Where Ukrainians lived in the 17th century. Ukraine. Economy and material culture of Ukrainians. The main branches of the economy and occupations of the population. Polemic culture of Ukraine in the XIV-XVII centuries

The medieval culture of Ukraine was rather specific. In many ways, it can be said that medieval Ukrainian culture is a vivid example of a “borderline” culture: West and East, civilization and savagery, striving forward and obscurant stagnation of views, frantic religiosity and secular aspirations of ideas are whimsically mixed here. Such a colorful combination, which characterized the culture of Ukraine in the 17th century, has developed due to a number of circumstances.

• By the XIV century, the Ukrainian lands were finally freed from the Tatar-Mongol yoke, that is, much earlier than the "Great Russian" territories. True, it was not fitting for the indigenous inhabitants of the former Kievan Rus to rejoice too much: the country was plundered, the productive forces, namely, rich and educated princes and boyars, were largely destroyed. In addition, a holy place does not happen empty, and the vacated territory was occupied by representatives of more developed neighboring countries - Poland, Lithuania, Hungary. The leading role was apparently played by the Lithuanians, who in the ethnographic and cultural sense were a people more "young" than the Eastern Slavs (who even in the lands of Ukraine preferred to call themselves Russians); therefore, the Lithuanians preferred “not to introduce novelty, not to destroy the old”, that is, they did not abolish the habitual Russian way of life and ancient Russian legislation, but, on the contrary, they actively perceived the foundations of Slavic culture and even adopted Orthodoxy. But under the influence of Western neighbors, the Lithuanians adopted European enlightenment, and gradually the economic, political and cultural life of Ukraine was largely reorganized in a European way.
• The development of the people's liberation movement, which is predominantly of a peasant-Cossack character. The Ukrainian lower strata of the population, who belonged to the East Slavic people, felt subjugated. Lithuanians and Poles, as well as the Polonized "Russian" elite, according to the peasants, appropriated the funds belonging to the Orthodox people and dispose of them unjustly, at least not in the interests of the "autochthonous" population. Most of the peasants and Cossacks were illiterate, dark and superstitious people, which left an imprint on the cultural life of Ukraine.
• Some isolation of Ukrainian lands from the centers of European cultural life. Creative, philosophical and technological achievements of European civilization came to Ukraine with a certain delay. In general, for this entire region of Eastern Europe, there is a strict gradation in terms of the level of civilization. In the 16th century, the European Renaissance dominated the Belarusian lands with might and main, Ukraine at the same time mastered for the most part the culture of the late Middle Ages, and in Russia the gloomy and hopeless early Middle Ages reigned, and in some areas almost a primitive communal system. Because of this, a kind of cultural filtration also took place: European culture penetrated into Ukraine and Belarus in a “polonized” form, and then, in the 17th century, it penetrated into the Muscovite state already in a Ukrainianized form: Simeon of Polotsk, Pamvo Berynda and many others Moscow "learned people" came to Moscow from Ukraine.

Polemic culture of Ukraine in the XIV-XVII centuries

Due to the circumstances, the medieval culture of Ukraine was highly controversial. Outstanding monuments of Ukrainian literature are mostly represented by polemical writings that defended the superiority of the Orthodox faith over the Catholic one (or vice versa), cursed or, conversely, supported the Uniates that concluded the so-called Union of Brest.

The controversy, however, did not develop into a general cultural confrontation: for example, one of the most educated Ukrainians, Prince Ostrozhsky, patronized the activities of precisely Orthodox writers and artisans, including the printer and gunsmith Ivan Fedorov, who had escaped from the wild Tatar Moscow. Orthodox artists tried to combine the Byzantine icon-painting canons with the achievements of European fine art, and also mastered civil painting proper.

Old Ukrainian churches of Old Russian type and newly built churches in the Renaissance and Baroque styles passed either to the Orthodox, then to the Catholics, then to the Uniates. Behind this polemical culture of Ukraine, there was a sharp political struggle between the native Ukrainian population and the Europeans, who were perceived as invaders.

Scholasticism went along with the polemics. The “fraternal schools” founded by Peter Mohyla, one of which grew into the Kiev-Mohyla Academy by the second half of the 17th century, concentrated their activities in scholastic disputes, in which they were largely mired.

