on a high note, at least in order to be noticed at all (hence the famous “peeing in the toilet” addressed to Chechen militants and the boy’s flight in a fighter jet), but the basis of political behavior should be everyday methodicality without any extravagance , so boring performed by Yeltsin. The people should constantly see their president in sound mind and sober memory - in the office, on trips, on vacation - but, seeing a familiar face on the screen, they should not tense up in anticipation of some next “castling” or an absurd thunderous phrase, the meaning of which is not Even a super-professional press secretary can then explain. And in general - less theatrical pathos, props, heroic gestures, familiarity and other political bad taste.

However, so that methodicality does not turn into monotony and does not lull observers to sleep, the smooth fabric of everyday life must be constantly, in a certain given rhythm, stitched with restrained, but still effective gestures: words or actions that no one expects.

It is true that in the first months of his rule, Putin scored a lot of points by contrasting his political style with Yeltsin's. But it is also true that quite quickly he learned to work in contrast to himself. In any case, with the image of oneself, which at this particular moment is accepted by the media and their consumers as a certain standard. For example, the usually dry, pedantic, concrete Putin answers a journalist’s question at some economic forum about what he sees Russia like in ten years. Instead of generalized optimistic forecasts, guesses and figures, which could be expected in the context of a conversation, he utters one single phrase that radically changes the entire style and internal meaning of the press conference.

He says: “We will be happy,” and the amazed listeners laugh gratefully - without ridicule, feeling a certain psychological release.

This, of course, is a trifle, but much more serious gestures were made by Putin according to the same scenario: for example, an unexpected call to President Bush on September 11 last year, which immediately changed the entire context of world politics. And the latest event of this kind was Putin’s announcement of his plan for integration with Belarus: in his usual manner, in a calm, even voice, he pronounced a text of truly revolutionary content, radically changing the usual situation of long debates about the premature union, while completely knocking out of the saddle, who did not expect such a turn in the affairs of the Belarusian president. The circles from this small storm will diverge for a long time throughout the entire political space of both Russia and Belarus.

It seems that Putin's favorite word is plan, and in a special sense of the word. In most cases, he does not mean the step-by-step implementation of certain actions over time, with given deadlines and a planned result (although this exists: we not only say, but also do exactly what we promise). Putin is talking, rather, about rules, the exact observance of which (without any connection with time) presupposes a positive result. In most of his statements and assessments, Putin emphasizes that they are not related to a specific case, but have a permanent significance (this applies not only to regular statements that the acting actions and projects are not related to the presidential elections, but are focused on the future outside depending on who turns out to be o). People who are strictly rule-oriented, often regardless of reality, are a special mental type, and there are many reasons to believe that Putin belongs to it. For example, the manner of conducting a conversation (argument). Firstly, Putin is inclined to correct spelling errors - inaccuracies in the wording of his interlocutor, and translate his statements into his correct language (his second favorite word is intelligible). Secondly, he does not even mimic the point of view of the interlocutor, is not inclined to change the rhythm of the conversation, retreat and attack, tactically step aside and return to the main topic, play with the interlocutor - conversations with Putin are smooth, consistent and linear in nature with punctual clarification of roughnesses. His statements, with rare (and therefore especially noticeable) exceptions, are boring and lacking in color. There is little personal content in them, since the rules are, by definition, impersonal. Putin's penchant for public speaking does not appear to have yet manifested itself. At least for now, he is irritated by the need to repeat the same thing in different audiences and to different correspondents.<#"justify">List of used literature

1.Altunyan A.G. "From Bulgarin to Zhirinovsky: Ideological and stylistic analysis of political texts." M.: Russian State University for the Humanities, 1999.

2.Baranov A.N., Karaulov Yu.N. “Dictionary of Russian Political Metaphors” RAS. Institute of Russian Language. - M., 1994.

.Ilyin M.V. “Words and meanings. Experience in describing key political concepts.” M., 1997.

.Lévi-Strauss K. “Structural Anthropology” Trans. from fr. V.V. Ivanova. - M.: Publishing house EKS-MO-Press, 2001.