The real goal of scholastic disputes is the desire to prevent "spiritual sabotage": scrupulously examining the dogma, human rights in accordance with the "holy scripture", educated Orthodox priests tried, overcoming primitive savagery, to determine for believers the maximum "civilizational dose" that would allow the person who accepted it still called Orthodox.

Culture of Ukraine in the 17th – 18th centuries

Ukrainian culture in these centuries has undergone mutual influence with the culture of Moscow. On the one hand, scientists, writers, architects and artists willingly came to the Muscovite state and were even specially invited by Alexei Mikhailovich, again with the same goal: to perceive European civilization as if "bypassing" Catholic and Protestant missionaries.

On the other hand, having become part of the Russian state, Ukraine also adopted the subsequent Russian culture, reshaped by Peter in a Western way. And the so-called "Ukrainian Baroque", culturally representing nothing more than the early Renaissance, in the 18th century abruptly turned into the present Baroque. The beginning of this was apparently laid by Mazepa, who in his letter to Peter asked to send him the architect Osip Startsev from Moscow.

Video: History of Ukrainian culture

More than once suffered the pangs of political self-determination. In the middle of the 17th century, it, like today, rushed between the West and the East, constantly changing the vector of development. It would be nice to recall what such a policy cost the state and people of Ukraine. So, Ukraine, XVII century.

Why did Khmelnitsky need an alliance with Moscow?

In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky defeated the Polish troops sent against him three times: near Zhovti Vody, near Korsun and near Pilyavtsy. As the war flared up and military victories became more and more significant, the ultimate goal of the struggle also changed. Having started the war by demanding limited Cossack autonomy in the Dnieper region, Khmelnytsky had already fought for the liberation of the entire Ukrainian people from Polish captivity, and dreams of creating an independent Ukrainian state on the territory liberated from the Poles no longer seemed unrealizable.

The defeat near Berestechko in 1651 sobered Khmelnitsky a little. He realized that Ukraine was still weak, and alone in the war with Poland it might not survive. Hetman began to look for an ally, or rather, a patron. The choice of Moscow as a "big brother" was not predetermined at all. Khmelnitsky, together with the foremen, seriously considered options to become an ally of the Crimean Khan, a vassal of the Turkish Sultan, or return to the Commonwealth as a confederal component of a common state. The choice, as we already know, was made in favor of the Moscow Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.

Did Moscow really need Ukraine?

Unlike the current situation, Moscow did not at all seek to lure Ukraine into its arms. To take Ukrainian separatists into citizenship meant an automatic declaration of war on the Commonwealth. And Poland of the 17th century is a large European state by those standards, which included vast territories that are now part of the Baltic republics, Belarus and Ukraine. Poland had an impact on European politics: not even 50 years had passed before its jullners took Moscow and put their protege on the throne in the Kremlin.

And the Moscow kingdom of the 17th century is not the Russian Empire of the beginning of the 20th century. The Baltic States, Ukraine, the Caucasus, Central Asia are still foreign territories, and the horse has not yet rolled in annexed Siberia. People are still alive who remember the nightmare of the Time of Troubles, when the very existence of Russia as an independent state was at stake. In general, the war promised to be long, with an unclear outcome.

In addition, Moscow fought with Sweden for access to the Baltic and counted on Poland as a future ally. In short, besides a headache, taking Ukraine under one's hand promised absolutely nothing to the Muscovite tsar. Khmelnitsky sent the first letter with a request to take Ukraine into citizenship to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in 1648, but for 6 years the tsar and the boyars refused all letters of the Ukrainian hetman. Convened in 1651 to make a decision, the Zemsky Sobor spoke out, as they would say today, in favor of the territorial integrity of the Polish state.

The situation is changing

After the victory at Berestechko, the Poles went to Ukraine on a punitive campaign. The Crimeans took the side of the Polish crown. Villages were burning, Poles were executing participants in recent battles, Tatars were collecting loads for sale. Famine began in the devastated Ukraine. The Muscovite tsar abolished customs duties on grain exported to Ukraine, but this did not save the situation. The villagers who survived the Polish executions, Tatar raids and famine left in droves for Muscovy and Moldavia. Volyn, Galicia, Bratslavshchina lost up to 40% of their population. Khmelnitsky's ambassadors went to Moscow again with requests for help and protection.

Under the hand of the Moscow Tsar

In such a situation, on October 1, 1653, the Zemsky Sobor made a fateful decision for Ukraine to accept it as a subject, and on October 23 declared war on Poland. By the end of 1655, by joint efforts, all Ukraine and Galician Rus were liberated from the Poles (which the Galicians cannot forgive Russia to this day).

Ukraine, taken under the sovereign's hand, was not occupied or simply annexed. The state retained its administrative structure, its judicial proceedings independent of Moscow, the election of the hetman, colonels, foremen and city government, the Ukrainian gentry and laity retained all the property, privileges and liberties granted to them by the Polish authorities. In practice, Ukraine was part of the Muscovite state as an autonomous entity. A strict ban was introduced only on foreign policy activities.

parade of ambition

In 1657, Bohdan Khmelnitsky died, leaving to his successors a huge state with a certain degree of independence, protected from external intervention by the Ukrainian-Moscow treaty. And what did the pan-colonels do? That's right, the division of power. Ivan Vygovskoy, elected hetman at the Chigirin Rada in 1657, enjoyed support on the right bank, but had no support among the population of the left bank. The reason for the dislike was the pro-Western orientation of the newly elected hetman. (Oh, how familiar!) An uprising broke out on the left bank, the leaders were the ataman of the Zaporizhzhya Sich, Yakov Barabash, and the Poltava colonel Martyn Pushkar.

Problematic Ukraine

To cope with the opposition, Vygovskoy called for help ... Crimean Tatars! After the suppression of the rebellion, the Krymchaks began to rush throughout Ukraine, collecting prisoners for the slave market in Cafe (Feodosia). Hetman's rating dropped to zero. In search of the truth, offended by Vygovsky, foremen and colonels often frequented Moscow in search of the truth, bringing with them, from which the tsar and boyars were dizzy: taxes are not collected, 60,000 gold pieces that Moscow sent for the maintenance of registered Cossacks disappeared to no one knows where (does it remind you of anything?) , the hetman cuts off the heads of obstinate colonels and centurions.

Treason

To restore order, the tsar sent an expeditionary corps under the command of Prince Trubetskoy to Ukraine, which was defeated near Konotop by the combined Ukrainian-Tatar army. Along with the news of the defeat, news of Vygovsky's open treason comes to Moscow. The hetman concluded an agreement with Poland, according to which Ukraine returns to the bosom of the Commonwealth, and in return it provides troops for the war with Moscow and strengthening the position of the Ukrainian hetman. (The Gadyach Treaty of 1658) The news that Vygovskoy had also sworn allegiance to the Crimean Khan did not surprise anyone in Moscow.

New hetman, new treaty

The treaty concluded by Vyhovsky did not find support among the people (the memory of the Polish order was still fresh), the suppressed rebellion flared up with renewed vigor. The last supporters leave the hetman. Under the pressure of the "foreman" (leading elite), he renounces the mace. To put out the flames of the civil war, Bogdan Khmelnytsky's son Yuriy is elected hetman, hoping that everyone will follow the son of a national hero. Yuriy Khmelnytsky goes to Moscow to ask for help for Ukraine, bled white by the civil war.

In Moscow, the delegation was met without enthusiasm. The betrayal of the hetman and colonels who swore allegiance to the tsar, the death of the troops specifically spoiled the atmosphere at the negotiations. According to the terms of the new agreement, the autonomy of Ukraine was curtailed, in order to control the situation in large cities, military garrisons from Moscow archers were stationed.

New betrayal

In 1660, a detachment under the command of the boyar Sheremetev set out from Kyiv. (Russia, having declared war on Poland in 1654, still could not finish it.) Yuri Khmelnitsky with his army hurries to help, but hurries so that he does not have time to go anywhere. Near Slobodishche, he stumbles upon the Polish crown army, from which he is defeated and ... concludes a new agreement with the Poles. Ukraine returns to Poland (however, there is no talk of any autonomy anymore) and undertakes to send an army for the war with Russia.

The Left Bank, which does not want to fall under Poland, chooses its hetman, Yakov Somko, who raises Cossack regiments for the war against Yuri Khmelnitsky and sends ambassadors to Moscow with requests for help.

Ruina (ukr.) - complete collapse, devastation

You can go on and on. But the picture will be endlessly repeated: more than once the colonels will raise riots for the right to possess the hetman's mace, and more than once they will run from one camp to another. The right bank and the left bank, choosing their hetmans, will endlessly fight against each other. This period entered the history of Ukraine as "Runa". (Very eloquent!) By signing new treaties (with Poland, Crimea or Russia), the hetmans each time paid for their military support with political, economic and territorial concessions. In the end, only memory remained of the former "independence".