.Meinhof U. “Discourse / Contexts of modernity-2” Reader. Comp. And ed. S.A. Erofeev. - Kazan: Kazan University Publishing House, 2001.

.Nazarov M.M. “Mass communication in the modern world. Analysis methodology and research practice.” M., 2002.

.First person. Conversations with Vladimir Putin. M., Vagrius, 2000.

.Alexander Ageev “Sense of Rhythm” Magazine Profile No. 31 (301) dated 08/26/2002

.V. Konovalov, M. Serdyukov “Yuri Luzhkov: Loneliness does not save me” Izvestia. 01/20/2004

.“Teachers were found for Chernomyrdin” Kyiv Vedomosti, No. 116 (2337), 06/01/2001

Tags: Stylistic features in the speech of modern politicians Abstract English

Styles, distinguished in accordance with the main functions of language, are associated with one or another sphere and conditions of human activity. They differ in their system of linguistic means. It is these means that form a certain stylistic coloring that distinguishes this style from all others. Official business style serves the sphere of official business relations; its main function is informative (transfer of information); it is characterized by the presence of speech clichés, a generally accepted form of presentation, a standard arrangement of material, the widespread use of terminology and nomenclature names, the presence of complex abbreviated words, abbreviations, verbal nouns, denominal prepositions, the predominance of direct word order, etc. The scientific style serves the sphere of scientific knowledge; its main function is to communicate information, as well as prove its truth; it is characterized by the presence of terms, general scientific words, and abstract vocabulary; it is dominated by a noun, many abstract and material nouns, the syntax is logical, bookish, the phrase is distinguished by grammatical and logical completeness, etc. The journalistic style serves the sphere of socio-economic, socio-cultural and other social relations; its main functions are communication and influence; this style uses all linguistic means; it is characterized by economy of linguistic means, conciseness and popularity of presentation with informative richness; socio-political vocabulary, stylistically colored means, metaphors with evaluative meaning, colloquial and colloquial phraseological units and vocabulary are widely used; Often part of the vocabulary is updated and acquires new semantic shades; means of expressive syntax, elements of colloquial speech, etc. are used. The literary style has an impact and aesthetic function; it most fully and vividly reflects the literary and, more broadly, popular language in all its diversity and richness, becoming a phenomenon of art, a means of creating artistic imagery; in this style, all structural aspects of the language are most widely represented: the vocabulary in all its semantic richness, with all the direct and figurative meanings of words; grammatical structure with a complex and branched system of morphological forms and syntactic types.

In the process of preparation and delivery, an internal contradiction constantly arises between book speech, since the speech is carefully prepared, and the oral embodiment, which is influenced by colloquial speech, or more precisely, the literary-colloquial substyle. Such speeches are partially or completely a kind of prepared improvisation (unless, of course, the speech is read) and an expression of spontaneous oral speech, with an improvisational, spontaneous manner of presentation. The very work on speech and with speech leads to a departure from strict bookishness. The degree of bookishness or conversationality depends on the individual skills of the speaker.

4.3. Narration, description, reasoning. Their characteristic features when used in oratory (monologue type of speech). Mixed types of oratory speech - alternation of functional and semantic types of speech.

Oratorical speech is heterogeneous in its composition, since in the process of thinking a person tends to reflect various objectively existing connections between phenomena of reality, between objects, events, individual judgments, which, in turn, finds expression in various functional and semantic types of speech: description, narration, reasoning (thinking). Monologue types of speech are built on the basis of reflection of mental diachronic, synchronic, cause-and-effect processes. In this regard, oratory speech is a monologue narration - information about developing actions, a monologue description - information about simultaneous features of an object, monologue reasoning - about cause-and-effect relationships. Semantic types are present in speech depending on its type, purpose and the conceptual intent of the speaker, which determines the inclusion or non-inclusion of one or another semantic type in the general fabric of oratorical speech; the change in these types is caused by the speaker’s desire to more fully express his thoughts, reflect his position, help listeners perceive the speech and most effectively influence the audience, as well as give the speech a dynamic character. At the same time, in different types of oratorical speech there will be a different ratio of these types, because in reality they all mix, interact, and their isolation is very conditional.

Narration is a dynamic functional-semantic type of speech that expresses a message about actions or states developing in a temporal sequence and has specific linguistic means. Narration conveys changing actions or states unfolding over time. This type of speech, unlike description, is dynamic, so time plans can constantly change in it.

Narration includes dynamically reflected situations of the external world, and this structure of a given type of utterance determines its position in speech. This type is used if it is necessary to confirm the positions expressed by the speaker with specific examples or when analyzing certain situations. The speaker’s task is to depict the sequence of events and convey this sequence with the necessary accuracy.

Description– this is a statement of speech, as a rule, giving a static picture, an idea of ​​the nature, composition, structure, properties, qualities of an object by listing both its essential and non-essential features at a given moment.

Description can be of two types: static and dynamic. The first gives an object in static form; the signs of an object indicated in speech can denote its temporary or permanent properties, qualities and states. For example, a description of the scene in a judicial speech or a description of an object in a political speech. Less common is the description of the second type; Thus, any experience in scientific speech is usually presented in development and dynamics.

The descriptions are very diverse both in content and form. They can be, for example, figurative. The speaker, trying to convey to the audience the required amount of information, gives not only a detailed description of the object, but also its characteristics, assessment, recreating a certain picture, which brings the speech closer to the description in fiction.

In the description, as a rule, the forms of present, past and future tense are used. For judicial speech, the use of the past tense is most typical, for academic speech - the present.

Reasoning(or reflection) is a type of speech in which objects or phenomena are examined, their internal characteristics are revealed, and certain provisions are proven. Reasoning is characterized by special logical relationships between its constituent judgments, which form conclusions or a chain of conclusions on any topic, presented in a logically consistent form. This type of speech has a specific linguistic structure, depending on the logical basis of reasoning and the meaning of the statement, and is characterized by cause-and-effect relationships. It is associated with the transfer of content-conceptual information.

Reasoning allows you to involve listeners in the speech process, which leads to the activation of their attention, causing interest in what is being reported.

So, functional and semantic types of speech in a speech usually alternate, one way or another replacing each other, which creates a special compositional and stylistic dynamics. For example, in an academic lecture reasoning may predominate; in a legal speech, description and narration occupy a large place.

As we see, description, narration and reflection have constructive, stylistic and semantic differences that determine the use of these types in speech.

In functional and semantic terms, oratory is regulated and systematized; the choice of one or another functional semantic type depends on the object of speech and the purpose of the utterance.

Language styles are its varieties that serve one or another aspect of social life. They all have several common parameters: the purpose, or situation of use, the forms in which they exist, and the set

The concept itself comes from the Greek word "stilos", which meant a writing stick. As a scientific discipline, stylistics finally took shape in the twenties of the twentieth century. Among those who thoroughly studied the problems of stylistics were M. V. Lomonosov, F. I. Buslaev, G. O. Vinokur, E. D. Polivanov. D. E. Rosenthal, V. V. Vinogradov, M. N. Kozhina and others paid serious attention to individual functional styles.

Five in Russian

Functional styles of language are certain features of speech itself or its social variety, specific vocabulary and grammar that correspond to the field of activity and way of thinking.

In Russian they are traditionally divided into five varieties:

• colloquial;
• official business;
• scientific;
• journalistic;
• art.

The norms and concepts of each depend on the historical era and change over time. Until the 17th century, colloquial and book vocabulary were very different. The Russian language became literary only in the 18th century, largely thanks to the efforts of M. V. Lomonosov. Modern language styles began to take shape at the same time.

The birth of styles

In the Old Russian period, there were church literature, business documents and chronicles. Spoken everyday language was quite different from them. At the same time, household and business documents had much in common. M.V. Lomonosov made a lot of efforts to change the situation.

He laid the basis for the ancient theory, highlighting high, low and middle styles. According to it, the literary Russian language emerged as a result of the joint development of the book and colloquial variants. She took as a basis stylistically neutral forms and expressions from one and the other, allowed the use of folk expressions and limited the use of little-known and specific Slavicisms. Thanks to M.V. Lomonosov, the then existing language styles were replenished with scientific ones.