After the betrayal of Hetman Mazepa, Peter destroyed the last remnants of Ukraine's independence, and the very dying hetmanate was abolished in 1781, when the general provision on provinces was extended to Little Russia. This is how the attempts of the Ukrainian elite to sit on two chairs at the same time (or alternately) ended ingloriously. The chairs parted, Ukraine fell and broke into several ordinary Russian provinces.

Problem of choice

For the sake of fairness, it should be said that for the Ukrainian people the problem of choosing between the West and the East has never existed. Enthusiastically accepting every step of rapprochement with Russia, the villagers and ordinary Cossacks always met with a sharp negative reaction to all attempts of their panship to go over to the camp of her enemies. Neither Vygovskoy, nor Yuri Khmelnitsky, nor Mazepa were able to gather a truly popular army under their banners, like Bogdan Khmelnitsky.

Will history repeat itself?

According to knowledgeable people, history repeats itself all the time, and there is nothing under the sun that did not exist before. The current situation in Ukraine painfully resembles the events of more than three hundred years ago, when the country, like today, faced a difficult choice between the West and the East. To predict how everything can end, it is enough to remember how everything ended 350 years ago. Will the current Ukrainian elite have the wisdom not to plunge the country, like its predecessors, into chaos and anarchy, followed by a complete loss of independence?

Slipy saying: "Let's go."

Description

Ukrainians (self-name), people, the main population of Ukraine (37.4 million people). They also live in Russia (4.36 million people), Kazakhstan (896 thousand people), Moldova (600 thousand people), Belarus (over 290 thousand people), Kyrgyzstan (109 thousand people), Uzbekistan (153 thousand . person) and other states on the territory of the former USSR.

The total number is 46 million people, including Poland (350 thousand people), Canada (550 thousand people), the USA (535 thousand people), Argentina (120 thousand people) and other countries. They speak the Ukrainian language of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family.

Ukrainians, along with closely related Russians and Belarusians, belong to the Eastern Slavs. Ukrainians include Carpathian (Boikos, Hutsuls, Lemkos) and Polissya (Litvins, Polishchuks) ethnographic groups.

Historical reference

The formation of the Ukrainian nationality (the origin and formation) took place in the 12th-15th centuries on the basis of the southwestern part of the East Slavic population, which was previously part of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus (9th-12th centuries). During the period of political fragmentation, due to the existing local features of the language, culture and way of life (the toponym "Ukraine" appeared in the 12th century), prerequisites were created for the formation of three East Slavic peoples on the basis of the ancient Russian nationality - Ukrainian, Russian and Belarusian.

The main historical center of the formation of the Ukrainian nationality was the Middle Dnieper - Kiev region, Pereyaslav region, Chernihiv region. At the same time, Kyiv, which rose from the ruins after the defeat by the Golden Horde invaders in 1240, played a significant integrating role, where the most important shrine of Orthodoxy, the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, was located. Other southwestern East Slavic lands gravitated towards this center - Sivershchina, Volhynia, Podolia, Eastern Galicia, Northern Bukovina and Transcarpathia. Starting from the 13th century Ukrainians were subjected to Hungarian, Lithuanian, Polish and Moldavian conquests.

From the end of the 15th century, the raids of the Tatar khans, who had established themselves in the Northern Black Sea region, began, accompanied by mass captivity and theft of Ukrainians. In the 16th-17th centuries, in the course of the struggle against foreign invaders, the Ukrainian nationality was significantly consolidated. The most important role was played by the emergence of the Cossacks (15th century), who created the state (16th century) with a peculiar republican system - the Zaporizhzhya Sich, which became the political stronghold of the Ukrainians. In the 16th century bookish Ukrainian (the so-called Old Ukrainian) language was formed. On the basis of the Middle Dnieper dialects at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, the modern Ukrainian (New Ukrainian) literary language was formed.

The defining moments of the ethnic history of the Ukrainians of the 17th century were the further development of crafts and trade, in particular, in the cities that used the Magdeburg right, as well as the creation as a result of the liberation war under the leadership of Bohdan Khmelnitsky, the Ukrainian state - the Hetmanate and its entry (1654) on the rights of autonomy into the Russia. This created the prerequisites for the further unification of all Ukrainian lands.

In the 17th century, there was a movement of significant groups of Ukrainians from the Right Bank, which was part of Poland, as well as from the Dnieper region to the east and southeast, their development of empty steppe lands and the formation of the so-called Slobozhanshchina. In the 90s of the 18th century, the Right-Bank Ukraine and the southern, and in the first half of the 19th century, the Danube Ukrainian lands became part of Russia.

The name "Ukraine", used in the 12th-13th centuries to designate the southern and southwestern parts of the ancient Russian lands, by the 17th-18th century in the meaning of "krajina", i.e. country, entrenched in official documents, became widespread and served as the basis for the ethnonym "Ukrainians". Along with the ethnonyms that were originally used in relation to their southeastern group - "Ukrainians", "Cossacks", "Cossack people", "Russians". In the 16th - early 18th centuries, in official documents of Russia, the Ukrainians of the Middle Dnieper and Slobozhanshchina were often called "Cherkasy", later, in pre-revolutionary times - "Little Russians", "Little Russians" or "Southern Russians".

Features of the historical development of various territories of Ukraine, their geographical differences led to the emergence of historical and ethnographic regions of Ukrainians - Polissya, Central Dnieper, South, Podolia, Carpathians, Sloboda. Ukrainians have created a vibrant and distinctive national culture.

Food varied greatly among different segments of the population. The basis of nutrition was vegetable and flour foods (borscht, dumplings, various yushki), cereals (especially millet and buckwheat); dumplings, donuts with garlic, lemishka, noodles, jelly, etc. Fish, including salted fish, occupied a significant place in the food. Meat food was available to the peasantry only on holidays. The most popular were pork and lard.

From flour with the addition of poppy seeds and honey, numerous poppy seeds, cakes, knyshes, and bagels were baked. Drinks such as uzvar, varenukha, sirivets, various liqueurs and vodka, including the popular vodka with pepper, were common. As ritual dishes, porridges were the most common - kutya and kolyvo with honey.

National holidays

Traditions, culture

Ukrainian folk costume is diverse and colorful. Women's clothing consisted of an embroidered shirt (shirt - tunic-shaped, poly-coloured or on a yoke) and unsewn clothing: dergi, spares, plakhta (since the 19th century, a sewn skirt - speeds); in cool weather they wore sleeveless jackets (kersets, kiptari, etc.). Girls braided their hair into braids, putting them around their heads and decorating them with ribbons, flowers, or putting a wreath of paper flowers, colorful ribbons on their heads. Women wore various caps (ochipki), towel-like headdresses (namitki, obruss), and later - scarves.

The men's costume consisted of a shirt (with a narrow, standing, often embroidered collar with a drawstring) tucked into wide or tight pants, sleeveless jackets, and belts. In the summer, straw bridles served as a headdress, at other times - felt or astrakhan, often the so-called smushkovs (from smushkas), cylinder-like hats. The most common shoes were postols made of rawhide, and in Polissya - lychaks (bast shoes), among the wealthy - boots.

In the autumn-winter period, both men and women wore a retinue and an opancha - long-brimmed clothes of the same type as the Russian caftan made of homespun white, gray or black cloth. The women's suite was fitted. In rainy weather, they wore a retinue with a hood (kobenyak), in winter - long sheepskin coats (casings), covered with cloth among wealthy peasants. Rich embroidery, appliqué, etc. are characteristic.

Map 2. Ukraine between Poland and Russia

Poland, after the suppression of the Cossack uprisings of 1637 and 1638 received a ten-year period of calm. The Poles, it would seem, completely subjugated the Ukrainian Cossacks.

Poland flourished. Ukrainian lands, especially those on the left bank of the Dnieper, Seversk land and Poltava, where the land holdings of Polish and Ukrainian magnates loyal to Poland grew rapidly, became the bread bins of the Commonwealth. Access to the Baltic made it possible to expand trade in Ukrainian wheat and cattle, as well as Belarusian timber, tar and potash. This led to the growth of cities such as Warsaw, Vilna, Lvov, Kamenetz and Kyiv. This decade was often called the era of the "golden world". Prosperity, however, was built on shaky foundations, as Polish rule over the Ukrainian people faced conflicts and contradictions of all kinds - political, national, economic, social and religious.