Subsequently, A.S. Pushkin gave impetus to the further development of stylistics. His work laid the foundations of the artistic style.

Moscow orders and Peter's reforms served as the origins of the official business language. Ancient chronicles, sermons and teachings formed the basis of the journalistic style. It began to take shape in its literary form only in the 18th century. To date, all 5 language styles have been designed quite clearly and have their own subtypes.

Colloquial and everyday

As the name suggests, this style of speech is used in everyday communication. Unlike jargon and dialects, it is based on literary vocabulary. Its scope is situations where there are no clear formal relations between the participants. In everyday life, mostly neutral words and expressions are used (for example, “blue”, “horse”, “left”). But you can use words with a colloquial connotation (“locker room”, “lack of leisure”).

Within colloquial there are three subtypes: everyday-everyday, everyday-business, and epistolary. The latter includes private correspondence. Conversational and business - a variant of communication in an official setting. Colloquial and official business styles of language (a lesson or lecture can serve as another example) in a certain sense divide this subtype among themselves, since it can be attributed to both.

Allows familiar, affectionate and reduced expressions, as well as words with evaluative suffixes (for example, “domishche”, “bunny”, “boast”). Conversational style can be very bright and figurative due to the use of phraseological units and words with an emotionally expressive connotation (“beat the thumbs”, “close”, “child”, “gracious”, “skirt”).

Various abbreviations are widely used - “unud”, “ambulance”, “condensed milk”. Spoken language is simpler than book language - the use of participles and gerunds, complex multi-part sentences is inappropriate. In general, this style corresponds to the literary one, but at the same time it has its own characteristics.

Scientific style

He, like an official business person, is very strict in the choice of words and expressions, sharply narrowing the scope of what is permissible. The Russian language does not allow dialectisms, jargon, colloquial expressions, words with emotional overtones. Serves the fields of science and production.

Since the purpose of scientific texts is to present research data, objective facts, this places demands on their composition and the words used. As a rule, the sequence of presentation is as follows:

• introduction - setting a task, goal, question;
• the main part is the search and selection of answer options, drawing up a hypothesis, evidence;
• conclusion - the answer to the question, the achievement of the goal.

A work in this genre is constructed consistently and logically; it presents two types of information: facts and how the author organizes them.

The scientific style of the language widely uses terms, prefixes anti-, bi-, quasi-, super-, suffixes -ost, -ism, -ni-e (antibodies, bipolar, supernova, sedentism, symbolism, cloning). Moreover, terms do not exist on their own - they form a complex network of relationships and systems: from the general to the particular, from the whole to the part, genus/species, identity/opposites, and so on.

Mandatory criteria for such a text are objectivity and accuracy. Objectivity excludes emotionally charged vocabulary, exclamations, and artistic figures of speech; here it is inappropriate to tell a story in the first person. Accuracy is often associated with terms. As an illustration, we can cite an excerpt from Anatoly Fomenko’s book “Methods of mathematical analysis of historical texts.”

At the same time, the degree of “complexity” of a scientific text depends primarily on the target audience and the purpose - who exactly the work is intended for, what amount of knowledge these people supposedly have, and whether they can understand what is being said. It is clear that at such an event as a school lesson of the Russian language, simple styles of speech and expression are needed, but at a lecture for senior students at a university, complex scientific terminology is also suitable.

Of course, other factors also play a big role - the topic (in technical sciences the language is stricter and more regulated than in the humanities), genre.

Within this style, there are strict requirements for the design of written works: candidate and doctoral dissertations, monographs, abstracts, coursework.

Substyles and nuances of scientific speech

In addition to the scientific one, there are also scientific-educational and popular science substyles. Each is used for a specific purpose and for a specific audience. These language styles are examples of different but at the same time similar externally communicative flows.