When analyzing Polish policy towards Ukraine and the attitude of Ukrainians towards Polish rule, one should first of all consider the differences in the status of different strata of Ukrainian society. By 1640, there were almost no Ukrainian magnates left, since almost all Ukrainian aristocratic families were converted to the Roman Catholic faith. An outstanding champion of Greek Orthodoxy in Western Rus', Prince Konstantin Konstantinovich Ostrozhsky died in 1608. His descendants became Catholics. Prince Jeremiah Vishnevetsky converted to Catholicism in 1632. Among the few Greek Orthodox nobles who had at least some political weight, Adam Kisel is best known. But, although he was Russian. Kissel felt like a Pole politically.

An extremely large number of representatives of the petty Ukrainian nobility (gentry) remained Greek Orthodox in faith, but Russian in spirit, although they were loyal to the Polish king and were ready to serve Poland faithfully. In addition, in Ukraine there were a large number of small landowners who did not have the official status of the gentry, but who differed little from it economically and socially. It was from these two groups that the Polish government usually recruited officers and privates into the number of registered (registered) Cossacks.

The Zaporizhzhya Cossacks, organized around their Sich, sometimes took into their ranks representatives of the Russian-Ukrainian nobility, the majority were ordinary people, occasionally townspeople, but mostly peasants who fled the land of the magnates.

Thus, the Cossacks were a link both between the nobility and the townspeople, and between the nobility and the peasants. Most of the Ukrainian people at that time were peasants, whose position both in Ukraine and in Belarus was tantamount to slavery.

As regards religion, the compromise of 1632 greatly strengthened the status of the Greek Orthodox Church in Western Russia. Although the Orthodox did not actually receive all the rights and privileges stipulated in the conditions that were promised to them, the Russian clergy were satisfied with their position. The petty clergy, however, whose social level was closer to the peasantry, were subjected to harassment and insults from the Polish magnates and officials, and it was quite possible to expect that they would take the side of the Cossacks and peasants in any coming unrest.

Indeed, the situation for such unrest in Ukraine is ripe. Dissatisfaction grew both among the peasants and among the Cossacks. A look at the circumstances of the life of the peasants reveals a strange, as it may seem at first glance, situation: corvée was easier in the newly conquered border lands than in the northern regions of Ukraine and Belarus. Then why were these peasants from the left bank and the border regions of the right bank of the Dnieper more inclined to rebellion than the rest, whose situation was much more difficult? The reasons were mainly purely psychological. The new settlers in most cases were more energetic and enterprising people than those who lived there permanently. In addition, the very environment in the border lands was different due to the presence of free people - the Cossacks. Any attempt on the part of the estate owners to burden their peasants caused more resentment among the new settlers than in those areas where dependence had existed for a long time. Moreover, in the new lands, on the border of the steppe zone, it was comparatively easier for the offended peasant to flee from his master and join the Cossacks "beyond the [Dnieper] rapids." Peasants from the left bank could even run to the Don Cossacks.

After the uprising of 1638 was suppressed, several divisions of Polish soldiers were stationed in Ukrainian lands as a precaution against possible unrest. The behavior of these soldiers irritated the population as well as the oppression of the masters. Always in need of money due to their profligate lifestyle, landowners often farmed out the sources of income from their lands and various structures on their lands, such as water mills, distilleries, taverns and river ferries, to the Jews, who traditionally provided financial support in Poland and Lithuania. support to kings and nobles and have long been indispensable because of their business enterprise. As a result, for many Ukrainian peasants, Jews began to be identified with the despotic Polish regime. When the revolutionary explosion broke out, the Jews found themselves between two opposing forces (Ukrainians and Poles), their fate was tragic.

Dissatisfied with the fact that only peasants were under their rule, the magnates after 1638 tried to convert Cossacks “excluded from the register” (vyshchiks) into peasants. Registered Cossacks themselves were subject to strict discipline and were subject to harassment by both Polish and their own officers (foremen).

Despite all this, the foundation of Polish rule seemed solid enough. However, latent popular discontent manifested itself in a number of peasant riots in both Western and Eastern Ukraine in 1639 and in subsequent years. These were not yet symptoms of deep-seated indignation in Ukraine. Such riots failed to develop into a general unrest only because of the lack of interaction between the peasants in different areas, as well as between the Cossacks and the peasants.

In 1646, the king of Poland gave the Cossacks a reason for general excitement, although unintentionally. Vladislav IV was an ambitious man and he was annoyed by the rule of the Sejm. He was looking for a suitable opportunity to raise his royal powers and raise the respect for the crown.

Vladislav's lovingly cherished project was the war against Turkey. In these plans, he was supported by Chancellor Jerzy Ossolinski, who was appointed in 1643. In 1645, under pressure from the Turks, Venice asked for help from some European countries, including Poland. Without informing the Sejm about his plans, Vladislav agreed to support Venice in the war against the Turks, but demanded substantial subsidies. He intended to use this money to strengthen the Polish regular army and mobilize the Cossacks. In his military plans, he intended to first attack the vassals of the Turkish Sultan - the Crimean Tatars.

Vladislav had a high opinion of the Cossacks as a fighting force. They supported him even when he, being crown prince, waged war against Moscow in 1617-1618. and again during the capture of Smolensk in 1632-1634. In April 1646, at the invitation of the king, four delegates from the foremen of the registered Cossacks: three captains - Ivan Barabash, Ilya Karaimovich and Ivan Nesterenko But - and the Chigirinsky centurion Bogdan Khmelnitsky - arrived in Warsaw and were received in top secret by the king and chancellor Ossolinsky. Since no minutes of their meeting have been preserved, the exact content of these negotiations is unknown, however, from available sources it can be assumed that Vladislav promised to increase the number of registered Cossacks from one thousand to a much larger number (twelve, or maybe even twenty thousand). It was alleged that the king gave Barabash a decree of similar content, certified by his own seal (and not the seal of the state).

The secret plans of Vladislav and Ossolinsky soon became known to the magnates and caused great indignation. At a meeting in 1646, the Sejm imposed a ban on any increase in the composition of the regular Polish army and began to threaten Ossolinsky with removal from office. Vladislav was forced to abandon this part of his project.

At the next meeting (1647), the Seim turned its attention to Vladislav's interest in the Cossacks and decided to put an end to his military preparations once and for all. It was specially voted that the number of registered Cossacks could not be increased without the approval of the Sejm. Because of these decisions, the senior officers of the registered Cossacks - Barabash and Karaimovich - abandoned attempts to increase the Cossack register to date and decided to keep the whole matter secret. However, it proved impossible for them to stop the spread of rumors and gossip among the ordinary Cossacks, especially because their colleague in the delegation to Vladislav, centurion Bogdan Khmelnitsky, did not want to miss the opportunity to strengthen the Cossack army.

1. List the stages of European medieval history, name their chronological framework. What is new in the life of society appeared on each of them?
2. Name the largest medieval states in Asia, America and Africa. What were the features of the Middle Ages in these countries?
3. List the empires of the Middle Ages. Which of them survived by the end of the 15th century?
4. What was the contribution of the Arab Islamic civilization to the history and culture of the medieval world?
5. What is a class society? What were the position and duties of each class in medieval society?
6. What do you think, did the separation or class division unite the medieval society?
7. What associations were created by people of the same class or occupation in medieval Europe? Why did people need such associations?
8. In what areas of life in the Middle Ages did cities play a particularly important role? Why?
9. What was the influence of the church on the life of medieval man?
Did the position of the Catholic Church in Europe change during the Middle Ages?
10. In your opinion, what new teachings, events, people of the late Middle Ages brought the New Age closer?
11. Many scientists call the modern world the direct heir to the Middle Ages. What facts can support this point of view?

Write down the concepts: 1. The community of people who are united by self-name, language of communication, lifestyle, customs. 2. One of the religions of the East,

Islam.

3. The stage of development of society following the primitive system.

4. Religion, the founder of which was<<просветлённый>>Indian prince

5. A large community of people with their own traditions and characteristics in the economy, culture, etc.

6. Closed groups of Indian society, uniting people by origin and occupation.

7. Religion that recognizes the gods Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and thousands of others.

8. Dependent territory under the authority of the mother country.

Help solve

Option 1

A) the reunification of Ukraine with Russia;

B) False Dmitry's campaign against Moscow;

C) a decree on "lesson years", the beginning of the investigation of the peasants.

A) S. Zholkevsky;

B) Sigismund III;

C) False Dmitry I.

A) the policy of Catholicism pursued by False Dmitry I;

B) the need to correct religious books;

C) enslavement of peasants.

4. Indicate the name of the explorer who discovered in 1648 the strait separating Asia from America:

A) Semyon Dezhnev;

B) Erofey Khabarov;

C) Simon Ushakov.