The scientific-educational substyle is a kind of lightweight version of the main style in which literature is written for those who have just begun to study a new field. Representatives are textbooks for universities, colleges, schools (high school), some self-instruction books, other literature created for beginners (below is an excerpt from a psychology textbook for universities: authors Slastenin V., Isaev I. et al., “Pedagogy. Textbook ").

The popular science substyle is easier to understand than the other two. Its purpose is to explain complex facts and processes to the audience in simple and understandable language. Various encyclopedias “101 facts about...” were written by him.

Official business

Of the 5 styles of the Russian language, this is the most formalized. It is used for communication between states, as well as institutions with each other and with citizens. It is a means of communication between citizens in production, in organizations, in the service sector, within the framework of their fulfillment of their official obligations.

The official business style is classified as bookish and written; it is used in the texts of laws, orders, regulations, contracts, acts, powers of attorney and similar documents. The oral form is used in speeches, reports, and communication within working relationships.

Components of formal business style

• Legislative. Used orally and in writing, in laws, regulations, decrees, instructions, explanatory letters, recommendations, as well as in instructions, article-by-article and operational comments. It is heard orally during parliamentary debates and appeals.
• Jurisdictional- exists in oral and written forms, used for indictments, sentences, arrest orders, court decisions, cassation complaints, procedural acts. In addition, it can be heard during judicial debates, conversations at receptions of citizens, etc.
• Administrative- implemented in writing in orders, charters, decisions, contracts, employment and insurance contracts, official letters, various petitions, telegrams, wills, memos, autobiographies, reports, receipts, shipping documentation. The oral form of the administrative substyle is orders, auctions, commercial negotiations, speeches at receptions, auctions, meetings, etc.
• Diplomatic. This genre can be found in written form in the form of treaties, conventions, agreements, pacts, protocols, personal notes. Oral form - communiqués, memoranda, joint statements.

In the official business style, stable phrases, complex conjunctions and verbal nouns are actively used:

• based…
• in accordance with…
• based…
• due to...
• by virtue of…
• in view...

Only scientific and official business styles of language have clear forms and structure. In this case, this is an application, resume, identity card, marriage certificate and others.

The style is characterized by a neutral tone of narration, direct word order, complex sentences, conciseness, conciseness, and lack of individuality. Special terminology, abbreviations, special vocabulary and phraseology are widely used. Another striking feature is the cliché.

Journalistic

The functional styles of the language are very distinctive. Journalism is no exception. It is used in the media, in social periodicals, during political and judicial speeches. Most often, its examples can be found in radio and television programs, in newspaper publications, in magazines, booklets, and at rallies.

Journalism is designed for a wide audience, so special terms are rarely found here, and if they are found, they tend to be explained in the same text. It exists not only in oral and written speech - it is also found in photography, cinema, graphic and visual, theatrical and dramatic and verbal and musical forms.

Language has two main functions: informational and influencing. The first task is to convey facts to people. The second is to form the desired impression and influence opinions about events. The information function requires reporting reliable and accurate data that is interesting not only to the author, but also to the reader. The impact is realized through the personal opinion of the author, his calls to action, as well as the way the material is presented.

In addition to those specific to a given style, there are also features common to the language as a whole: communicative, expressive and aesthetic.

Communication function

Communication is the main and general task of language, which manifests itself in all its forms and styles. Absolutely all language styles and speech styles have a communicative function. In journalism, texts and speeches are intended for a wide audience, feedback is provided through letters and calls from readers, public discussions, and surveys. This requires that the text be clear to readers and easy to understand.

Expressive function

Expression should not go beyond reasonable limits - it is necessary to comply with the norms of speech culture, and the expression of emotions cannot be the only task.

Aesthetic function

Of all 5 speech styles of the Russian language, this function is present in only two. In literary texts, aesthetics plays an important role; in journalism, its role is much less. However, reading or listening to a well-designed, thoughtful, harmonious text is much more pleasant. Therefore, it is advisable to pay attention to aesthetic qualities in any genre.

Genres of journalism

Within the main style, there are quite a few actively used genres:

• public speaking;
• pamphlet;
• feature article;
• reportage;
• feuilleton;
• interview;
• article and others.