5. An indefinite search for runaway peasants would be legalized:

A) in 1592;

B) in 1649;

B) in 1653

6. The first ironworks in Russia was built during the reign of:

A) Vasily Shuisky;

B) Mikhail Fedorovich;

D) Alexei Mikhailovich.

7. Mark the line that characterizes the economic development of Russia in the 17th century:

A) complete domination of natural economy;

B) the creation of manufactories;

C) widespread slash-and-burn farming system.

8. In 1687 and 1689 Russian troops participated in two campaigns against the Crimean Khanate under the leadership of:

A) D. Pozharsky;

B) B. Khmelnitsky;

C) V. Golitsyn.

9. A vivid illustration of the Naryshkin baroque is the church:

A) Intercession in Fili in Moscow;

B) the Church of Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl;

C) the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki in Moscow.

10. Who is it about. The former serf of Prince Telyatevsky fled to the Don and became a free man. In one of the Cossack campaigns he was captured by the Turks, fled to Italy, lived in Venice. In 1606 he returned to Russia. He called himself the governor of "miraculously saved Tsarevich Dmitry." Several times he won victories over government troops. It was defeated during the siege of Moscow in 1606. In 1607, near Tula, he was forced to surrender to government troops. In 1608 he was killed.

11. Give a definition - manufactory, black-haired peasants, cattle.

Option 2

1. Arrange in chronological order:

A) Cathedral Code;

B) Copper riot in Moscow;

C) Smolensk war.

2. Indicate the name of the patriarch, the initiator of the church reform:

A) Nikon

B) Habakkuk;

B) Philaret.

3. Determine the cause of the church split:

A) changing part of the dogmas and the order of worship;

B) the creation of religious sects;

C) the termination of the convocation of Zemsky Sobors.

4. In 1654-1667. Russia fought with:

A) Sweden

B) Poland;

B) Turkey.

5. The uprising caused by the issue of copper money and, as a result, an increase in the high cost, occurred:

A) in 1662;

B) in 1648;

B) in 1668

6. Mark the reason why many people joined the army of Stepan Razin:

A) he paid money;

B) he distributed land;

C) he declared each participant in the speech a free person.

7. Specify the outstanding master of painting in the 17th century, the author of the work "The Savior Not Made by Hands":

A) Simeon of Polotsk;

B) Simon Ushakov;

C) Andrey Rublev.

8. Yamskoy order was responsible for:

A) fast mail delivery;

B) tax collection;

B) royal treasury

9. In the 17th century, the church forbade younger girls from marrying:

10. Who is it about. Hetman, who led the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian people against Poland.

11. Give a definition - a barren, owner-occupied peasants, a bobyl.

Option 3

1. Arrange in chronological order:

A) the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich;

B) an uprising led by Stepan Razin;

C) urban uprisings in Russia.

2. Indicate the feature that characterizes the concept of "manufactory":

A) small-scale manual production;

B) master - master, apprentice and apprentices - workers;

C) large-scale machine production.

3. Indicate the name of the opponent of the church reform, the head of the Old Believers:

A) Nikon

B) Habakkuk;

B) Macarius.

4. The reason for the uprising in 1648 was:

A) an attempt to introduce a new tax on salt;

B) issue of copper money;

C) the introduction of an indefinite investigation of runaway peasants.

5. Specify the chronological framework of the uprising led by Stepan Razin:

B) 1654 - 1667;

C) 1667 - 1671.

6. The main entertainment of the king was:

B) falconry or dog hunting;

B) fisticuffs.

7. The expansion of the territory of the Russian state due to the annexation of the Zaporozhian Sich occurs:

A) at the end of the 16th century;

B) in the first half of the 17th century;

C) in the second half of the 17th century.

8. Explorer, by whose name and patronymic the village and the railway station are named, and by whose surname the city is named:

A) Erofey Pavlovich Khabarov;

B) Stepan Timofeevich Razin;

C) Semyon Ivanovich Dezhnev.

9. In the 17th century, a new literary genre appeared:

A) epic;

B) "life";

C) a satirical story.

10. Who is it about. Born into a wealthy Cossack family in the village of Zimoveyskaya on the Don. He possessed not only great physical strength, but also an extraordinary mind and willpower. The outstanding qualities of a military leader manifested themselves during campaigns against the Crimean Tatars and Turks. Diplomatic experience gained in the course of negotiations with the Kalmyks, and then with the Persians.

11. Give a definition - industrialist, serfdom, hetman.