Each of them finds application in certain situations: a pamphlet as a type of artistic and journalistic work is usually directed against a particular party, social phenomenon or political system as a whole, a report is a prompt and impartial report from the scene of events, an article is a genre with the help of which the author analyzes certain phenomena, facts and gives them his own assessment and interpretation.

Art style

All styles of language and styles of speech find their expression through art. It conveys the author’s feelings and thoughts and influences the reader’s imagination. He uses all the means of other styles, all the diversity and richness of language, and is characterized by imagery, emotionality, and concreteness of speech. Used in fiction.

An important feature of this style is aesthetics - here, unlike journalism, it is a mandatory element.

There are four types of artistic style:

• epic;
• lyrical;
• dramatic;
• combined.

Each of these types has its own approach to displaying events. If we talk about the epic, then the main thing here will be a detailed story about an object or event, when the author himself or one of the characters will act as a narrator.

In the lyrical narrative, the emphasis is on the impression that the events left on the author. The main thing here will be experiences, what happens in the inner world.

The dramatic approach depicts a certain object in action, showing it surrounded by other objects and events. The theory of these three kinds belongs to V. G. Belinsky. Each of those mentioned is rarely found in its “pure” form. Recently, some authors have identified another genus - combined.

In turn, epic, lyrical, dramatic approaches to describing events and objects are divided into genres: fairy tale, short story, short story, novel, ode, drama, poem, comedy and others.

The artistic style of the language has its own characteristics:

• a combination of linguistic means of other styles is used;
• the form, structure, and tools of the language are chosen in accordance with the author’s plan and idea;
• the use of special figures of speech that add color and imagery to the text;
• The aesthetic function is of great importance.

The following tropes (allegory, metaphor, comparison, synecdoche) and (default, epithet, epiphora, hyperbole, metonymy) are widely used here.

Artistic image - style - language

The author of any work, not only literary, needs a means of contact with the viewer or reader. Each art form has its own means of communication. This is where the trilogy appears - artistic image, style, language.

An image is a generalized attitude towards the world and life, expressed by the artist using his chosen language. This is a kind of universal category of creativity, a form of interpretation of the world through the creation of aesthetically acting objects.

Any phenomenon recreated by the author in a work is also called an artistic image. Its meaning is revealed only in interaction with the reader or viewer: what exactly a person understands and sees depends on his goals, personality, emotional state, culture and values ​​in which he was brought up.

The second element of the triad “image - style - language” relates to a special handwriting, characteristic only of this author or era of a set of methods and techniques. In art, three different concepts are distinguished - the style of the era (covers a historical period of time, which was characterized by common features, for example, the Victorian era), national (it refers to features common to a particular people, nation, for example, and individual (we are talking about an artist whose works have special qualities not inherent in others, for example, Picasso).

Language in any form of art is a system of visual means designed to serve the author’s goals when creating works, a tool for creating an artistic image. It provides the opportunity for communication between the creator and the audience, allowing you to “draw” an image with those very unique stylistic features.

Each type of creativity uses its own means for this: painting - color, sculpture - volume, music - intonation, sound. Together they form a trinity of categories - artistic image, style, language, helping to get closer to the author and better understand what he created.

It must be understood that, despite the differences between them, styles do not form separate, purely closed systems. They are capable and constantly interpenetrate each other: not only the artistic uses the linguistic means of other styles, but also the official business has many mutual points with the scientific (jurisdictional and legislative subtypes in their terminology are close to similar scientific disciplines).

Business vocabulary penetrates into and vice versa. Journalistic in oral and written form is closely intertwined with the sphere of colloquial and popular science styles.

Moreover, the current state of the language is by no means stable. It would be more accurate to say that it is in dynamic equilibrium. New concepts are constantly emerging, the Russian vocabulary is replenished with expressions that come from other languages.

New forms of words are created using existing ones. The rapid development of science and technology also actively contributes to the enrichment of the scientific style of speech. Many concepts from the field of artistic science fiction have migrated to the category of completely official terms naming certain processes and phenomena. And scientific concepts entered everyday speech.